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NarrativeFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A narrative or story is any report of connected events, actual or imaginary, presented in a sequence ofwritten or spoken words, or still or moving images.[1]

Narrative can be organized in a number of thematic and/or formal categories: non­fiction (e.g. definitivelyincluding creative non­fiction, biography, journalism, and historiography); fictionalization of historicalevents (e.g. anecdote, myth, legend, and historical fiction); and fiction proper (e.g. literature in prose andsometimes poetry, such as short stories, novels, and narrative poems and songs, as well as imaginarynarratives as portrayed in other textual forms, games, or live or recorded performances). Narrative is foundin all forms of human creativity, art, and entertainment, including speech, literature, theatre, music andsong, comics, journalism, film, television and video, radio, gameplay, unstructured recreation, andperformance in general, as well as some painting, sculpture, drawing, photography, and other visual arts(though several modern art movements refuse the narrative in favor of the abstract and conceptual), as longas a sequence of events is presented. The word derives from the Latin verb narrare, "to tell", which isderived from the adjective gnarus, "knowing" or "skilled".[2]

Oral storytelling is perhaps the earliest method for sharing narratives. During most people's childhoods,narratives are used to guide them on proper behavior, cultural history, formation of a communal identity,and values, as especially studied in anthropology today among traditional indigenous peoples.[3] Narrativesalso act as "living" entities through cultural stories, as they are passed on from generation to generation.Because the narrative storytelling is often left without explicit meanings, children act as participants in thestorytelling process by delving deeper into the open­ended story and making their own interpretations.[4]

The word "story" may be used as a synonym for "narrative" as well as for "plot," the collective eventswithin any given narrative. Narratives may also be nested within other narratives, such as narratives told byan unreliable narrator (a character) typically found in noir fiction genre. An important part of narration isthe narrative mode, the set of methods used to communicate the narrative through a process narration (seealso "Narrative Aesthetics" below).

Along with exposition, argumentation, and description, narration, broadly defined, is one of four rhetoricalmodes of discourse. More narrowly defined, it is the fiction­writing mode whereby the narratorcommunicates directly to the reader.

Contents

1 Human nature2 Literary theory3 Types of narrators and their modes4 Aesthetics approach5 Psychological approach6 Social sciences approaches

6.1 Inquiry approach6.2 Mathematical sociology approach

7 In music

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7 In music8 In cultural storytelling9 Historiography10 Other specific applications11 See also12 References13 Sources14 Further reading15 External links

Human nature

Owen Flanagan of Duke University, a leading consciousness researcher, writes that "Evidence stronglysuggests that humans in all cultures come to cast their own identity in some sort of narrative form. We areinveterate storytellers."[5] Stories are an important aspect of culture. Many works of art and most works ofliterature tell stories; indeed, most of the humanities involve stories.

Stories are of ancient origin, existing in ancient Egyptian, ancient Greek, Chinese and Indian cultures andtheir myths. Stories are also a ubiquitous component of human communication, used as parables andexamples to illustrate points. Storytelling was probably one of the earliest forms of entertainment. As notedby Owen Flanagan, narrative may also refer to psychological processes in self­identity, memory andmeaning­making.

Semiotics begins with the individual building blocks of meaning called signs; and semantics, the way inwhich signs are combined into codes to transmit messages. This is part of a general communication systemusing both verbal and non­verbal elements, and creating a discourse with different modalities and forms.

In On Realism in Art Roman Jakobson argues that literature exists as a separate entity. He and many othersemioticians prefer the view that all texts, whether spoken or written, are the same, except that someauthors encode their texts with distinctive literary qualities that distinguish them from other forms ofdiscourse. Nevertheless, there is a clear trend to address literary narrative forms as separable from otherforms. This is first seen in Russian Formalism through Victor Shklovsky's analysis of the relationshipbetween composition and style, and in the work of Vladimir Propp, who analysed the plots used intraditional folk­tales and identified 31 distinct functional components.[6] This trend (or these trends)continued in the work of the Prague School and of French scholars such as Claude Lévi­Strauss and RolandBarthes. It leads to a structural analysis of narrative and an increasingly influential body of modern workthat raises important epistemological questions

What is text?What is its role (culture)?How is it manifested as art, cinema, theater, or literature?Why is narrative divided into different genres, such as poetry, short stories, and novels?

