Neptune (mythology)Neptune (Latin: Neptnus[nptuns]) was the godof freshwater and the sea[1] in Roman religion. He isthecounterpart oftheGreekgodPoseidon.[2]IntheGreek-inuenced tradition, Neptune was the brother ofJupiter and Pluto; the brothers presided over the realms ofHeaven, the earthly world, and the Underworld.[3] Salaciawas his consort.DepictionsofNeptuneinRomanmosaics, especiallythoseof NorthAfrica, areinuencedbyHellenisticconventions.[4] Neptune was likely associated with freshwater springs before the sea.[5] Like Poseidon, Neptunewas worshipped by the Romans also as a god of horses,under the nameNeptunusEquester, a patron of horse-racing.[6]1 EtymologyThe etymology of Neptunus is unclear and disputed. Theancient grammarian Varro derived the name from nuptusi.e. covering (opertio), with a more or less explicit allusionto the nuptiae, marriage of Heaven and Earth.[7]Among modern scholars P. Kretschmer proposed aderivation from IE *neptu-, moist substance.[8] SimilarlyR. Bloch supposed it might be an adjectival form in -no from *nuptu-, meaning he who is moist.[9] Dumzilthough remarked words deriving root *nep- are not at-tested in IE languages other than Vedic and Avestan. Heproposed an etymology that brings together Neptunuswith Vedic and Avestan theonyms Apam Napat, ApamNap and Old Irish theonym Nechtan, all meaning de-scendant of the waters. By using the comparative ap-proach the Indo-Iranian, Avestan and Irish gures wouldshow common features with the Roman historicised leg-ends about Neptune. Dumzil thence proposed to de-rive the nouns from IE root *nepot-, descendant, sistersson.[10][11]More recently, in his lectures delivered on various occa-sions in the late years of the last century, German scholarH. Petersmann proposed an etymology from IE rootstem*nebh- related to clouds and fogs, plus sux -tu denotingan abstract verbal noun, and adjectival sux -no whichrefers to the domain of activity of a person or his pre-rogatives. IE root *nebh-, having the original meaningof damp, wet, has given Sanskrit nbhah, Hittite nepis,Latin nubs, nebula, German nebel, Slavic nebo etc.Theconcept would be close to that expressed in the name ofGreek god , derived from IE root *h2wrso-,to water, irrigate and *h2wors-, the irrigator.[12][13] Thisetymology would be more in accord with Varros.A dierent etymology grounded in the legendary his-tory of Latium and Etruria was proposed by Preller andMller-Deeke: Etruscan Nethunus, Nethuns would be anadjectival form of toponym Nepe(t), Nepete (presentlyNepi), town of the ager Faliscus near Falerii. The dis-trict was traditionally connected to the cult of the god:Messapus and Halesus, the eponymous hero of Falerii,were believed to be his own sons. Messapus led theFalisci and others to war in the Aeneid.[14]Nepi andFalerii have been famed since antiquity for the excel-lent quality of the water of their springs, scattered inmeadows. Nepet is considered a hydronymic toponym ofpreIndoeuropean origin widespread in Europe and froman appellative meaning damp wide valley plain, cognatewith preGreek wooded valley.[15]2 Worship and theologyMosaicofNeptune(Regional Archeological MuseumAntonioSalinas, Palermo)ThetheologyofNeptunemayonlybereconstructedto some degree as since very early times he was iden-tiedwithGreekgodPoseidon: hispresenceinthelectisternium of 399 BC is a testimony to the fact.[16]Such an identication may well be grounded in the strictrelationship between the Latin and Greek theologies ofthe two deities.[17] It has been argued that Indo-Europeanpeople, having no direct knowledge of the sea as theyoriginated from inland areas, reused the theology of a de-ity originally either chthonic or wielding power over in-land freshwaters as the god of the sea.[18] This feature12 2 WORSHIP AND THEOLOGYhas been preserved particularly well in the case of Nep-tune who was denitely a god of springs, lakes and riversbefore becoming also a god of the sea, as is testied bythe numerous ndings of inscriptions mentioning him inthe proximity of such locations. Servius the grammarianalso explicitly states Neptune is in charge of all the rivers,springs and waters. He also is the lord of horses becausehe worked with Minerva to make the chariot.[19]He may nd a parallel in Irish god Nechtan, master of thewell from which all the rivers of the world ow out andow back to.Poseidon on the other hand underwent the process of be-coming the main god of the sea at a much earlier time, asis shown in the Iliad.[20]Intheearliertimesit wasthegodPortunesorFor-tunuswhowasthankedfornaval victories, but Nep-tune supplanted him in this role by at least the rst cen-tury BC when Sextus Pompeius called himself son ofNeptune.[21] For a time he was paired with Salacia, thegoddess of the salt water.