nature in placemaking 2

Nature in Placemaking

Cities for People as Cities for Nature

Issues 2Urban Design

Elaine Edmonds

ThemeContextTheoriesConceptual Framework- AnalysisCase StudiesConceptual Framework- GuidanceConceptual Framework- TestingConclusionsBibliography Appendix

Contents

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Nature in PlacemakingElaine Edmonds

page4

ThemeCity for People

What are 'Cities For People'?

'Cities for People' is an aim, an urban design theory and a movement. Conceptualised by Jan Gehl it involves the creation of urban spaces primarily focused upon human experience and human values. Theoretically it has be divided into 5 sectors, these were safe, sustainable, attractive, healthy and lively. Recently Jan Gehl has adapted these. The new criteria are Accessible & Inviting, Lively & Diverse, Healthy & Prosporous, Safe & Secure, Attractive & Competetive. The removal of an environmental criteria and inclusion of economic is indicative of the current development context internationally. For the duration of this research the original Cities for People aims are being explored however mention may be made of the new criteria.

How can you achieve the aims of Cities for People?

Many approahes have been taken in cities worldwide, most revolving around urban transport and street life. The approach which has been little explored and which theoretically could offer many benefits is the use of nature in placemaking. Varying aims for cities for people and how they can be supplied by natural features are illustrated on the next page.

Image Source- www.gehlarchitects.com


Page5Primary Aims of Cities for People

Criteria Suggested by Jan Gehl

How Aims could be met by Natural Structures

Healthy Sustainable Attractive Safe Lively

Positive Climate Positive Sensory Experience

Protection against acidents

Places to Walk

Sensory Protection

Protection against violence

Places to Sit or Stay

Scale Places to Play or Talk

Places to See

Mental Health Benefits

Local Climate Change Mitigation

Wind Shelter Traffic Calming Open Space for Recreation

Air Quality Improvements

Carbon Sink Shade or rain cover

Crime reduction

Informal Exercise Opportunities

Increased Property Prices

Noise Mitigation

Flood Mitigation

Source- Cities for People by Jan Gehl

Source- Author


page6

ContextResearch

The importance of nature to human survival is obvious, without nature there would be no food, no homes and indead no people. In the centuries before the industrial revolution pur link to nature was very direct, the majority of people lived in the countryside and subsided off the land they owned. In this context the importance of nature was implicitly understood but all the benefits which arise from it were unknown.

Following the industrial revolution urbanisation and mass production led to a schism between man and nature.. The distance between our resources and our consumption grew and the form of urban development became increasingly seperated from nature. As this occured our thinking also became seperated from natural systems,

Since the d e ve l o p m e n t of large urban centres and more recently env i ronmenta l issues of climate change and peak oil the friability of the current form of d e ve l o p m e n t is becoming evident.

The relationship b e t w e e n

'country' and 'city' which once seemed undeniably seperate is now a complex intermingling which we are only coming to understand.

Considering the relationship with nature which we had for the first 10,000 years of human existance it is not hard to imagine that our reliance on nature continues.

Our current form of urban development has also led to a division between social resources and access. The ability to make profit as primary definition of success has lead to neglect of the street and public spaces. In response to this urban theorests have developmed many ideas relating physical structure to social capital. The theory we are primarily concerned with is the concept of Cities for People.

Relating social, physical and environmental characteristicts in a theoretical framework is a complex undertaking. The

interactions in each of these areas have been studied by different specialists in different fields. with little interaction between them.

Overcoming this barrier is a dificulty which has led to the slow development of unified theories. In the case of this piece of work the author is a qualified


Page7Environmental Scientist and Urban Designer, thus epistomologicaly this work comes from a background knowledge base in both fields.

Ecological theory has an area focused upon the physical structure of nature. This is called Green Infrastructure, GI. GI is rimariy focused upon the ecological protection and propogation of habitats by ounding networks through which they can interact and communicate.

These network and structure theories can also be important from the point of view of social benefits of nature. Nature spaces which are part of a wider natural network are more resilient to change and disturbance reducing the chance of degredation and the need for maintainance.

As a network they also provide an array of benefits which islands of nature may not supply. Research by Natural England has highlighted a number of interactions between different GI functions many of which rely on a network of green spaces.

In using these theories some developments have already shown benefits. For example Upton in the UK developed a green network in order to deal with water in a sustainable way. These green water spaces are known as SUDS and have now been integrated into many developments on all scales.

