nature june 1, 2006 the cenozoic arctic ocean greenhouse to icehouse in 55 million years
Post on 18-Dec-2015
223 views
TRANSCRIPT
NATURENATUREJune 1, 2006June 1, 2006
THECENOZOICARCTICOCEAN
Greenhouse to icehousein 55 million years
Great Green North“Was the icy Arctic once a warm soup of life?”
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC May 2005NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC May 2005
NEW YORK TIMES November 30, 2004NEW YORK TIMES November 30, 2004
Need a picture of NYT page
Under All That Ice, Maybe Oil
THE AZOLLA STORYTHE AZOLLA STORY
IMPLICATIONS FORIMPLICATIONS FOR
CLIMATE CHANGECLIMATE CHANGEANDAND
ARCTIC SOURCE ROCKSARCTIC SOURCE ROCKS
icehouse world also characterized byicehouse world also characterized by
glacial – interglacial cycles
icehouse world also characterized byicehouse world also characterized by
high latitudinal thermal gradient
Mesozoic greenhouse worldMesozoic greenhouse world
• no bipolar glaciation
• low latitude thermal gradient
differed strongly from the modern icehouse world
determining the cause of climate changeis crucial today to
• understand the shift from greenhouse to icehouse
• understand the reasons for glacials and interglacials
so why is the modern icehouse world so why is the modern icehouse world geologically rare?geologically rare?
we need to look at two geological we need to look at two geological controls on long-term climate changecontrols on long-term climate change
isolate polar regions from warm marine currents
HOW TO MAKE AN ICEHOUSE WORLDHOW TO MAKE AN ICEHOUSE WORLD
STEP ONESTEP ONE
• freshwater input from rivers
• locally lowering salinity
• preventing marine inflow into central Arctic
thermal isolation of polar regions depended on unusual land-sea configuration at both poles at the same time
but this only provided the background needed to produce bipolar glaciation
for this to develop we also need to add the second major parameter to the story………
atmospheric COatmospheric CO2 2 through timethrough timeCharles Keeling – measured pCO2 over the past 50 years
atmospheric COatmospheric CO2 2 through timethrough time
1958 to present
Mauna Loa, Hawaii and la Jolla
and other locations worldwide
Sources: Petit et al. (Nature 1999); Am Ass Adv Science November 2005; Science November 2005
using Vostok ice cores from the Antarctic
Vostok
glacial
interglacialwe see strong fluctuations in CO2 that correlate closely with changes in temperature and glacial-interglacial cycles
glacial
temperature
glacials
with CO2 decreasing during glacials due to increased CO2 sequestration by the colder waters in the oceans
and peaking during interglacials as higher temperatures lead to CO2 release from the oceans
interglacial
glacialinterglacials
temperature
interglacial
glacial
Sources: Am Ass Adv Science November 2005;Science November 2005
glacial-interglacialphases initiallytriggered byMilankovitch cycles
interglacial
glacial
Sources: Am Ass Adv Science November 2005;Science November 2005
glacial-interglacialphases initiallytriggered byMilankovitch cycles
reinforced byresulting CO2
cyclicity due toocean dissolution
glacial-interglacialphases initiallytriggered byMilankovitch cycles
interglacial
glacial
Sources: Am Ass Adv Science November 2005;Science November 2005
reinforced byresulting CO2
cyclicity due toocean dissolution
with CO2 followingtemperature byabout 800 years
today’s situation differs
280
we are now at 280 ppm
380100 ppm higher than previous 280 ppm peaks
and CO2 appears to be leading temperature
into theinto theMioceneMiocene
we now need to use proxies to estimate values of atmospheric CO2
CO2 determined fromboron 11 and alkenoid carbon isotopesbacked up by other data
poor data
coincident with the onset of modern cold deep-water circulation
coincident with major development of cold bottom-water circulation
did this sequester CO2?
poor datamajor Antarctic glaciation
climate models also indicate that full Antarctic glaciation cannot occur unless CO2 ppm is less than 1000 ppm
poor data
1200 ppm
800 ppm
600 ppm
can this be used to predict the effect of future increases in CO2
on Antarctic deglaciation?
