Nations in Upheaval: Nations in Upheaval:

Europe 1850-1914Europe 1850-1914

The Rise of the Nation-The Rise of the Nation-StateState

Political leaders were driven to Political leaders were driven to consolidate power and by 1871 this consolidate power and by 1871 this process had created modern Germany process had created modern Germany and Italy, altering the balance of power.and Italy, altering the balance of power.

The struggle between states for land The struggle between states for land and wealth occurred primarily outside and wealth occurred primarily outside Europe through imperialism by Europe through imperialism by acquiring colonies and dependencies. acquiring colonies and dependencies.

The ideology of nationalism linked the The ideology of nationalism linked the individuals identity with the state, individuals identity with the state, connecting his/her sense of pride, connecting his/her sense of pride, prestige and power with the internal prestige and power with the internal and external strength of the nation.and external strength of the nation.

Success of a nation did not depend Success of a nation did not depend upon national sentiment, but political upon national sentiment, but political leaders had to be able to harness the leaders had to be able to harness the power of the people’s pride in the power of the people’s pride in the state in pursuit of national objectives.state in pursuit of national objectives.

Louis Napoleon Louis Napoleon BonaparteBonaparte Starting with France: a state in which

supreme power is held by the people or its elected representatives and not by a monarch/ president

Ruled as president from 1848-1852 Fueled by popular support, the Prince-

President staged a coup d’état, becoming emperor as Napoleon III (1852-1870)

France enjoyed great prosperity in which Paris was restored as the diplomatic and cultural capital of Europe

Peace conference ending the Crimean War (1854-1856) held in Paris in 1856 restored France to diplomatic centre of Europe.

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon III

(1808-1873)

Place de l'étoile

During the rule of Napoleon III, the During the rule of Napoleon III, the French populace seemed content with French populace seemed content with the democracy given to them.the democracy given to them.

The economy was prosperous, as the The economy was prosperous, as the boom in railroad construction had a boom in railroad construction had a multiplier effect that stimulated French multiplier effect that stimulated French industries and generated employmentindustries and generated employment

Created “Credit Mobilier”, an Created “Credit Mobilier”, an investment trust in which citizens investment trust in which citizens deposited savings, which in turn deposited savings, which in turn financed industrial developmentfinanced industrial development

By 1860, financial scandals, dissent over By 1860, financial scandals, dissent over foreign policy reawakened political criticismforeign policy reawakened political criticism

Napoleon responded by liberalizing reforms Napoleon responded by liberalizing reforms that: that: relaxed controls on the press, relaxed controls on the press, allowed freer debate in legislative assembly,allowed freer debate in legislative assembly, made ministers more responsible to elected made ministers more responsible to elected

representatives, representatives, reduced the influence of the church on reduced the influence of the church on

education, education, made schools more accessible to women and made schools more accessible to women and legalized trade unions and the right to legalized trade unions and the right to

strike.strike.

Modern Germany: Modern Germany: The Role of Key IndividualsThe Role of Key Individuals

From 1815-1848, liberal nationalists From 1815-1848, liberal nationalists dreamed of the creation of a unified dreamed of the creation of a unified Germany under a liberal constitutionGermany under a liberal constitution

German Confederation of 1805 (replacing German Confederation of 1805 (replacing the Holy Roman Empire) brought together the Holy Roman Empire) brought together 39 states, including the larger and more 39 states, including the larger and more powerful Prussia and Austriapowerful Prussia and Austria purpose of the confederation was not to unite purpose of the confederation was not to unite

German states but to preserve the existing German states but to preserve the existing political structure of small states ruled by political structure of small states ruled by absolutist monarchsabsolutist monarchs

Economic and social development had Economic and social development had begun to break down some of the begun to break down some of the divisions between Prussia and Austria divisions between Prussia and Austria 1834: Zollverein (customs union), 1834: Zollverein (customs union),

brought the northern German states, brought the northern German states, including Prussia but excluding Austria, including Prussia but excluding Austria, into a closer economic association.into a closer economic association.

