neotectonic evolution of the northwestward arched segment...

Neotectonic evolution of the northwestward archedsegment of the Central Anatolian Fault Zone, Central

Anatolia, Turkey

Kadir Dirik*

Tectonic Research Unit, Geological Engineering Department, Middle East Technical University, 06531 Ankara,Turkey

Received 5 April 1999; accepted 21 February 2000

Abstract – Central Anatolia has undergone complex Neotectonicdeformation since Late Miocene–Pliocene times. Many faults andintracontinental basins in this region were either formed, or havebeen reactivated, during this period. The eastern part of central Ana-tolia is dominated by a NE–SW-trending, left lateral transcurrentstructure named the Central Anatolian fault zone located betweenSivas in the northeast and west of Mersin in the southwest. Aroundthe central part, it is characterized by transtensional depressionsformed by left stepping and southward bending of the fault zone.Pre-Upper Miocene basement rocks of the region consist of thecentral Anatolian crystalline complex and a sedimentary cover ofTertiary age. These rock units were strongly deformed by N–S con-vergence. The entire area emerged to become the site of erosionand formed a vast plateau before the Late Miocene. A NE–SW-trending extensional basin developed on this plateau in LateMiocene–Early Pliocene times. Rock units of this basin are char-acterized by a thick succession of pyroclastic rocks intercalated withcalcalkaline–alkaline volcanics. The volcanic sequence is uncon-formably overlain by Pliocene lacustrine–fluviatile deposits inter-calated with ignimbrites and tuffs. Thick, coarse grained alluvial/colluvial fan deposits of marginal facies and fine grained clasticsand carbonates of central facies display characteristic synsedimen-tary structures with volcanic intercalations. These are the main linesof evidence for development of a new transtensional Hırka–Kızılırmak basin in Pliocene times. Reactivation of the main seg-ment of the Central Anatolian fault zone has triggered developmentof depressions around the left stepping and southward bending ofthe central part of this sinistral fault zone in the ignimbritic plateauduring Late Pliocene–Quaternary time. These transtensional basinsare named the Tuzla Gölü and Sultansazlıg˘ı pull-apart basins. TheSultansazlıg˘ı basin has a lazy S to rhomboidal shape and displayscharacteristic morphologic features including a steep and steppedwestern margin, large alluvial and colluvial fans, and a huge com-posite volcano (the Erciyes Dag˘ı).

The geometry of faulting and formation of pull-apart basins can beexplained within the framework of tectonic escape of the wedge-like Anatolian block, bounded by sinistral East Anatolian fault zoneand dextral North Anatolian transform fault zone. This escape mayhave been accomplished as lateral continental extrusion of the Ana-tolian Plate caused by final collision of the Arabian Plate with theEurasian Plate. © 2001 Éditions scientifiques et médicales ElsevierSAS

neotectonics / transtension / pull-apart basin / Sultansazlıgı /tectonic escape

1. Introduction

It has become apparent during the last ten years that boththe Tuzgölü fault zone (TFZ) and the Ecemis¸ fault zone haveplayed an important role in controlling neotectonic pro-cesses including deposition in fault-controlled intracontinen-tal basins, volcanism, and landscape changes in central Ana-tolia [1]. Most studies in this region undertaken in thesouthern part of central Anatolia have concentrated on vol-canism [2–5] and tectonic controls on the volcanism [6–10].The general neotectonic characteristics of central Anatoliahave been discussed by Dirik and Göncüog˘lu [1]. Theypointed out the importance of the NW-trending dextralTuzgölü fault zone, the NE-trending sinistral Ecemis¸ faultzone, and the NE–NW-trending conjugate fault systembetween them. They have resulted from NNE–SSW directedcompression and have controlled the Neogene–Quaternarybasins. The Ecemis¸ fault zone, a long sinistral intracontinen-tal transcurrent structure, has been studied and described byKoçyigit and Beyhan [11], and renamed the Central Anato-lian fault zone. Morphologic and structural characteristicsof the Kızılırmak segment of this fault zone around Sul-

* Correspondence and reprints.E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Dirik).