Literary theory

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In literary theoretic approach, narrative is being narrowly defined as fiction­writing mode in which thenarrator is communicating directly to the reader. Until the late 19th century, literary criticism as anacademic exercise dealt solely with poetry (including epic poems like the Iliad and Paradise Lost, andpoetic drama like Shakespeare). Most poems did not have a narrator distinct from the author.

But novels, lending a number of voices to several characters in addition to narrator's, created a possibility ofnarrator's views differing significantly from the author's views. With the rise of the novel in the 18thcentury, the concept of the narrator (as opposed to "author") made the question of narrator a prominent onefor literary theory. It has been proposed that perspective and interpretive knowledge are the essentialcharacteristics, while focalization and structure are lateral characteristics of the narrator.

Types of narrators and their modes

A writer's choice in the narrator is crucial for the way a work of fiction is perceived by the reader. There is adistinction between first­person and third­person narrative, which Gérard Genette refers to as homodiegeticand heterodiegetic narrative, respectively. A homodiegetic narrator describes own personal experiences as acharacter in the story. Such a narrator cannot know more about other characters than what their actionsreveal. A heterodiegetic narrator, in contrast, describes the experiences of the characters that appear in thestory. A narrative wherein events are seen through the eyes of a third­person internal focaliser is said to befigural. In some stories, the author may be omniscient and employ multiple points of view as well andcomment on events as they occur.

Most narrators present their story from one of the following perspectives (called narrative modes): first­person, or third­person limited or omniscient. Generally, a first­person narrator brings greater focus on thefeelings, opinions, and perceptions of a particular character in a story, and on how the character views theworld and the views of other characters. If the writer's intention is to get inside the world of a character,then it is a good choice, although a third­person limited narrator is an alternative that does not require thewriter to reveal all that a first­person character would know. By contrast, a third­person omniscient narratorgives a panoramic view of the world of the story, looking into many characters and into the broaderbackground of a story. A third­person omniscient narrator can be an animal or an object, or it can be a moreabstract instance that does not refer to itself. For stories in which the context and the views of manycharacters are important, a third­person narrator is a better choice. However, a third­person narrator doesnot need to be an omnipresent guide, but instead may merely be the protagonist referring to himself in thethird person (also known as third person limited narrator).

Multiple narrators

A writer may choose to let several narrators tell the story from different points of view. Then it is up to thereader to decide which narrator seems most reliable for each part of the story. It may refer to the style of thewriter in which he/she expresses the paragraph written. See for instance the works of Louise Erdrich.William Faulkner's As I Lay Dying is a prime example of the use of multiple narrators. Faulkner employsstream of consciousness by narrating the story from various perspectives.

In Indigenous American communities, narratives and storytelling are often told by a number of elders in thecommunity. In this way, the stories are never static because they are shaped by the relationship betweennarrator and audience. Thus, each individual story may have countless variations. Narrators oftenincorporate minor changes in the story in order to tailor the story to different audiences.[7]

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Aesthetics approach

Narrative is a highly aesthetic art. Thoughtfully composed stories have a number of aesthetic elements.Such elements include the idea of narrative structure, with identifiable beginnings, middles and ends, orexposition­development­climax­denouement, with coherent plot lines; a strong focus on temporalityincluding retention of the past, attention to present action and protention/future anticipation; a substantialfocus on character and characterization, "arguably the most important single component of the novel"(David Lodge The Art of Fiction 67); different voices interacting, "the sound of the human voice, or manyvoices, speaking in a variety of accents, rhythms and registers" (Lodge The Art of Fiction 97; see also thetheory of Mikhail Bakhtin for expansion of this idea); a narrator or narrator­like voice, which "addresses"and "interacts with" reading audiences (see Reader Response theory); communicates with a Wayne Booth­esque rhetorical thrust, a dialectic process of interpretation, which is at times beneath the surface, forming aplotted narrative, and at other times much more visible, "arguing" for and against various positions; reliessubstantially on the use of literary tropes (see Hayden White, Metahistory for expansion of this idea); isoften intertextual with other literatures; and commonly demonstrates an effort toward bildungsroman, adescription of identity development with an effort to evince becoming in character and community.

Psychological approach

See also: Narrative therapy

Within philosophy of mind, the social sciences and various clinical fields including medicine, narrative canrefer to aspects of human psychology.[8] A personal narrative process is involved in a person's sense ofpersonal or cultural identity, and in the creation and construction of memories; it is thought by some to bethe fundamental nature of the self.[9][10] The breakdown of a coherent or positive narrative has beenimplicated in the development of psychosis and mental disorder, and its repair said to play an important rolein journeys of recovery.[11] Narrative Therapy is a school of (family) psychotherapy.