back into the early Eocene
Sources: Tripati et al. Nature July 2005Pagani et al. Science July 2005Pearson & Palmer Nature August 2000
Sources: Tripati et al. Nature July 2005Pagani et al. Science July 2005Pearson & Palmer Nature August 2000
CO2 values reach 3500 ppm
temperatures estimated by
• various marine and terrestrial markers
• oxygen isotopes
• climate models
we can therefore estimate Palaeocene Mean Annual Temperatures
11
23
11
11
23
11
2222
1916
12
2417
20 26
Source: Triparti et al. 2001
17
which indicate warm Arctic temperatures
11
23
11
11
23
11
2222
1916
12
2417
20 26
Source: Triparti et al. 2001
17
but with seasonality -resulting in Arctic environments totally unknown today
11
23
11
11
23
11
2222
1916
12
2417
20 26
17
- 24 hour summer daylight and 24 winter darkness
within a region of warm air and sea temperatures
11
23
11
11
23
11
2222
1916
12
2417
20 26
17
climate models indicate these temperatures required about x10 modern CO2 levels
= about 3500 ppm
consistent with isotope data
and very high temperatures
including polar regions
which resulted in awhich resulted in asupergreenhouse worldsupergreenhouse world
Paleocene Eocene Thermal MaximumPaleocene Eocene Thermal Maximum
triggered by increased greenhouse gases from
• extensive volcanism (Greenland plume)
• release of methane clathrates (hydrates)
abundant greenhouse gases
high temperatures
supergreenhouse state continued supergreenhouse state continued through the early Eocenethrough the early Eocene
but early Eocene supergreenhousewas followed immediately by abrupt global cooling
what forced this change?
Arctic Coring Expedition (ACEX)Arctic Coring Expedition (ACEX)
• August – September 2004• first International ODP cruise into the Arctic• supported by Norwegian and Russian icebreakers
ACEX Azolla coreACEX Azolla core
• 8 to 20m metre ACEX core with >90% Azolla
• base not cored
• Azolla occurs as laminated layers
• indicates Azolla deposited in situ
• in a ‘marine’ setting away from shore
Age of the Azolla eventAge of the Azolla event
Azolla event also present in Arctic exploration wells
and transported south into Nordic seas
base Middle Eocene
lasted about 800,000 years
coeval with onset of Arctic cooling
coeval with onset of Antarctic glaciation
coeval with massive fall in CO2
Azolla event: summaryAzolla event: summary
• floating aquatic freshwater fern
• known from Cretaceous to present
• so we can look at habitats of modern species
fossil Azolla from the Eocene Green River Formationfossil Azolla from the Eocene Green River Formation
fastest growing plant on the planet!fastest growing plant on the planet!
doubles its biomass in 2 to 3 daysdoubles its biomass in 2 to 3 days
widely used as a green biofertilizer for rice fieldswidely used as a green biofertilizer for rice fields
why is it a fertilizer?why is it a fertilizer?
why does it have why does it have rapid growth?rapid growth?
how can it grow free-floating on water how can it grow free-floating on water without soil nutrients?without soil nutrients?
source: Carrapiço, 2002
its leaves are its leaves are characterised characterised by cavitiesby cavities
source: Carrapiço, 2002
filled with nitrogen
inhabited by a nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium (blue-green alga) Anabaena
leaf cavitiesleaf cavities
Azolla’s sporophyteAzolla’s sporophytesporocarpssporocarps
megasporocarpmegasporocarp
megasporocarp’s chambermegasporocarp’s chamber
megasporocarp’s chambermegasporocarp’s chamber
fertilizationfertilization
new sporophytenew sporophyte
(Carrapiço, 2006)
Anabaena symbiont has been passed to successive generations via Azolla spores
Azolla’s sporophyteAzolla’s sporophytesporocarpssporocarps
megasporocarpmegasporocarp
megasporocarp’s chambermegasporocarp’s chamber
megasporocarp’s chambermegasporocarp’s chamber
fertilizationfertilization
new sporophytenew sporophyte
(Carrapiço, 2006)
for more than hundred million years!
providing a natural biofertilizer in the water for rice production
so Azolla-Anabaena can fix more than 1000 kg of atmospheric nitrogen per acre per year
the nitrogen is also available for rapid growth of the Azolla plant
which can then fix up to 6000 kg of atmospheric carbon per acre per year free-floating on water
to summarize to summarize
• Azolla floating freshwater fern (no salinity tolerance)
• draws down large quantities of C & N
• doubles biomass in 2 - 3 days…….and
• temperature tolerant
• optimum growth 20 hours of daylight
i
• Arctic Basin largely enclosed following the PETM
what triggered the Azolla event?what triggered the Azolla event?
i
• Arctic Basin largely enclosed
• high temperature, rainfall & runoff
what triggered the Azolla event?what triggered the Azolla event?
i
• Arctic Basin largely enclosed
• high temperature, rainfall & runoff
• widespread surface freshwater layer
what triggered the Azolla event?what triggered the Azolla event?
i
• Arctic Basin largely enclosed
• high temperature, rainfall & runoff
• widespread surface freshwater layer
• atmosphere rich in C & N
• abundant nutrients flushed into basin
what triggered the Azolla event?what triggered the Azolla event?