Otto von Bismarck Conservative

aristocrat and an ardent Prussian monarchist

The creator of unified Germany under the leadership of Prussia

He disliked liberalism and wanted the new Germany to be an absolutist, centralized country (as much as possible)

Conflict & German Unification

1864- Denmark claimed 2 German speaking principalities. German nationalists wanted action. Bismarck & Prussian army easily won the war.

Bismarck went further- reorganizing German Confederation & instituting universal male suffrage.

In 1866 Bismarck defeated Austria, by showcasing Prussia’s modern warfare technologies. Peace of Prague ended German-Austrian conflict (and helping Italian unification). The winner was gracious towards the loser: Austria only lost Venice to Italy, but Prussia annexed all the smaller enemy states becoming thus the largest state within Germany and one of the most powerful in Europe.

The Franco-Prussian WarThe Franco-Prussian War originated in dispute over succession to the

Spanish throne. A revolution forced Queen Isabella II to abdicate in 1868. The major powers of Europe intervened to choose a new monarch for Spain. Germany’s choice was a relative of the King of Prussia: Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. Such an alliance terrified France.

France negotiated with Wilhelm I directly to avoid war, but Bismarck faked a reply telegram from his King, implying that Wilhelm had insulted the French honourable war.

The Franco-Prussian The Franco-Prussian WarWar In less than 2 In less than 2

months, German months, German techniques & use of techniques & use of rail to move troops rail to move troops overwhelmed France overwhelmed France and destroyed the and destroyed the Second Empire.Second Empire.

Wilhelm I, King of Prussia, was crowned Emperor of Germany at Versailles.Alsace & Lorraine ceded to Germany (until 1918)Resulted in modern Germany as the dominant power in Central Europe

Bismarck's Germany (1871-1890)

Constitution of 1871: symbolic democracy. Reichstag (German Parliament) elected by universal male suffrage, but had little power.

Bismarck attempted to limit the Catholic Church, his main opposition. Adopted a national secular policy of Kulturkampf unsuccessful because of the strength of church.

Bismarck then focused on socialists. He tried to undercut socialists by advancing social legislation.

Kaiser Wilhelm II (r. 1888-1918) dismissed Bismarck. The new Emperor chose to unite the Germans through militant nationalism.

The Unification of Italy

Risorgimento- movement for Italian unification.

struggle for unification, led by Piedmont-Sardinia (1848-1871) – exercise in realpolitik (politics based on realities & material needs rather than ideals and morals).

It was opposed by Austria, the Papacy and most of the local rulers.

Giuseppe Mazzini was romantic, nationalistic revolutionary. He wanted a democracy and a republic to be achieved through popular insurrection. He founded the Young Italy society which instigated popular insurrections throughout Italy in the short run a failure.

1860-’61: Giuseppe Garibaldi continued and conquered Sicily and later Naples and then gave them to Piedmont-Sardinia Kingdom of Italy.

Eventually, Venice is won from Austria (1866) and in 1871, Rome becomes capital of a fully united Italy (with the Pope stateless for ~60 years).

The Habsburg Empire Unlike Germany, France and Italy, the Habsburg

Empire was weakened by nationalism of its people. Under Franz Joseph, the monarchy was supported

by the aristocracy, the Catholic Church and an extensive bureaucracy and army. Some of the minorities also supported it because otherwise it would have meant influence by Germany or Russia, neither of which was desirable.

The Hungarian nationalism would lead to the creation of the Dual Monarchy in 1867 equal rights to Hungary future problems with other minorities.

Czarist Russia: Czarist Russia: Reform and RepressionReform and Repression

Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War, 1854-Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War, 1854-1856, demonstrated the need for 1856, demonstrated the need for industrialization of the economy and industrialization of the economy and modernization of the armymodernization of the army

Florence Nightingale wrote about horrible Florence Nightingale wrote about horrible conditions of the war as many soldiers conditions of the war as many soldiers died of diseasedied of disease reform of nursing. reform of nursing.

The country needed economic reform but The country needed economic reform but tried to maintain conservative autocratic tried to maintain conservative autocratic rule of the Romanovs.rule of the Romanovs.