[22]Neptune was also considered the legendary progenitorgod of a Latin stock, the Faliscans, who called themselvesNeptunia proles. In this respect he was the equivalent ofMars, Janus, Saturn and even Jupiter among Latin tribes.Salacia would represent the virile force of Neptune.[23]2.1 The NeptunaliaMain article: NeptunaliaThe Neptunalia was the festival of Neptune on July 23, atthe height of summer.The date and the construction oftree-branch shelters[24] suggest a primitive role for Nep-tune as god of water sources in the summers drought andheat.[25]The most ancient Roman calendar set the feriae of Nep-tunus on July 23, two days after the Lucaria of July 19and 21 and two days before the Furrinalia of July 25.Georg Wissowa had already remarked that festivalsfallinginarangeof threedays arecomplementary.Dumzil elaborated that these festivals in some way wereall related to the importance of water during the periodof summer heat (canicula) and drought, when river andspring waters are at their lowest.FoundinghisanalysisontheworksofPalladiusandColumella Dumzil argues that while the Lucaria weredevoted to the dressing of woods,clearing the under-grown bushes by cutting on the 19, then by uprootingand burning on the 21,[26] the Neptunalia were devoted toworks of conservation and draining of supercial waters,thus corresponding to the Lucaria of 19, that requiredonly work above the ground.Then the Furrinalia of July 25, sacred to Furrina goddessof springs and wells, were devoted to those waters whichhad to be captured by drilling, i.e. required the work ofman, thereby corresponding to the Lucaria of 21, whichequally entailed human action upon the soil.The Furrinalia are explained by Dumzil on the groundsof the hydraulic works prescribed by Palladius on thisday, i.e. the drilling of wells to detect and capture under-ground water: the visible and the hidden waters are thusdealt with on separate, albeit next, occasions: the Nep-tunalia and Furrinalia. This complementarity betweenNeptunalia and Furrinalia corresponds to that betweenthe rst and second Lucaria, forming in fact two com-plementary couplets.In recorded times the Neptunalia were spent in outingsunder branch huts (umbrae, casae frondeae), in a woodbetween the Tiber and the Via Salaria, drinking spring-water and wine to escape the heat. It looks the Neptuna-lia were a time of general, free and unrestrained merry-making, during which men and women mixed without theusual Roman traditional social constraints.[27] This char-acter of the festival as well as the fact that Neptune wasoered the sacrice of a bull would point to an agricul-tural fertility context.[28]2.2 TemplesIn Rome Neptune had only one temple. It stood nearthe Circus Flaminius, the Roman racetrack, in the south-ern part of the Campus Martius. It already existed in206 BC.[29] It appears on a coin struck by Gn. Domi-tius Ahenobarbus around 40 BC doubtless because ofarestorationcarriedout bythispersonage. It con-tained a famous sculpture of a marine group by ScopasMinor.[30][31]TheBasilicaNeptuni, wasbuilt ontheCampus Martius and dedicated by Agrippa in honour ofthe naval victory of Actium.[32] This building substitutedthe older temple, which in its turn substituted a more an-cient altar.[33]Chichester Inscription which reads (in English): To Neptune andMinerva, for the welfare of the Divine House, by the authority ofTiberius Claudius Cogidubnus, Great King in Britain, the collegeof articers and those therein erected this temple from their ownresources [...]ens, son of Pudentinus, donated the site.2.6 Fertility deity and divine ancestor 32.3 SacricesNeptune is one of the only three Roman gods to whomit was appropriate to sacrice bulls, the other two beingApollo and Mars.[34] The wrong oering would require apiaculum, if due to inadvertency or necessity. The typeof the oering implies a stricter connection between thedeity and the worldly realm.[35]2.4 Lake AlbanusDuring the war with Veii in 393 BC the level of Lake Al-bano (Albanus Lacus) rose to an unusual height even inthe absence of rain. This prodigy was believed to be rele-vant on the siege of Veii because a haruspex from Veii re-cited some lines of a prophecy that illustrated the relation-ship between the level of its waters and either the safetyor the fall of the town to the Romans. It foretold thatas long as the waters of the lake remain high Veii wouldbe impregnable to the Romans. If the waters of the lakewere scattered in an inland direction on the other handVeii would fall; but if they were to overow through theusual streams or channels toward the sea this fact wouldbe unfavourable to the Romans as well.[36] Dumzil as-cribed this story to the Roman custom of projecting reli-gious legendary heritage onto history, considering it as afestival myth, aimed at giving relevance to an exceptionalevent which would have happened during the Neptunalia.This legend would show the scope of the powers hiddenin waters and the religious importance of their control byman: Veientans too knowing the fact had been diggingchannels for a long time as recent archaeological ndsconrm. There is a temporal coincidence between theconjuration of the prodigy and the works of derivationrecommended by Palladius and Columella at the time ofthe canicula, when the waters are at their lowest.