Geodinamica Acta 14 (2001) 147–158© 2001 Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved

S0985311100010561/FLA

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tansekisi, Özvatan–Felahiye and Sqarkısla–Gemerek areahave also been studied by different authors [12–14]. Somerecent studies have concentrated on the paleomagnetism andgeochronology of the Neogene volcanics of central Anatolia[15–18] and geomorphology of the Sultansazlıgı lake [19].The main purpose of this study is: 1) to outline the stratig-raphy of the (Pliocene) Hırka–Kızılırmak and (Plio-Quaternary) Sultansazlıgı basins located in the northwest-ward arched segment of CAFZ (figure 1), and 2) based onthese studies, to discuss neotectonic evolution of the region.

2. Stratigraphy

The rock units exposed in the study area may be groupedinto six divisions, namely pre-Upper Miocene basementrocks, an Upper Miocene–Lower Pliocene volcanicsequence, Pliocene deposits of the Hırka–Kızılırmak basin,Pliocene volcanics, Plio-Quaternary volcanics and the Sul-tansazlıgı basin fill.

Figure 1. (A) Simplified neotectonic map of Turkey showing major tectonic structures and location of figure 1B. (B) Neotectonic map show-ing the northwestward arched segment of CAFZ [Source of the seismic data: 20, 21, 22].

K. Dirik / Geodinamica Acta 14 (2001) 147–158

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2.1. Pre Upper Miocene basement rocks

The pre-Upper Miocene basement is exposed in northernand eastern parts of the study area (figure 2) and comprisesthe Central Anatolian crystalline complex (CACC) in thenorth, the Bünyan metamorphics (BM) in the south, and theirsedimentary cover. The metamorphics are overlain by anUpper Cretaceous ophiolitic olistostrome overthrusted byophiolites. In the northern section, the metamorphics andophiolites are intruded by Lower Cretaceous granitoides andsyenitoides [23, 24]. The uppermost Maastrichtian–Paleocene continental to shallow marine units, UpperCretaceous–Paleocene siltstone, shale, pelagic limestone,volcaniclastics and basic volcanic rock intercalations allunconformably overlie older units. The volcanics have awithin-continental-plate eruptive setting [25]. Upwards, thisunit grades into an Upper Paleocene–Eocene transgressivesequence characterized by sandstone–conglomerate–calciturbidite intercalations and local reefal to pelagic lime-stones. The presence of red continental clastics interbedded

with bedded to massive gypsum of Late Eocene–Oligoceneage at upper levels of the sequence is evidence for emer-gence during this period. The entire area became the site oferosion to form a vast plateau before the Late Miocene [25].

2.2. Upper Miocene–Lower Pliocene volcanic sequence

The southern part of central Anatolia is covered by a thickUpper Miocene–Pliocene volcanosedimentary sequenceincluding calcalkaline–alkaline volcanics [3]. This unit is acontinuous succession in most parts and named the Ürgüpformation by Pasquare [2]. In the study area however, thissequence is not continuous and an angular unconformity isobserved between an Upper Miocene–Lower Pliocene lowervolcanic sequence and overlying Pliocene units of the Hırka–Kızılırmak basin. This sequence constitutes the oldest mem-ber of the cover succession and was extruded in a backarcenvironment, and interpreted to be the first product of vol-canism initiated by consumption of a detached lithospheric

Figure 2. (A) Location of the study area. (B) Detailed geologic map of the area between the south of Kayseri and east of Tuzla Gölü.


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slab beneath the southern part of central Anatolia [26] about10 Ma ago [3]. In the study area, this unit crops out north-east of Erkilet and west of Hırka (figure 2). It unconform-ably overlies pre-Upper Miocene basement rocks and is char-acterized by a thick succession of calcalkaline–alkaline lavasand pyroclastics. The pyroclastic rocks are represented bymedium thick-bedded agglomerate, volcanic breccia, epi-clastics and thin-bedded tuffs with a thickness of about200 m. Epiclastic levels consist of cross-bedded, poorlycemented sandstone. Massive to columnar jointed basaltsare occasionally intercalated with the pyroclastics. Thesequence was deformed by NNW–SSE directed compres-sion as evidenced by ENE–WSW-trending tight folds.