Alexander II liberated 22.5 million serfs in Alexander II liberated 22.5 million serfs in 18611861

The peasantry had to pay an indemnity for The peasantry had to pay an indemnity for their freedom. Consequently, traditional their freedom. Consequently, traditional peasant communes continued to control peasant communes continued to control land usage and restrict the movement of land usage and restrict the movement of peasants away from communal villagepeasants away from communal village

Peasants were still trapped in poverty and Peasants were still trapped in poverty and conditions became worse with the conditions became worse with the increase in population.increase in population.

Discontent grew in the urban areas of Russia Discontent grew in the urban areas of Russia due to the exploitative conditions due to the due to the exploitative conditions due to the Industrial Revolution.Industrial Revolution.

The czar reverted to a policy of repression The czar reverted to a policy of repression when faced with criticism and discontent and when faced with criticism and discontent and in reaction to a nationalist uprising in 1863. in reaction to a nationalist uprising in 1863.

In 1881, it was thought that with the In 1881, it was thought that with the assassination of Alexander II, an uprising assassination of Alexander II, an uprising would occur, but rather it introduced a new would occur, but rather it introduced a new and prolonged period of repression under the and prolonged period of repression under the new czar, Alexander III. The autocratic new czar, Alexander III. The autocratic monarchy lasted until 1917.monarchy lasted until 1917.

Advent of Democracy Between 1850-1914, many countries adopted a

broad franchise. Fear of democracy was surprisingly misplaced, it led instead to militant nationalism (i.e. Germany).

The 3rd Republic’s challenges: Paris vs. provinces, state repression of protests, monarchists (who wanted the return of the Bourbons), anti-Semitism.

The Dreyfus Affair (1899)- Captain Alfred Dreyfus, Jewish officer in France was court martialed for allegedly passing secrets to Germany. Espionage continued after he was imprisoned, also it was discovered that evidence against Dreyfus was fabricated finally released & joined army again. But France was polarized and the republic survived.

Britain 1867-1894Britain 1867-1894 The pressing issue of reforming the The pressing issue of reforming the

voting and the question of which party voting and the question of which party will extend the vote and to whom. will extend the vote and to whom.

Throughout the second half of the 19Throughout the second half of the 19thth century, Britain witness a struggle century, Britain witness a struggle between the forces of change.between the forces of change. Social reform and the forces of Social reform and the forces of

continuity (in support for the monarchy continuity (in support for the monarchy and other conservative traditions)and other conservative traditions)

Benjamin Disraeli In 1867 prime minister Benjamin Disraeli and the In 1867 prime minister Benjamin Disraeli and the

Conservatives passed a second Reform Act, which Conservatives passed a second Reform Act, which granted the vote to male urban working class granted the vote to male urban working class householders.householders.

Redefined the appeal of conservatism across class Redefined the appeal of conservatism across class lines by calling on tradition, patriotism, and lines by calling on tradition, patriotism, and paternalism, embodied in three key terms: monarchy, paternalism, embodied in three key terms: monarchy, empire, and social reform empire, and social reform

Pursued an aggressive colonial policy, engaging in Pursued an aggressive colonial policy, engaging in warswars

Passed the most innovative social reforms of the Passed the most innovative social reforms of the second half of the 19second half of the 19thth century, improving the legal century, improving the legal status of trade unions and introducing legislation on status of trade unions and introducing legislation on consumer protection, industrial safety and public consumer protection, industrial safety and public housinghousing

William Gladstone in 1884, PM Gladstone and the Liberals in 1884, PM Gladstone and the Liberals

extended the vote on the same terms to male extended the vote on the same terms to male householders in rural constituencies.householders in rural constituencies.

rallying cry was “Peace, Retrenchment and rallying cry was “Peace, Retrenchment and Reform”Reform”

““Peace” meaning free trade and opposition to Peace” meaning free trade and opposition to costly foreign and colonial adventurescostly foreign and colonial adventures

““Retrenchment” meaning a laissez-faire policy Retrenchment” meaning a laissez-faire policy in which the role of the government was in which the role of the government was strictly limited, and the costs of tax were strictly limited, and the costs of tax were reduced as much as possiblereduced as much as possible

““Reform” meaning getting rid of laws that Reform” meaning getting rid of laws that benefited the privileged.benefited the privileged.