[37]2.5 ParedraeParedrae are entities who pair or accompany a god. Theyrepresent the fundamental aspects or the powers of thegod with whom they are associated. In Roman religionthey are often female. In later times under Hellenisinginuence they came to be considered as separate deitiesand consorts of the god.[38] However this misconceptionmight have been widespread in earlier folk belief.[39] Inthe view of Dumzil,[40] Neptunes two paredrae Salaciaand Venilia represent the overpowering and the tranquilaspects of water, both natural and domesticated: Salaciawould impersonate the gushing, overbearing waters andVenilia the still or quietly owing waters.[41] Dumzilsinterpretation has though been varied as he also statedthat the jolt implied by Salacia 's name, the attitude tobe salax lustful, must underline a feature characteristicof the god.[42]Salacia and Venilia have been discussed by scholars bothancient and modern. Varro connects the rst to salum,sea, and the second to ventus, wind.[43] Festus writes ofSalacia that she is the deity that generates the motion ofthe sea.[44] While Venilia would cause the waves to cometo the shore Salacia would cause their retreating towardsthe high sea.[45] The issue has been discussed in manypassages by Christian doctor Aurelius Augustinus. Hedevotes one full chapter of his De Civitate Dei to mock-ing the inconsistencies inherent in the theological deni-tion of the two entitites: since Salacia would denote thenether part of the sea, he wonders how could it be possi-ble that she be also the retreating waves, as waves are aphenomenon of the surface of the sea.[46] Elsewhere hewrites that Venilia would be the hope that comes, oneof the aspects or powers of the all encompassing Jupiterunderstood as anima mundi.[47]Servius in his commentary to the Aeneid also writes aboutSalacia and Venilia in various passages, e.g. V 724:"(Venus) dicitur et Salacia, quae proprie meretricum deaappellata est a veteribus": "(Venus) is also called Salacia,who precisely was named goddess of mercenary womenby the ancient. Elsewhere he writes that Salacia and Ve-nilia are indeed the same entity.[48]Amongmodernscholars Dumzil withhis followersBloch and Schilling centre their interpretation of Neptuneon the more direct, concrete, limited value and functionsof water. Accordingly Salacia would represent the force-ful and violent aspect of gushing and overowing water,Venilia the tranquil, gentle aspect of still or slowly owingwater.Preller, Fowler, Petersmann and Takcs attribute to thetheology of Neptune broader signicance as a god of uni-versal worldly fertility, particularly relevant to agricultureand human reproduction. Thence they interpret Salaciaas personifying lust and Venilia as related to venia, the at-titude of ingraciating, attraction, connected with love anddesire for reproduction. L. Preller remarked a signicantaspect of Venilia mentioning that she was recorded in theindigitamenta also as a deity of longing, desire. He thinksthis fact would allow to explain the theonym in the sameway as that of Venus.[49] Other data seem to point in thesame direction: Salacia would be the parallel of Thetis asthe mother of Achilles, while Venilia would be the motherof Turnus and Iuturna, whom she mothered with Daunusking of the Rutulians. According to another source Ve-nilia would be the partner of Janus, with whom she moth-ered the nymph Canens loved by Picus.[50] These myth-ical data underline the reproductive function envisagedin the gures of Neptunes paredrae, particularly that ofVenilia in childbirth and motherhood. A legendary kingVenulus was remembered at Tibur and Lavinium.[51]2.6 Fertility deity and divine ancestorGerman scholar H. Petersmann has proposed a rather dif-ferent interpretation of the theology of Neptune.[52] De-4 2 WORSHIP AND THEOLOGYTriumph of Neptune, Roman mosaic with the Seasons in eachcorner and agricultural scenes and ora (La Chebba, Tunisia,late 2nd century, Bardo National Museum)veloping his understanding of the theonymas rooted in IE*nebh, he argues that the god would be an ancient deityof the cloudy and rainy sky in company with and in oppo-sition to Zeus/Jupiter, god of the clear bright sky. Simi-lar to Caelus, he would be the father of all living beingson Earth through the fertilising power of rainwater. Thishieros gamos of Neptune and Earth would be reectedin literature, e.g. in Vergil Aen. V 14 pater Neptunus.The virile potency of Neptune would be represented bySalacia (derived from salax, salio in its original sense ofsalacious, lustful, desiring sexual intercourse, covering).Salacia would then represent the gods desire for inter-course with Earth, his virile generating potency manifest-ing itself in rainfall. While Salacia would denote the over-cast sky, the other character of the god would be reectedby his other paredra Venilia, representing the clear skydotted with clouds of good weather. The theonym Ve-nilia would be rooted in a not attested adjective *venilis,from IE root *ven(h) meaning to love, desire, realised inSanskrit vnati, vanti, he loves, Old Island.vinr friend,German Wonne, Latin Venus, venia. Reminiscences ofthis double aspect of Neptune would be found in Catullus31. 