In this case the usefulness of green spaces in water managment is evident however there are other benefits of the green network in this development. The character afforded to the area by integration of nature and the recreation space available are just two of the extra benefits of this system.

In order to identify benefits afforded by different nature structures a literature review was conducted and the resulting benefits listed with the physical structure that confers that benefit. This list can then be applied to case studies to investigate their suitabilitity as places for people.


page8Theories

Urban Ecology

Image Source-

What theories exist for nature in cities?

Integrating nature into cities is a field of study which comes under many headings and diciplines. The primary one is Green Infrastructure and generally involves a strategic, environmental approach to create a green network. This draws from the fields of ecology, conservation and spatial planning. On a large scale green infrastructure is succesful and supplies both environmental and human benefits, however it lacks a focus on the scale of streets and places. The overall theory involved in GI is still important at the street and neighbourhood scale and thus is described here;

Green CorridorsThese are the motorways of nature networks, they provide habitats and

movement options.

Green LinksLinks are week or disrupted green corridors. They provide opportunity for movement but have higher human effects and less nature

use.

HabitatsHabitats is the word used for anywhere nature can live and the nature that inhabits that place. Large habitats can have a nature core, where human impacts are milder and a surrounding hub where there are impacts of human activities. The core

is not present in all habitats.

Structure Theories


Page9Edge Effects

Natural structures are sensitive to different impacts. Impacts from human activity decrease from the edges of a habitat to the cantre, much like a privac gradient. The changes near the edge brought about by human

activity is called the edge effect.

Native PlantsNative plants are those throught to originally be from the area in question. They are considered superior to non native plants because they are evolved to the local context, they may find it difficult to survive elsewehere and non native plants are a sign

of human effects.

BiodiversityAt its simplest biodiversity is the measure of the number of species in a set area. Biodiversity is considered possitive because a single species may be eradicated by a change in context however if there are multiple species the habitat can survive the

loss of one species.

Ecology Theories

Urban Design Theories

Nodes and EdgesOriginating from Kevin Lynch's research, the concept of increasing legibility by concentrating on the nodes and edges of spaces and creating recognisable

spaces.

Active InterfaceComing from Jane Jacobs theories of eyes on the street, active interface is any structure which provides the possibility for human interaction such as windows, entrances etc. Passive interfaces are ones which provide little

or no possibility for this.

Image Source- www.greeninfrastructure.com

LegibilityLegibility is the ability to read a place.


page10Conceptual Framework

Analysis

From the criteria identified under the theme of cities for people a checklist was created. In order for each of the criteria to be met a number of properties were identified in reading. A list of them is included here;

•Mental Health- Any nature present•Air Quality- Presence of semi mature or mature trees•Exercise Opportunities- Space for activity or sport•Local Climate Change Mitigation- Replace hard surface with

green•Carbon Sink- Mature Trees, more than 3 per 10sqm•Property Prices- A line of trees or large stretch of planting•Flood Mitigation- Areas of bare ground or planting•Ecological Value- More than 5 species, preferably not planted•Wind Shelter- More than 10 m width•Shade or rain cover- Canopy layer•Noise Mitigation- More than 3m planted width•Traffic Calming- Regular tree spacing•Crime Reduction- Mature trees present•Overlooking- Active interfaces viewable•Open recreation spaces- Flat grass or bare ground spaces•Seating Areas- raised structures or benches

This checklist was then used on a number of Case Studies.


Page11

Walthomstow UKCity for People Aims

Criteria Town Centre Hub

Healthy Mental HealthAir QualityExercise Opportunities

Sustainable Local Climate Change MitigationCarbon SinkProperty PricesFlood MitigartionEcological

Attractive Wind ShelterShade or rain coverNoise Mitigation

Safe Traffic CalmingCrime ReductionOverlooked

Lively Open Recreation SpaceSeating areas

Example Case Study; Walthamstow

The walthamstow case study was sourced from Cabe on the basis of its green space. The place images were analysed using the checklist and the scores added up to form a marking system for each cities for people aim.


page12

Case Studies

The High Line, NYC

Maurice Rose Airfeild, Munich

Walthamstow Town Centre, UK

Esplinadin Puisto, Helsinki

These case studies were chosen for investigation based upon their inclusion in urban design best practice sources including Cabe, the MKSD Green Infrastructure Plan, Natural England, World Architecture News, Public Space, Rudi and the authors experience.