1870- introduced national primary education1870- introduced national primary education

Rise of a Dominant Middle Class

Industrialization accelerated after 1850. The population grew, the economy grew, standard of living improved.

As a result of shift in politics, economy, & society power shift from an elitist society to a mass culture with a large middle class. As the middle class grew, the poor grew. Middle class came to dominate morality of society- became hallmark of Victorian Age (1837-1901)

Popular culture: leisure time & holidays (abroad) were new, newspapers become important, railways stimulated tourism.

Technology & Society- Second Industrial Revolution

(1880-1939) new breakthroughs in production and

labour. Telephone, electric lights, automobile, steam & rail, bikes, streetcars, subways.

Germany, US, Britain & Japan were leaders in technological innovation. Machine-made goods pushed programs forward, but left many people behind who did not adapt.

The Evolving Women women were increasingly dissatisfied with

subordinate role. “Equality & egalitarianism & vote” – not extended to women.

Feminist movements across Europe: confronted inequality in church, state, home, etc.

the lack of vote was an obvious symbol of inequality. ‘Suffragette’ movements grew in many countries- the battle was only beginning.

Union Communities & Trade Unionism

Laws at the time were biased toward gender & social class. Working class was growing and wanted to improve their wages & conditions of life. Idea of unionization grew: trade unions put pressure on employers through strikes & picketing.

Developments in Political Developments in Political Thought: SocialismThought: Socialism

Directly addressed the political needs of Directly addressed the political needs of trade unionists and working people.trade unionists and working people.

Strongly influenced by Karl Marx’s analysis Strongly influenced by Karl Marx’s analysis of industrial capitalism. He predicted that of industrial capitalism. He predicted that industrial capitalism would continue to industrial capitalism would continue to expand and draw increasing numbers of expand and draw increasing numbers of people to a system of wage labour.people to a system of wage labour.

The Revolution in Russia, The Revolution in Russia, 19051905

The contradictory policies of rapid industrial The contradictory policies of rapid industrial development and continued political repression development and continued political repression created the potential for revolutionary explosion. created the potential for revolutionary explosion.

Russia experienced a second wave of rapid Russia experienced a second wave of rapid industrial development by relying on financing by industrial development by relying on financing by foreign capital.foreign capital.

Lenin (1870-1924) published an influential Lenin (1870-1924) published an influential pamphlet under the title pamphlet under the title What is to be DoneWhat is to be Done??

Defending the necessity of revolution, Lenin Defending the necessity of revolution, Lenin argue that it was not sufficient to wait for a argue that it was not sufficient to wait for a spontaneous insurrection of the masses. A small spontaneous insurrection of the masses. A small group of revolutionaries could take advantage of group of revolutionaries could take advantage of a political crisis to bring about a revolution.a political crisis to bring about a revolution.

The defeat of Russian naval and military The defeat of Russian naval and military forces by Japan in 1904-1905 created a forces by Japan in 1904-1905 created a political crisis.political crisis.

The economic slump and hardship among The economic slump and hardship among the peasantry and industrial worker only the peasantry and industrial worker only added on to the political crisis.added on to the political crisis.

Escalated into revolution when, on Bloody Escalated into revolution when, on Bloody Sunday (January 22, 1905) troops killed Sunday (January 22, 1905) troops killed several hundred peaceful and unarmed several hundred peaceful and unarmed demonstrators who sought to petition the demonstrators who sought to petition the czar at the Winter Palace to grant political czar at the Winter Palace to grant political reforms and economic relief.reforms and economic relief.

Nicholas II was forced to create Duma or Nicholas II was forced to create Duma or parliament after the constitutional crisis, parliament after the constitutional crisis, coupled with extensive rural unrest, coupled with extensive rural unrest, recurrent general strikes and a mutiny in recurrent general strikes and a mutiny in the navy and incidents of political the navy and incidents of political violence.violence.

Most reforms were never introducedMost reforms were never introduced one one of the causes of the Revolution of 1917of the causes of the Revolution of 1917