3: "uterque Neptunus".[53]In Petersmanns conjecture, besides Zeus/Jupiter, (rootedin IE *dei(h) to shine, who originally represented thebright daylight of ne weather sky),the ancient Indo-Europeans venerated a god of heavenly damp or wetas thegenerator of life. This fact wouldbetesti-ed by Hittite theonyms nepia (D)IKURa or nepia(D)Tarhunna the lord of sky wet, that was revered asthe sovereign of Earth and men.[54] Even though overtime this function was transferred to Zeus/Jupiter whobecame also the sovereign of weather, reminiscences ofthe old function survived in literature: e.g. in Vergil Aen.V 13-14 reading: "Heu, quianam tanti cinxerunt aetheranimbi?/ quidve, pater Neptune, paras?": Whow, why somany clouds surrounded the sky? What are you prepar-ing, father Neptune?".[55] The indispensability of waterfor its fertilizing quality and its strict connexion to repro-duction is universal knowledge.[56] Takcs too points tothe implicit sexual and fertility signicance of both Sala-cia and Venilia on the grounds of the context of the cultsof Neptune, of Varros interpretation of Salacia asea-ger for sexual intercourse and of the connexion of Veniliawith a nymph or Venus.Mller-Deeke and Deeke had already interpreted the the-ology of Neptune as that of a divine ancestor of a Latinstock, namely the Faliscans, as the father of their founderheroes Messapus and Halesus. Sharing this same ap-proach Fowler considered Salacia the personication ofthe virile potency that generated a Latin people, parallelwith Mars, Saturn, Janus and even Jupiter among otherLatins.[57]2.7 Neptunus equestrisPoseidon was connected to the horse since the earliesttimes, well before any connection of himwith the sea wasattested, and may even have originally been conceived un-der equine form. Such a feature is a reection of his ownchtonic, violent, brutal nature as earth-quaker, as well asof the link of the horse with springs, i.e. undergroundwater, and the psychopompous character inherent in thisanimal.[58]There is no such direct connexion in Rome. Neptune doesnot show any direct equine character or linkage.On the other hand Roman god Consus was associatedwith horses: his underground altar was located in the val-ley of the Circus Maximus at the foot of the Palatine,the place of horse races. On the day of his summer fes-tival (August 21), the Consualia aestiva, it was custom-ary to bring horses and mules in procession crowned withowers and then hold equine races in the Circus. It ap-pears these games had a rustic and archaic character: theymarked the end of the yearly agricultural cycle, when har-vest was completed.[59] According to tradition this occa-sion was chosen to enact the abduction of the Sabine (andLatin) women. The episode might bear a reection of thetraditional sexual licence of such occasions.[60] On thatday the amen Quirinalis and the vestal virgins sacricedon the underground altar of Consus. The fact the two fes-tivals of Consus were followed after an equal interval offour days by the two festivals of Ops (Opeconsivia on Au-gust 25 and Opalia on December 19) testies to the strictrelationship between the two deities as both pertaining toagricultural plenty, or in Dumezilian terminology to thethird function. In Dumzils view this fact shows the radi-cally dierent symbolic value of the horse in the theologyof Poseidon and of Consus. Tertullian (De Spectaculis V7) states that according to Roman tradititon Consus wasthe god who had advised Romulus on the abduction of the3.1 Neptune and the Etruscan Penates 5Sabines because of his quality of god of hidden counselsand quotes an inscription that was on the southern metaof the circus corroborating his assertion: Conso consilioMarte duello Lares + covillo potentes: Consus is powerfulin counsel, Mars in war, the Lares in meeting. A. VonBlumenthal and G. Radke have proposed to read consivioinstead of consilio, though this correction is not gener-ally accepted: the inscription is not extant and it was vis-ible only on the days of the sacrices to Consus, so somescholars argue it may have been misread.[61]Perhaps under the inuence of Poseidon Con-sus, whose festival entailed horse races, was reinterpretedas Neptunus equestris and for his underground altar alsoidentied with Poseidon . Moreover the ety-mology of Poseidon, understood as from Posis lord, hus-band and De grain or Earth, may have contributed to theidentication of Consus with Neptune.