Image Sources- Cabe, Public Space and TCPA or Authors Own

•Reclaimed Site for Nature

•Good rec-reation provision

•Positive economic results

•Reclaimed industrial structure

•Created much need-ed recreation site

•Well overlooked and patroled

•Strong Link•Ecology explained

by signs etc

•greening a blank space, creating a community resource

•Equal Opportunity•Good conectivity al-

long desire lines

•Good recrea-tion space

•good linkages transport and market

•maximises benefits for humans and ecology


Page13Renmin Lu, Shanghai

South Waterfront, Portland, OR

Priors Hall, Corby, UK

Griffith Avenue, Dublin

Upton, UK

•Good links•Lots of

seating•nature pro-

tected by raised area

•Full network of conect-ed green spaces

•well overlooked• flood mitigation•could be more diverse•has traffic calming ben-

efits

•Traffic calming

•Flood mitigation

•Scale could be improved

•Complete network of green spac-es

•Open recre-ation space

• lack of ma-ture planting, high main-tainance lawns

•Long connection- longest tree lined boulevard in Eu-rope

•Traffic calm-ing

•Carbon Sink


page14Conceptual Framework

Forming the Design Guide

The case studies were noted for extra design features which achieve the aims of places for people. They are combined with the criteria used previously in the case studies to form a design guidence sheet..

Healthy Attractive Safe Lively Sustainable

Air Quality Improve-ment

Exercise Oportunity

Mental Health Benefits

Wind Shelter

Noise Mitigation

Shade Crime Reduction

Traffic Calming

Recreation Space

Carbon Sink

Flood Mitigation

Increased Property Prices

Local Climate Change Mitigation

Mature Tree- 1

Mature Tree Line

Acces-sible Open Green Space- 3sqm

Acces-sible Open Green Space- 10sqm

Inacces-sible Green Space- 3sqm

Inacces-sible Green Space- 10sqm

~1tonne per tree

~1tonne per tree

regularly spaced

within view 25% reduc-tion within 3 times height

vary by species

vary by species


Page15S T E P O N E

I D E N T I F Y S P A C E

S T E P T W O

L O C A T E

T R E E S

S T E P T HR E E

L O C A T E

R E R E A T I O N

S T E P F O U R

P R O T E C T N A T U R E

Recreation and rest space within nature area can be formed in many ways. Its location should be determined on a case by case basis however some guidance is

Busier, louder more active spaces should be located on active desire lines or near busy entrances.

Quieter spaces can be located near busy spaces but a small buffer of nature can change the quality of the space.

Trees contribute to many of the placemaking requirements of places for people. However poorly located trees fail to thrive, cause poor air quality or negativly effect the microclimate and are likely to be vandalised. Considering the locations of trees early in the design is important.

Using one of the many guidance books avaliable for street trees such as tree planting for streets and highways by Freedman Fox or Street Trees; a manual for municipalities by Schein the appropriate trees for an area can be identified and the necesary space for the canopy and root system can be found within the scheme, fig 15.2.

During the design process allocating space to green areas is important.

In new design areas the location of nature spaces can be determined by the existing nature structure.

In retrofit the nature space can be located in relation to the purposes required as shown in the table previous.

The space shoulld not be the left over space from road design, it should be attached to the public space network., fig 15.1.

Fig 15.1- good and bad locations Fig 15.2- tree scale and space

The nature areas remaining require some protection. Traditionally fitting a fence was the strategy but this does not provide any additional features or provide legibility as to why the area is protected.

Raised beds, distinctive pathways and signed explainations are some of the methods which can be used.

Fig 15.4- protection methodsFig 15.3- recreation qualities


page16

Proposed Test SiteLondon Road, Oxford

The London road as it entres Oxford passes through many contexts; residential, commercial, institutional. It also links two major parks- Headington Hill and Bury Knowle. I propose to test the guidance by investigating if this road can be made into a place for people and a viable green connection between the parks can be formed.

Image Source- www.brookes.ac.uk

Conceptual Framework

Testing


Page17

Section 1Campus Zone

Large buildings, wide distance between them.

Few entrances

Concentrated desire lines

Section 2Commercial Zone

Small, dense plots

Many entrances

More enclosed space

Many places for people atributes

The differing zones which the London Road passes through vary in uses, morphology and other place values.. The comercial area of Headington High Street already has many of the values of a place for people, however the campus zone adjacent to Oxford Brookes University and the surrounding schools and hospitals lack many attributes and the London Road is little more than a functional transport route at this point. For this reason the test area will be defined as this zone in order to show the placemaking benefits most clearly.


page18


Page19Testing

Following the Guidance

In order to test the guidance on the chosen area a design needs to be drawn up and critiqued. Other guidance sources will be used for creating a robust space and maintaining other advantagous urban design quali-ties.