Illness narratives are a way for a person affected by an illness to make sense of his or her experiences.[12]They typically follow one of several set patterns: restitution, chaos, or quest narratives. In the restitutionnarrative, the person sees the illness as a temporary detour. The primary goal is to return permanently tonormal life and normal health. These may also be called cure narratives. In the chaos narrative, the personsees the illness as a permanent state that will inexorably get worse, with no redeeming virtues. This istypical of diseases like Alzheimer's disease: the patient gets worse and worse, and there is no hope ofreturning to normal life. The third major type, the quest narrative, positions the illness experience as anopportunity to transform oneself into a better person through overcoming adversity and re­learning what ismost important in life; the physical outcome of the illness is less important than the spiritual andpsychological transformation. This is typical of the triumphant view of cancer survivorship in the breastcancer culture.[12]

Personality traits, more specifically the Big Five personality traits, appear to be associated with the type oflanguage or patterns of word use found in an individual's self­narrative.[13] In other words, language use inself­narratives accurately reflects human personality. The linguistic correlates of each Big Five trait are asfollows:

Extraversion ­ positively correlated with words referring to humans, social processes and family;

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Agreeableness ­ positively correlated with family, inclusiveness and certainty; negatively correlatedwith anger and body (i.e., few negative comments about health/body);Conscientiousness ­ positively correlated with achievement and work; negatively related to body,death, anger and exclusiveness;Neuroticism ­ positively correlated with sadness, negative emotion, body, anger, home and anxiety;negatively correlated with work;Openness ­ positively correlated with perceptual processes, hearing and exclusiveness

Social sciences approaches

Human beings often claim to understand events when they manage to formulate a coherent story ornarrative explaining how they believe the event was generated. Narratives thus lie at foundations of ourcognitive procedures and also provide an explanatory framework for the social sciences, particularly whenit is difficult to assemble enough cases to permit statistical analysis. Narrative is often used in case studyresearch in the social sciences. Here it has been found that the dense, contextual, and interpenetrating natureof social forces uncovered by detailed narratives is often more interesting and useful for both social theoryand social policy than other forms of social inquiry.

Sociologists Jaber F. Gubrium and James A. Holstein have contributed to the formation of a constructionistapproach to narrative in sociology. From their book The Self We Live By: Narrative Identity in aPostmodern World (2000), to more recent texts such as Analyzing Narrative Reality (2009)and Varieties ofNarrative Analysis (2012), they have developed an analytic framework for researching stories andstorytelling that is centered on the interplay of institutional discourses (big stories) on the one hand, andeveryday accounts (little stories) on the other. The goal is the sociological understanding of formal andlived texts of experience, featuring the production, practices, and communication of accounts.

Inquiry approach

In order to avoid "hardened stories," or "narratives that become context­free, portable and ready to be usedanywhere and anytime for illustrative purposes" and are being used as conceptual metaphors as defined bylinguist George Lakoff, an approach called narrative inquiry was proposed, resting on the epistemologicalassumption that human beings make sense of random or complex multicausal experience by the impositionof story structures."[14][15] Human propensity to simplify data through a predilection for narratives overcomplex data sets typically leads to narrative fallacy. It is easier for the human mind to remember and makedecisions on the basis of stories with meaning, than to remember strings of data. This is one reason whynarratives are so powerful and why many of the classics in the humanities and social sciences are written inthe narrative format. But humans read meaning into data and compose stories, even where this isunwarranted. In narrative inquiry, the way to avoid the narrative fallacy is no different from the way toavoid other error in scholarly research, i.e., by applying the usual methodical checks for validity andreliability in how data are collected, analyzed, and presented. Several criteria for assessing the validity ofnarrative research was proposed, including the objective aspect, the emotional aspect, the social/moralaspect, and the clarity of the story.

Mathematical sociology approach

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In mathematical sociology, the theory of comparative narratives was devised in order to describe andcompare the structures (expressed as "and" in a directed graph where multiple causal links incident into anode are conjoined) of action­driven sequential events.[16][17][18]

Narratives so conceived comprise the following ingredients:

A finite set of state descriptions of the world S, the components of which are weakly ordered in time;A finite set of actors/agents (individual or collective), P;A finite set of actions A;A mapping of P onto A;

The structure (directed graph) is generated by letting the nodes stand for the states and the directed edgesrepresent how the states are changed by specified actions. The action skeleton can then be abstracted,comprising a further digraph where the actions are depicted as nodes and edges take the form "action a co­determined (in context of other actions) action b".