[62] The archaicand arcane character of his cult, which required the un-earthing of the altar, are signs of the great antiquity ofthis deity and of his chtonic character. He was certainlya deity of agrarian plenty and of fertility. On the basis ofAugustine (De Civitate Dei IV 8 about the role of Tutilinain assuring the safety of stored grain) Dumzil interpretsits name as derived from verb condere to hide, store, as averbal noun in -u parallel to Sancus and Janus, meaninggod of stored grains.[63]Martianus Capella places Neptune and Consus togetherin region X of Heaven: it might be that he followed analready old interpretatio graeca of Consus or he might bereecting an Etruscan idea of a chthonic Neptune whichis apparent in the recommendation of the De HaruspicumResponso[64] stating the need of expiations to Neptune forthe prodigy of the cracking sounds heard underground inthe ager latiniensis. Etruscans were particularly fond ofhorse races.[65]3 Neptune in EtruriaNethuns is the Etruscan name of the god. In the past it hasbeen believed that the Roman theonym derived from Etr-uscan but more recently this view has been rejected.[66]Nethuns was certainly an important god for the Etruscans.His name is to be found on two cases of the PiacenzaLiver, namely case 7 on the outer rim and case 28 onthe gall-bladder, (plus once in case 22 along with Tinia).This last location tallies with Pliny the Elders testimonythat the gall-bladder is sacred to Neptune.[67] TheonymNethuns recurs eight times on columns VIII, IX and XIof the Liber Linteus (ere, erchva Nethunsl), requiringoerings of wine.[68]On a mirror from Tuscania (E. S. 1. 76) Nethuns is rep-resented while talking to Uil (the Sun) and Thesan (thegoddess of Dawn). Nethuns is on the left hand side, sit-ting, holding a double ended trident in his right hand andwith his left arm raised in the attitude of giving instruc-tions, Uil is standing at the centre of the picture, hold-ing in his right hand Aplu's bow, and Thesan is on theright, with her right hand on Uils shoulder: both godslook intent in listening Nethunss words. The identica-tion of Uil with Aplu (and his association with Nethuns)is further underlined by the anguiped demon holding twodolphins of the exergue below. The scene highlightsthe identities and association of Nethuns and Aplu (hereidentied as Uil) as main deities of the worldly realmandthe life cycle. Thesan and Uil-Aplu, who has been iden-tied with uri (Soranus Pater, the underwold Sun god)make clear the transient character of worldly life.[69] Theassociation of Nethuns and Uil-Aplu is consistent withone version of the theory of the Etruscan Penates (seesection below).In Martianus Capella's depiction of Heaven Neptune islocated in region X along with the Lar Omnium Cunc-talis (of everybody), Neverita and Consus. The presenceof the Lar Omnium Cunctalis might be connected withthe theology of Neptune as a god of fertility, human in-cluded, while Neverita is a theonym derived from an ar-chaic form of Nereus and Nereid, before the fall of thedigamma.[70] For the relationship of Neptune with Con-sus see the above paragraph. Martianuss placing of Nep-tune is fraught with questions: according to the order ofthe main three gods he should be located in region II,(Jupiter is indeed in region I and Pluto in region III).However in region II are to be found two deities related toNeptune, namely Fons and Lymphae. Stephen Weinstocksupposes that while Jupiter is present in each of the rstthree regions, in each one under dierent aspects relatedto the character of the region itself, Neptune should havebeen originally located in the second, as is testied by thepresence of Fons and Lymphae, and Pluto in the third.The reason of the displacement of Neptune to region Xremains unclear, but might point to a second appearanceof the triads in the third quarter, which is paralleled bythe location of Neth in case 7 of the Liver.[71] It is how-ever consistent with the collocation in the third quadrantof the deities directly related to the human world.[72]Bloch remarks the possible chtonic character and stricterlink of Nethuns with Poseidon to which would hint a se-ries of circumstances, particularly the fact that he wasamong the four gods (Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune and Tellusin order) the haruspices indicated as needing placation forthe prodigy related in Cicero's De haruspicum responso20, i.e. a cracking sound perceived as coming from theunderground in the ager latiniensis.3.1 Neptune and the Etruscan PenatesAmong ancient sources Arnobius provides important in-formation about the theology of Neptune: he writes thataccording to Nigidius Figulus Neptune was consideredone of the Etruscan Penates, together with Apollo, thetwo deities being credited with bestowing Ilium with itsimmortalwalls. Inanother place of his work, book6 6 REFERENCESVI, Nigidius wrote that, according to the Etrusca Dis-ciplina, his were one among the fourgenera, types ofPenates: of Iupiter, of Neptune, of the underworld andof mortal men. According to another tradition relatedby a Caesius,[73] also based on the same source, the Etr-uscan Penates would be Fortuna, Ceres, Genius Iovi-alisandPales, thislast onebeingthemaleEtruscangod (ministrum Iovis et vilicum, domestic and peasant ofJupiter).