2.3. Hırka–Kızılırmak basin fill

The Upper Miocene–Lower Pliocene volcanic sequenceis unconformably overlain by lacustrine–fluviatile depositsof the NE–SW-trending Hırka–Kızılırmak basin formerlynamed the Emmiler–Hırka basin by Uygun [27], and depo-sition is considered to have continued between Late Mioceneand Pleistocene times in this basin. However, an extensionof the basin to the northeast, parallel to the contemporaryKızılırmak River and towards Sivas, has been observed inthe present investigations justifying the renaming of thisbasin as the Hırka–Kızılırmak basin. Although the southernand northern margins are concealed by younger deposits, thebasin fill displays two characteristic sedimentary facies,namely marginal (figures 3A, B and F) and axial plain facies(figures 3C, D and G). Along the front of the northern mar-gin (north of Hırka) the deformed underlying volcanicsequence is overlain by gently dipping fluvial to lacustrinedeposits. This unit is represented by sandstone, ostracod–and gastrapod-bearing marl, claystone and shale alternatingwith diatomite-tuffaceous sand-claystone and marly lime-stone. The sandstone is moderately to poorly cemented andcross-bedded. Upwards, this sequence grades into poorlysorted and bedded conglomerates. The size of angular to sub-angular clasts ranges from gravel to block, but decreasessouthward, and grades laterally into sand to clay. The Vali-baba Tepe ignimbrite [2] interfingers with the sequence atthe top (figure 3A). Marginal facies of the basin around thenorth of Sultansekisi are represented by polygenetic con-glomerates with sandstone alternations at the base gradingupwards into poorly sorted conglomerate with angular tosubangular clasts. Laterally it grades into gravely sand-stones, red siltstones and claystones. The uppermost levelsof the marginal facies and the boundary with the basementrocks are concealed by recent alluvial fan-talus deposits (fig-ure 3F). In the central part, the axial plain deposits of theHırka–Kızılırmak basin unconformably overlie volcanicsnorth of Erkilet. The sequence starts with thin, fine conglom-erate and continues upward with graded sandstone, lami-nated and occasionally fossiliferous marl-claystone, cross-bedded sandstone, a thick tuffite bed and thick beddedlacustrine limestone interbeds (figures 3C and D). This lime-

stone member is about 10 m in thickness. It is followed bya sequence consisting of thick cross bedded and occasion-ally graded, loosely-cemented sandstone with conglomeratealternations. The upper level is represented by medium-bedded and occasionally brecciated limestone. Pliocene pla-teau basalts and the Valibaba ignimbrite unconformably over-lie the sequence. The lower part of axial plain facies of theHırka–Kızılırmak basin around Sultansekisi and west ofTuzla Gölü is represented by fluviatile deposits (figures 3Fand G). The pre-Upper Miocene basement is unconform-ably overlain by this sequence without volcanics. It startswith cross bedded, polygenetic conglomerates, gradingupward into poorly cemented sandstones with occasionalconglomerate lenses and caliche levels, and continues withintercalations of cross-bedded sandstone, parallel laminatedsandstone–siltstone, and channel fill conglomerates. In theupper levels this sequence grades into white claystone, clayeylimestone and porous gastropod-bearing limestone.

Thick, coarse grained alluvial/colluvial fan deposits ofmarginal facies and fine grained clastics and carbonates ofdistal facies with volcanic intercalations are the main evi-dence for development of a tensional (Hırka–Kızılırmak)basin in Pliocene times (figure 4). The border faults of thisbasin were probably triggered by westward escape of thewedge-shaped Anatolian Plate between NATFZ and EAFZ[28–30].