local anoxia
variable water stratification and bottom water anoxia
model of Azolla growth and deposition
model of Azolla growth and deposition
Azolla deposited in anoxic conditions
and was therefore able to drawdown carbon
Azolla model of climate changeAzolla model of climate change
• AzollaAzolla blooms widespread in Arcticblooms widespread in Arctic
freshwater surface layersfreshwater surface layers
• occurred episodically for about 800,000 yearsoccurred episodically for about 800,000 years
triggering the shifttriggering the shift
from superfrom supergreenhousegreenhouse
towards the moderntowards the modern
icehouse state aticehouse state at
base Middlebase Middle EoceneEocene
• 6000 kg of carbon per acre each year6000 kg of carbon per acre each year
• = 6000,000 kg of carbon per acre in 1000 years= 6000,000 kg of carbon per acre in 1000 years
Source: ACEX scientists preliminary unpublished data
we can estimate amount of carbon we can estimate amount of carbon from modern Azolla productionfrom modern Azolla production
carbon drawdown for Azolla eventcarbon drawdown for Azolla event
• TIME: up to 800,000 yearsTIME: up to 800,000 years
• AREA: up to 4,000,000 sq kmAREA: up to 4,000,000 sq km
carbon drawdown for Azolla eventcarbon drawdown for Azolla event
• TIME: up to 800,000 yearsTIME: up to 800,000 years
• AREA: up to 4,000,000 sq kmAREA: up to 4,000,000 sq km
easily sufficient to change COeasily sufficient to change CO22 from 3500 to 650 ppm from 3500 to 650 ppm
even with time and area strongly scaled downeven with time and area strongly scaled down
so the Azolla event couldso the Azolla event couldhave triggered the initial shift have triggered the initial shift
from a greenhouse world towards from a greenhouse world towards our modern icehouse planet!our modern icehouse planet!
Arctic petroleum resources are Arctic petroleum resources are now becoming very significantnow becoming very significant
TIME MAGAZINETIME MAGAZINEOctober 1 2007October 1 2007
Who Owns the Arctic?
Fight for the Top of the World
could the Azolla interval providecould the Azolla interval providea source for Arctic petroleum?a source for Arctic petroleum?
• large amount of C possibly deposited in Arctic Basin
• unusual source – includes cyanobacterial symbiont
Azolla event - implications for Arctic petroleumAzolla event - implications for Arctic petroleum
• occurs at ACEX location near central Arctic
• also present in numerous Alaskan and Canadian wells
Azolla event - implications for Arctic petroleumAzolla event - implications for Arctic petroleum
Canadian BeaufortCanadian Beaufort
northern Alaskanorthern Alaska
Chukchi SeaChukchi Sea
ACEXACEX
Bujak well databaseBujak well databaseextends data points extends data points beyond ACEXbeyond ACEX
• Canadian BeaufortCanadian Beaufort
• northern Alaskanorthern Alaska
• Chukchi SeaChukchi Sea
Canadian BeaufortCanadian Beaufort
northern Alaskanorthern Alaska
Chukchi SeaChukchi Sea
ACEXACEX
in a variety of in a variety of environmentsenvironments
northern Alaska and Chukchi Sea
• 27 wells away from the delta
• various nearshore to offshore locations
Mik
kels
en 1
3-9-
19
4500'
4750'
5000'
5250'
5500'
5750'
6000'
6250'
6500'
Gamma Log(API)0 150
Alaska well
4460
T6
TEU4837.0
T4b
5100.0
T4a
Azolla5260.0
T3(iii)
5550
T3(ii)
5690.0
T3(i)
T2(ii) PETM6050.0
6642.0
T2(i)
Azolla and PETM events exactly the same age as in the ACEX cores based on palynological zones
Azolla event
PETM event
source Bujak unpublished data
Mik
kels
en 1
3-9-
19
4500'
4750'
5000'
5250'
5500'
5750'
6000'
6250'
6500'
Gamma Log(API)0 150
Alaska well
4460
T6
TEU4837.0
T4b
5100.0
T4a
Azolla5260.0
T3(iii)
5550
T3(ii)
5690.0
T3(i)
T2(ii) PETM6050.0
6642.0
T2(i)
both events are also characterised by distinctive high-gamma curves
Azolla event
PETM event
Canadian and Alaskan well dataCanadian and Alaskan well data
age and source rock potential are consistentwith preliminaryACEX results
indicates a possible Arctic-wide source rock
gas prone with minor mixed oil/gas potential
TOC up to 5.5%
onset of maturationabout 0.8% Ro
but we don’t know its geographic extent
Canadian BMBCanadian BMB
northern Alaskanorthern Alaska
Chukchi SeaChukchi Sea
ACEXACEX so we need to so we need to extend database extend database into other Arctic into other Arctic areasareas
the answer has important implications for
past & modern climate change -
which are crucially significant today