[74]4 Depiction in artThe French Department of Subaquatic ArchaeologicalResearch divers (headed by Michel L'Hour) discovereda lifesize marble statue of Neptune, in the Rhne River atArles; it is dated to the early fourth century.[75] The statueis one of a hundred artifacts that the team excavated be-tween September and October 2007.[75][76]Etruscan representations of the god are rare but signica-tive. The oldest is perhaps the carved carnelian scarabfrom Vulci of the 4th century BC: Nethuns kicks a rockand creates a spring. (Paris: Bibliothque Nationale,Cabinet des Medailles).Another Etruscan gem(fromthe collection of Luynes, in-scribed Nethunus) depicts the god making a horse springout of the earth with a blow of his trident.[77]A bronze mirror of the late 4th century in the Vati-can Museums (Museo Gregoriano Etrusco: C.S.E. Vat-icano 1.5a) depicts the god with Amymone, daughter ofDanaus, whom he prevents being assaulted by a satyr andto whom he will teach the art of creating springs.A bronze mirror from Tuscania dated to 350 BC also inthe Vatican Museums (Museo Gregoriano Etrusco E. S.1. 76). Nethuns is talking to Usil and Thesan. In thelower exergue is an anguiped demon who holds a dolphinin each hand (identication with Aplu-Apollo is clear alsobecause Uil holds a bow). Nethuns holds a double-endedtrident, suggesting he might be one of the gods who canwield lightningbolts.[78]4.1 GalleryAgnolo Bronzino, Portrait of Andrea Doria as Nep-tune (15401550)Bartolomeo Ammannati, Fountain of Neptune(15631565), FlorenceAntoine Coysevox,Neptune (1705),Louvre, ParisGiovan Battista Tiepolo, Neptune OeringGifts toVenice (17481750)Juan Pascual de Mena, Fuente de Neptuno, Madrid(17801784)Constantino Brumidi, detail ofTheApotheosisofWashington (1865),U.S. Capitol domeNeptune, tobacco product art (18601870)King Neptune (2005), Virginia Beach, VirginiaFountain of Neptune (1902) in Nuremberg, Bavaria,GermanyMonument to Neptune in Gdask, Poland5 BibliographyRaymond Bloch Quelques remarques sur Posei-don, Neptunus et Nethuns in Comptes-rendus dessances del' Acadmiedes Inscriptions et Belles-Letres 2 1981 pp. 341352.Sarolta A. TakacsVestal Virgins, SibylsandMa-tronae: Women in Roman Religion 2008, Universityof Texas Press.Georg Wissowa Religion und Kultus der Rmer Mu-nich 1912.Georges Dumzil La religione romana arcaica. Conun 'appendice sulla religione degli Etruschi Edizionee traduzione a cura di Furio Jesi: Milano Rizzoli1977 (Italian translation conducted on an expandedversion of the 2nd edition of La religion romaine ar-chaque Paris Payot 1974).6 References[1] J. Toutain, Les cultes paens de l'Empire romain, vol. I(1905:378) securely identied Italic Neptune as a saltwa-ter sources as well as the sea.[2] Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia, The Book People,Haydock, 1995, p. 215.[3] About the relationship of the lord of our earthly world withwater(s) Bloch, p. 342-346, gives the following expla-nations: 1. Poseidon is originally conceived as a chtonicgod, lord and husband of the Earth (for the etymology, ep-ithtes , he who possesses the Earth, he who makes the Earth quake) with an equine form. Hemates with Demeter under this form in the Arcadian mythfromThelpusa, they beget the racing horse Areion and theunnamed daughter of those mysteries (story in PausaniasVIII 25, 3). 2. Poseidon hippios (horse) is the god ofEarth and as springs come from beneath the earth, this isalso a metaphora (or better a gure) of the origin of life on7Earth; the horse is universally considered as having a psy-chopompous character and Poseidon is known as tamer ofhorses (damaios) and father of Pegasus who with its hoofcan open up a spring. 3. Poseidon is the god worshippedin the main temple of the Isle of Atlantis in the myth nar-rated by Plato in the dialogues Timaeus and Critias; therewas also a hippodrome nearby. 4. The island was swal-lowed up by an earthquake caused by Poseidon himself.This factor would connect the power over earth and thatover waters. The Greek had a memory of the explosionof the Island of Santorini and of the seaquake it provokedas well as other consequences aecting climate.[4] Alain Cadotte, Neptune Africain, Phoenix 56.3/4 (Au-tumn/Winter 2002:330-347) detected syncretic traces ofa Libyan/Punic agrarian god of fresh water sources, withthe epithet Frugifer, fruit-bearer"; Cadotte enumerated(p.332) some north African Roman mosaics of the fullycharacteristic Triumph of Neptune, whether riding in hischariot or mounted directly on albino dolphins.