2.4. Pliocene volcanics

These consist of andesitic domes and stratovolcanoes, pla-teau basalts and ignimbritic sheets. The andesitic domes arelocated southwest of Erkilet and the stratovolcanoes to thesoutheast of Kayseri (figure 1). They are aligned parallel tothe border faults of the Sultansazlıgı basin. Basaltic lava over-lies fluviatile facies of the Hırka–Kızılırmak basin and isoverlain by a welded and vesicular ignimbritic sheet, 8–10 mthick and black to dark grey in colour. Under the micro-scope it displays a hypocrystalline structure of augite, pla-gioclase and olivine embedded in a glassy matrix. The young-est member of this overlying sequence is a widely distributedignimbrite sheet named the Valibaba Tepe ignimbrite by Pas-quare [2]. This is a grey to dark violet–red coloured, mas-sive andesitic tuff displaying flow structure and composedof plagioclase, augite phenocrysts and glassy matrix.Although the thickness is only about 5–15 m, its distinctivecharacter makes it an important marker bed in this region.According to radiometric age data these volcanics range from5.1 Ma to 2.8 Ma (Early Pliocene) [3].

2.5. Plio-Quaternary volcanics

These volcanics are the product of the Erciyes stratovol-cano and occupy the central part of the Sultansazlıgı depres-sion (figures 1 and 2). The stratovolcano comprises basaltic–andesitic lavas interleaved with dacitic pyroclastics, pumiceand ash deposits, and has evolved in five stages [2]. The first


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Figure 3. Stratigraphic columns of the Hırka–Kızılırmak and Sultansazlıgı basins.


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stage was characterized by formation of a lava shield ofandesitic–basaltic lavas coeval with initial sinking of the Sul-tansazlıgı depression. It was followed by collapse of the lavashield and development of a stratovolcano during this col-lapse accompanied by emplacement of dacitic–rhyodaciticdykes. Dacitic–rhyodacitic domes developed in the thirdstage. Olivine basaltic lavas and dacitic pyroclastics wereemplaced during a fourth stage, and dacitic lavas with pumi-ceous ash deposits were formed in the last stage. Thegeochemical composition of these volcanics is calcalkaline,and their age is Plio–Quaternary [2, 3, 5].

2.6. Sultansazlıgı basin fill

The sedimentary fill of the lazy S to rhomboidal shapedSultansazlıgı basin consists of coarse grained marginal andfine grained axial plain deposits showing both vertical andlateral gradations. Conglomerates constitute coarse grainedmarginal sediments deposited as talus-alluvial fans along thefoot of the steep and elevated western margin of the basin.They are poorly lithified and sorted, mostly embedded insandy matrix, and polygenetic in composition. Fine grainedaxial plain deposits consist of siltstone, marl, claystone andmudstone. Dune sands are the characteristic sediment of theeastern part of Erkilet. The thickness of the sedimentary fill

increases toward the south and attains a maximum of 300 msouth of the Erciyes volcano.

3. Structural geology

3.1. Folds

Two types of fold sets occur in the study area. The firstoccurs in pre–Miocene–Pliocene units and the second inMio-Pliocene units. The first set is represented by tight tooverturned folds consisting of a series of anticlines and syn-clines with axes trending in a NE–SW direction (figure 2).These folds are overturned and N-verging near the thrust-faults but become tight and doubly-plunging away fromthem. A second fold type occurs within the Mio-Plioceneunits with NE–SW-trending axes; these are open folds incontrast to folds developed in the Upper Miocene–LowerPliocene volcanics. They are evidence for a pre-Late Pliocenecompressional regime in the region. Pliocene basalt lavasand Valibaba ignimbrite lie horizontally on the underlyingfolded structures.

Figure 4. Model demonstrating the Hırka–Kızılırmak Basin during Pliocene period.