Each step of the guidance will be followed for the site and options cri-tiqued both for their application of the guidance and under other urban design qualities. Where guidance coincides or conflicts with normal prac-tice will also be noted.

The resulting design will then be analysed in the same way the case studies were for places for people criteria.


page20Option 1-North Side

+Condenced na-ture space+Less jiunctions and entrances

-Road acts as barrier-Road Imposed on Campus space-Passive interface

Option 3- Split

+Visually apealing

-Small spaces, re-duces use possi-bilities

Option 2-South Side

+Least disruption+Most accessible space

-Requires campus space- Shading on Bulid-ings

S T E P O N E

I D E N T I F Y S P A C E


Page21S T E P T W O

L O C A T E

T R E E S

S T E P T HR E E

L O C A T E

R E R E A T I O N

Recreation space can be located allong or adjacent to desire lines. In this case the campus is in need of outdoor meeting space and the routes through this area are in need of character. The redevelopment of the campus has resulted in this area being much busier than previously. In the last few years it has had a wall removed to open the area and many alternative routes through the campus have been blocked. As such this space has taken on a require function but maintained a charater of an unused area. Creating meeting and remaining spaces will give the area more activity and make it more desirable for recreation.

Identify Native Species-

Oak, Alder, Birch, Hornbeam and Field Maple

Research mature tree scale-

Canopy size, tree height and root system

Arrange trees in the space-

Avoiding desire lines and ensuring root systems have sufficient space


page22S T E P F O U R

P R O T E C T N A T U R E

The methods for protecting nature on this site were chosen as

1. Defining strong paths along desire lines

2. Raising structures to prevent access and give a sense of enclosure

3. Creating green wallls to strengthen the definition of nature in the area

4. Using sculptural elements which inte-grate nature and further define the 'ac-cessible' green space from the protect-ed nature space.


Page23Testing

Final Design

Some extra decisions not relating to the nature guidance were re-quired to complete the design. The majority of the land involved in the project is part of a university campus, the structures need to be robust for heavy use and low maintainance to reduce cost. The instalation cost could conceptually be reduced using student in-volvement and as such 'DIY' or 'GIY' projects were favoured.


page24Conclusions

Future Research

Test Case Be-fore

Test Case AfterOxford Brookes

City for People Aims

Criteria Local Green Link

Local Green Link






Good points Realigning paths along desire linesQuality MaterialsCharacterLow Cost

Poor points


Page25Bibliography

Further Reading

Start With the Park, Cabe, 2009MKSM Green Infrastructure by Design, Milton Keynes Authority, 2010NYC Green Infrastructure Plan, NYC Council, 2008Chicago's Urban Forrest Report, US Department of Agriculture, 2009Biodiversity by Design, TCPA, 2006Benedict, Mcmahon - 2004 - Green Infrastructure Smart Conservation for the 21st CenturyBotequilhaLeitao - 2002 - Applying landscape ecological concepts and metrics in sustainable landscape planningCrewe - 2005 - Linear Parks and Urban Neighbourhoods A Study of the Crime Impact of the Boston South-west CorridorGoddard, Dougill, Benton - 2010 - Scaling up from gardens biodiversity conservation in urban environments


page26Appendix

Analysis

Walthomstow UK The High Line, NYC

Maurice Rose Airfeild, Munich

Esplinadin Pu-isto, Helsinki


Criteria Town Centre Hub

Neighbhood Green Link

Reclaimed Eco-logical Hub

Linear City Park






Good points Realigning paths along desire linesQuality Materials

Ecology marked by signs

Maintained distinc-tivness through reused of airfield items

Central to trans-port and areas of interestmixed useslong sight lines despite lack of overlooking

Poor points Lack of variety in space

Removed from the street

Lack of residential use


Page27

Renmin Lu, Shanghai

Upton, UK South Water-front, Portland

Corby, UK Griffith Avenue, Dublin


Criteria Linear City Park Neighbourhood Neighbourhood Urban Exten-tion

Streetscape






Good Points Seating on the edge of raised plantersCalm space next to large busy roadSight lines long

Good water managment

Destinctive resi-dental character

Poor Points Lack of access to the green space

Scale poorLacks maturity

Lack of recreation space

nature in placemaking 2

Documents

aims of cities

original cities

majority of people

use of nature

urban transport

form of urban development

gehlhow aims

varying aims