[5] Dumzil, La religion romaine archaque (Paris,1966:381).[6] Compare Epona.[7] Varro Lingua Latina V 72: Neptunus, quod mare terrasobnubuit ut nubes caelum, ab nuptu, id est opertione, utantiqui, a quo nuptiae, nuptus dictus.: N., because thesea covered the lands as the clouds the sky, from nuptusi.e. covering, as the ancients (used to say), whence nuptiaemarriage, was named nuptus".[8] P. Kretschmer Einleitung in der Geschichte der Griechis-chen Sprache Gttingen, 1896, p. 33.[9] R. Bloch Quelques remarques sur Poseidon, Neptunuset Nethuns in Revue de l' Histoire des Religions 1981, p.347.[10] Y. Bonnefoy, W. Doniger Roman and Indoeuropean My-htologies Chicago, 1992, s.v. Neptune, citing G. DumezilMyht et Epopevol. III p. 41andAlfredErnout-Atoine Meillet Dictionnaire tymologique de la langue la-tine Paris, 1985 4th, s.v. Neptunus.[11] G. Dumzil Ftes romaines d' t et d' automne, suivi pardix questions romaines Paris 1975, p.25.[12] H. Petersmann below, Gttingen 2002.[13] M. Peters Untersuchungen zur Vertratung der indoger-manischen Laryngeale in Griechisch in sterreicherAkademieder Wissenschaften, philsophischehistorischeKlasse Bd. 372, 1980 p.180.[14] Vergil Aeneis VII 691: L. Preller Rmische Mythologie IIBerlin, 1858; Mller-Deeke Etrusker II 54 n. 1 b; DeekeFalisker p. 103, as quoted by William Warde Fowler TheRomanFestivalsofthePeriodoftheRepublic London,1899, p. 185 and n. 3.[15] Giuseppe Simonetta Le straticazioni linguistichenell'Agro Falisco.[16] Livy v. 13.6; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 12.9; Shower-man, Grant. The Great Mother of the Gods. Madison,WI: University of Wisconsin, 1901:223[17] Raymond Bloch 1981 p.341-344.[18] G. Wissowa Religion un Kultus der Rmer Munich, 1912;A. von Domaszewski Abhandlungen zur rmische ReligionLeipzig und Berlin, 1909; R. Bloch above[19] Bloch above p.346; Servius Ad Georgicas IV 24[20] R. Bloch above[21] Fox, Robin Lane. TheClassical World. Basic Books,2006. p. 412 ISBN 0-465-02496-3[22] van Aken, Dr. A.R.A., ed. Elseviers Mythologische Ency-clopedie (Elsevier, Amsterdam: 1961)[23] W. W. Fowler above p. 186 n. 3 citing Servius Ad Aen. V724; later Doctor Fowler disowned this interpretation ofSalacia.[24] CIL, vol. 1,pt 2:323; Varro, De lingua Latina vi.19.[25] C'est--dire au plus fort de l't, au moment de la grandescheresse, et qu'on y construisaient des huttes de feuil-lage en guise d'abris contre le soleil (Cadotte 2002:342,noting Sextus Pompeius Festus, De verborum signicatu[ed. Lindsay 1913] 519.1)[26] G. Dumzil Ftes romaines d' t et d' automne. Suivi deDix questions romaines Paris 1975 1. Les eaux et les boisp. 25-31.[27] Sarolta A.Takacs Vestal virgins, sibyls andmatronae:women in Roman religion 2008, University of Texas Press,p. 53 f., citing Horace Carmina III 28.[28] Sarolta A. Takacs above; citing Macrobius Saturnalia III10, 4.[29] Cassius Dio 17 fragment 57. 60 as cited by L. Richard-son jr. A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome1992 p. 267.[30] On the issue of this group by Scopas cf. F. Coarelli L'oradi Domizio Enobarbo e la cultura artistica in Roma nel IIsec. a. C. in Dialoghi di Arrcheologia II 3 1968 p. 302-368.[31] Wukitsch, Thomas K., Neptunalia Festival[32] Ball Platner, Samuel;Ashby, Thomas (1929), ATopo-graphical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, Basilica Neptuni,London: Oxford University Press[33] Dumzil 1977 p. 340 who cites Livy Ab Urbe ConditaLibri XXVIII 11, 4. Bloch p. 347 n. 19.[34] Macrobius Saturnalia III 10,4[35] G. Dumezil Quaestiunculae indo-italicae: 11. Iovi tauroverre ariete immolari non licet Revue d' Etudes Latins 391961 p. 241-250.[36] Livy V 15-16. Cicero De Divinatione I 44 .[37] G. Dumezil Mythe et epopee III Histoires romaines Paris1973 p. 21 as cited by Bloch p. 346.[38] WilliamWarde Fowler The Religious experience of the Ro-man People London, 1912, p. 346f.8 6 REFERENCES[39] Aulus Gellius Noctes Atticae XIII 24, 1-18.[40] Dumzil here accepts and reproposes the interpretationsof Wissowa and von Domaszewski.[41] Dumezil above p.31[42] G. Dumzil La religione romana arcaica Milano 1977 p.340.[43] Varro Lingua Latina V 72.[44] Festus p. L s.v.[45] Varro apud Augustine De Civitate Dei VII 22.[46] Augustine De Civitate Dei VII 22.[47] Augustine above II 11.[48] William Warde FowlerTheReligiousExperienceoftheRoman People London, 1912, Appendix II.[49] Ludwig Preller Rmische Mythologie Berlin, 1858 part II,p.121-2; Servius Ad Aeneidem VIII 9.[50] Ovid Metamorphoses XIV 334.[51] L. Preller above citing Servius; C. J. Mackie Turnus andhis ancestors inTheClassical Quarterly (New Series)1991, 41, pp. 261-265.