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3.2. Strike-slip faults

The study area is located in a lazy S- to rhomboidal-shaped depression at the northwest arched segment of theCAFZ. The latter is a 35 km wide and 120 km long depres-sion bounded by strike-slip faults with a normal-slip com-ponent. It was first named the Sultansazlıgı depression andinterpreted as a pull-apart basin by Pasquare et al. [6]. Dirikand Göncüoglu [1] accepted this term although the Kayseri–Yesilhisar and Erciyes names have also been used [9, 11].The term Sultansazlıgı depression has priority and is usedhere. The CAFZ is approximately 730 km long and 2–80km wide. It is a NE-trending, active sinistral strike-slip faultzone [11]. The arched central part is controlled by the Kız-ılırmak, Erkilet, Yesilhisar, Gesi and Develi subfaults. TheKızılırmak segment is a 5- to 10-km-wide, 140-km-long,and N40°–50°E-striking sinistral fault zone (figure 1) whichruns parallel to the Kızılırmak stream and forms the easternmargin of the CACC. The old deposits of the KızılırmakRiver have been faulted and elevated by this fault zone whichterminates northwest of Tuzla Gölü. The Erkilet segmentstarts to the southwest of Tuzla Gölü and continues in a SWdirection determining the western margin of Sultansazlıgıdepression. Due to left stepping between the Kızılırmak andErkilet subfault zones around Tuzla Gölü, a pull-apart basinat Tuzla Gölüwith a half graben character [11] has also devel-oped. Large alluvial fans aligned parallel to faults with step-like morphotectonic features displaying steep fault scarpsare an important evidence for the Erkilet segment. The Vali-baba ignimbrite has been faulted and downthrown to the floorof the depression by this fault segment indicating consider-able vertical displacement along the fault zone. North ofIncesu it bends towards the south at about 45°, and formsthe Yesilhisar fault segment [11]. The Yesilhisar fault seg-ment also displays steep fault scarps with a step-like patternand determines the western margin of the depression. TheGesi fault segment starts to the south of Tuzla Gölü. It tec-tonically juxtaposes Plio-Quaternary volcanics and pre-Miocene units and determines the easternmost margin of theSultansazlıgı depression towards the southwest (figure 2).To the east of Kayseri it bends south at about 25° forming anew subfault, the Develi fault segment [11]. It is about100 km long and a NNE-striking oblique-slip normal faultzone displaying well developed fault scarps with a step-likepattern determining the eastern margin of the depression.Pliocene volcanics were deformed and faulted along this mar-gin.

The presence of earthquake epicenters around Kayseri,Yesilhisar, Sarıoglan (east of Tuzla Gölü), southwest of Fela-hiye, and Bünyan with magnitudes greater than 4.2 smallerthan 6.0 shows that the boundary faults of these basins arestill seismically active [1] (figure 1).

4. Tectonic evolution

Major tectonic events in the tectonic evolution of thenorthwest arched segment of the CAFZ can be summarizedin age sequence as follows:

4.1. Middle–Late Miocene

During this period collision of the Pontides with the CACCwas completed. The entire area emerged and became the siteof erosion to form a vast plateau before Late Miocene times(figure 5A) [25].

4.2. Late Miocene–Early Pliocene

In the southeastern part of Turkey, the Bitlis Ocean closedby collision of the Eurasian Plate with the Arabian Plate dur-ing late Middle Miocene times [28] and these two plateswelded along the Bitlis Suture Zone (figure 7A). Field obser-vations show that Upper Miocene–Pliocene volcanic-volcanosedimentary sequence of the study area, previouslynamed the Ürgüp formation, did not result from uninter-rupted geologic events as indicated by previous studies [2,3, 11, 27]. Instead, Pliocene lacustrine–fluviatile deposits reston erosional surfaces of older basement rocks and UpperMiocene–Lower Pliocene volcanics with angular unconfor-mity. The underlying volcanics resulted from consumptionof a detached lithospheric slab beneath the southern part ofcentral Anatolia related with the continuous convergencebetween the Eurasian Plate to north and the Arabian Plate tothe south (figure 7A). The convergence lasted until the LateMiocene and was replaced by a new tectonic regime domi-nated by escape tectonics [29]. During this period, two impor-tant structures have formed, namely the dextral North Ana-tolian transform fault zone (NATFZ) and sinistral EastAnatolian fault zone (EAFZ) (figure 7B). Between thesefaults Anatolia is being extruded to the west. Apart fromthese two main structures there were probably intraconti-nental strike-slip faults parallel to the main structures, andthe westward escape initiated formation of transtensionalbasins in central Anatolia including the NE–SW-trendingPliocene Hırka–Kızılırmak basin in the study region (fig-ures 5B and 7B).

4.3. Middle–Late Pliocene

Lacustrine to fluviatile deposition continued until the LatePliocene and the region was then entirely covered by vol-canics (plateau basalts and the Valibaba ignimbrite) whichformed a vast volcanic plateau in the Late Pliocene (figures5C and D). However, the most important feature initiated atthis time is the southward bended and left stepped fractureof the CAFZ, the youngest intracontinental structure in theregion. The CAFZ, with which several andesitic domes andstratovolcanos are aligned, was probably formed by the reac-tivation of an older zone of weakness (figure 6A).


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Figure 5. Schematic diagrams showing evolution of Hırka–Kızılırmak and Sultansazlıgı basins.


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Figure 6. Schematic block diagrams illustrating the evolution of the Sultansazlıgı and Tuzla basins (the idea for this figure is partly inspiredfrom Pasquare et al. [6] and Toprak [9]).


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Figure 7. Evolution of the central Anatolia since Late Miocene. BSZ: Bitlis Suture Zone, NATFZ: North Anatolian Transform Fault Zone,TFZ: Tuzgölü Fault Zone, CAFZ: Central Anatolian Fault Zone, EAFZ: East Anatolian Fault Zone, DTF: Dead SEA Transform Fault, HKB:Hırka–Kızılırmak Basin.


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4.4. Late Pliocene–recent

The continued westward escape of Anatolia has causedsinistral movement along this fracture (figure 7C). As a resultof this motion, transtensional areas have been formed aroundleft stepping and southward bending regions of the fault zone.In these transtensional areas, two characteristic strike-slipstructures, namely the Tuzla Gölü and the lazy S to rhom-boidal Sultansazlıgı pull-apart basins (SPB) have been ini-tiated during formation of the Pliocene volcanic plateau (fig-ures 5D, E and 6B). During the widening of the SPB, theErciyes stratovolcano has also evolved by basaltic eruption,followed by andesitic volcanic activity [2] in the depression(figures 5F and 6C).

5. Conclusion

The present landscape of central Anatolia was shaped bythe escape tectonics which emerged during the Late Miocenefollowing the ending of continuous N–S convergence. TheNorth Anatolian and East Anatolian transform fault zonesare two important features formed during this period. Thesubfault zones splaying off from the NATFZ are second orderfeatures and deform the eastern part of central Anatolia. Oneof these features is the CAFZ, a NE–SW-trending, activesinistral intracontinental transcurrent structure [11].

The transtensional Hırka–Kızılırmak basin of Pliocene ageis the first product of this escape tectonism and has devel-oped on both an Upper Miocene volcanic sequence and pre-Upper Miocene basement. The lacustrine to fluviatile depo-sition continued up to Middle Pliocene times when the regionwas entirely covered by plateau basalt and ignimbrite in thelatest Middle Pliocene (∼ 2.8 Ma).

The CAFZ is the important structure initiated in the middlePliocene. The left stepping around Tuzla Gölüand the releas-ing type of bending on the CAFZ around the central sectionhas formed transtensional areas and resulted in initiation oftwo depressions, the Tuzla Gölü and Sultansazlıgı pull-apartbasins. The recent earthquake epicentres strongly suggestthat these structures are still active.

Acknowledgements. The author wish to express hisgratitude to the Turkish Petroleum Corporation (TPAO) forfinancial support during fieldwork, and special thanks toCemal Göncüoglu for his continuous interest and contribu-tion related to the studies carried out on the tectonics of cen-tral Anatolia.

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neotectonic evolution of the northwestward arched segment...

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