[52] Hubert Petersmann Lingua et Religio: ausgewhlte kleineSchriften zur antiken Religionsgeschichte auf sprach-wissenschaftlicherGrundlage herausgegeben von BerndHeen. Hypomnemata: Supplement-Reihe 1. Gttingen:Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 2002. Pp. 304. ISBN 3-525-25231-5.[53] Catullus 31. 3: Paene insularum, Sirmio, insularumque/ocelle, quascumque in liquentibus stagnis/ marique vastofert uterque Neptunus/...": the quoted words belong to apassage in which the poet seems to be hinting to the doublenature of Neptune as god both of the freshwaters and ofthe sea.[54] Eric Neun Die Anitta-Text Wiesbaden, 1974, p. 118.[55] H. Petersmann Neptuns rsprugliche Rolle imrmischenPantheon. Ein etymologisch-religiongeschichtlicher Erk-lrungsversuch inLinguaet religio. AugewhltekleineBeitrgezurantikereligiogeschichtlicherundsprachwis-senschaftlicher Grundlage Gttingen, 2002, pp. 226-235.[56] cf. Festus s. v. aqua: a qua iuvamur, whence we getlife, p 2 L.; s. v. aqua et igni : "...quam accipiuntur nup-tae, videlicet quia hae duae res...vitamcontinent, p.2-3 L;s.v. facem: facem in nuptiis in honore Cereris praefere-bant, aqua aspergebatur nova nupta...ut ignem et aquamcum viro communicaret, p.87 L.[57] William Warde Fowler The roman Festivals of the Periodof the Republic London, 1899, p. 126[58] Raymond Bloch above p. 343[59] William Warde Fowler The Roman Festivals of the Periodof the Republic London, 1899, p.[60] William Warde Fowler above, citing James G. Frazer.[61] S. Duani, . Petkovi The Flamen Quirinalis at theConsualia and the Horseman of the Lacus Curtius in Ae-vum 2002 1. p. 63.[62] Sarolta A. Takacs Vestal Virgins, Sybils and Matrons Uni-versity of Texas Press 2008 p. 55-56, also citing Scullardon the inuence of horse races in the identication. Blochciting Chantraine DELG s.v. Poseidon.[63] Cf. the related deities of the Circus Semonia, Seia, Sege-tia, Tutilina: Tertullian De Spectaculis VIII 3.[64] Cicero De Haruspicum Responso 20. Neptunus is men-tioned third after Jupiter and Saturn and before Tellus.[65] R. Bloch above ; G. Capdeville Les dieux de MartianusCapella in Revue de l'Histoire des Religions 213-3, 1996,p. 282 n. 112[66] Bloch p. 348. Bonfante,Giuliano; Bonfante,Larissa(2002). The Etruscan Language: an Introduction. Manch-ester: University of Manchester Press. ISBN 0-7190-5540-7. p. 202, De Grummond, Nancy Thomson (2006).Etruscan Mythology, Sacred History and Legend: An Intro-duction.University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archae-ology. ISBN 1-931707-86-3. p. 59.[67] R. Bloch above; Pliny Nat. Hist. XI 195[68] N. Thomas De Grummond EtruscamMyth, Sacred Historyand Legend Univ. of Pennsylvania Press 2006 p. 145[69] Erika Simon Gods in Harmony: The Etruscan Pantheonin N. Thomas De Grummond (editor) Etruscan Religion2006 p. 48; G. Colonna Altari e sacelli: l'area sud diPyrgi dop otto anni di ricerche Rendiconti della PonticiaAccademia di Archeologia 64 p. 63-115; Sacred Archi-tecture and the Religion of the Etruscans in N. ThomasDeGrummond above p.139[70] Ludwig Preller Rmische Mythologie Berlin, 1858, II p. 1[71] G. Dumezil Lareligionromainearchaique Paris, 19742nd, Appendix; It.tr.p.584; citing Stephen WeinstockMartianus Capella and the Cosmic System of the Etr-uscans in Journal of Roman Studies 36, 1946, p. 104 .;G. Capdeville Les dieux de Martianus Capella in Revuede l'Histoire des Religions 213-3, 1996, p. 280-281[72] Cf. M. Pallottino Deorumsedes in Saggi di antichit. II.Documenti per la storia della civilt etrusca Roma 1979 p.779-790. For a summary exposition of the content of thiswork the reader is referred to article Juno, section EtrurianUni note n. 201.[73] It is dicult to ascertain his identity.[74] Arnobius Adversus Nationes III 40, 1-2.[75] Divers nd Caesar bust that may date to 46 B.C., Associ-ated Press, 2008-05-14[76] Henry Samuel, Julius Caesar bust found in Rhone River,The Telegraph[77] Jacques Heurgon in R. Bloch above p. 352.[78] N. Thomas De Grummond above p. 145.97 External linksWarburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 600images of Neptune)Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Neptune (god)".EncyclopdiaBritannica(11thed.). CambridgeUniversity Press.10 8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses8.1 Text Neptune (mythology) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune_(mythology)?oldid=674377076 Contributors: BlckKnght, WilliamAvery, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Looxix~enwiki, TUF-KAT, Mark Foskey, Andres, Tpbradbury, Wetman, Robbot, Alan Liefting,Lesgles, H9000, Neutrality, Discospinster, QuartierLatin1968, Bdoserror, Markussep, Adambro, Smalljim, Gary, Bart133, LOL, Bbatsell,Rjwilmsi, Ian Lancaster, Nihiltres, Nivenus, EamonnPKeane, Roboto de Ajvol, Pigman, RadioFan, Stephenb, Rsrikanth05, Grafen, Jhin-man, Botteville, Nikkimaria, Livitup, Attilios, SmackBot, Abhimat.gautam, JohnPomeranz, WookieInHeat, Rachel Pearce, Yamaguchi,Gilliam, Portillo, Andy M. 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