Narratives can be both abstracted and generalised by imposing an algebra upon their structures and thencedefining homomorphism between the algebras. The insertion of action­driven causal links in a narrative canbe achieved using the method of Bayesian narratives.

Bayesian narratives

Developed by Peter Abell, the theory of Comparative Narratives conceives a narrative as a directed graphcomprising multiple causal links (social interactions) of the general form: "action a causes action b in aspecified context". In the absence of sufficient comparative cases to enable statistical treatment of thecausal links, items of evidence in support and against a particular causal link are assembled and used tocompute the Bayesian likelihood ratio of the link. Subjective causal statements of the form "I/she did bbecause of a" and subjective counterfactuals "if it had not been for a I/she would not have done b" arenotable items of evidence.[18][19][20]

In music

Linearity is one of several narrative qualities that can be found in a musical composition.[21] As noted byAmerican musicologist, Edward Cone, narrative terms are also present in the analytical language aboutmusic.[22] The different components of a fugue — subject, answer, exposition, discussion and summary —can be cited as an example.[23] However, there are several views on the concept of narrative in music andthe role it plays. One theory is that of Theodore Adorno, who has suggested that ‘music recites itself, is itsown context, narrates without narrative’.[23] Another, is that of Carolyn Abbate, who has suggested that‘certain gestures experienced in music constitute a narrating voice’.[22] Still others have argued thatnarrative is a semiotic enterprise that can enrich musical analysis.[23] The French musicologist Jean­JacquesNattiez contends that ‘the narrative, strictly speaking, is not in the music, but in the plot imagined andconstructed by the listeners’.[24] He argues that discussing music in terms of narrativity is simplymetaphorical and that the ‘imagined plot’ may be influenced by the work's title or other programmaticinformation provided by the composer.[24] However, Abbate has revealed numerous examples of musicaldevices that function as narrative voices, by limiting music’s ability to narrate to rare ‘moments that can be

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identified by their bizarre and disruptive effect’.[24] Various theorists share this view of narrative appearingin disruptive rather than normative moments in music. The final word is yet to be said, regarding narrativesin music, as there is still much to be determined.

In cultural storytelling

A narrative can take on the shape of a story, which gives listeners an entertaining and collaborative avenuefor acquiring knowledge. Many cultures use storytelling as a way to record histories, myths, and values.These stories can be seen as living entities of narrative among cultural communities, as they carry theshared experience and history of the culture within them. Stories are often used within indigenous culturesin order to share knowledge to the younger generation.[25] Due to indigenous narratives leaving room foropen­ended interpretation, native stories often engage children in the storytelling process so that they canmake their own meaning and explanations within the story. This promotes holistic thinking among nativechildren, which works towards merging an individual and world identity. Such an identity upholds nativeepistemology and gives children a sense of belonging as their cultural identity develops through the sharingand passing on of stories.[26]

For example, a number of indigenous stories are used to illustrate a value or lesson. In the Western Apachetribe, stories can be used to warn of the misfortune that befalls people when they do not follow acceptablebehavior. One story speaks to the offense of a mother's meddling in her married son's life. In the story, theWestern Apache tribe is under attack from a neighboring tribe, the Pimas. The Apache mother hears ascream. Thinking it is her son's wife screaming, she tries to intervene by yelling at him. This alerts the Pimatribe to her location, and she is promptly killed due to intervening in her son's life.[27]

Historiography

In historiography, according to Lawrence Stone, narrative has traditionally been the main rhetorical deviceused by historians. In 1979, at a time when the new Social History was demanding a social­science modelof analysis, Stone detected a move back toward the narrative. Stone defined narrative as organizedchronologically; focused on a single coherent story; descriptive rather than analytical; concerned withpeople not abstract circumstances; and dealing with the particular and specific rather than the collective andstatistical. He reported that, "More and more of the 'new historians' are now trying to discover what wasgoing on inside people's heads in the past, and what it was like to live in the past, questions whichinevitably lead back to the use of narrative."[28]

Some philosophers identify narratives with a type of explanation. Mark Bevir argues, for example, thatnarratives explain actions by appealing to the beliefs and desires of actors and by locating webs of beliefs inthe context of historical traditions. Narrative is an alternative form of explanation to that associated withnatural science.

Historians committed to a social science approach, however, have criticized the narrowness of narrative andits preference for anecdote over analysis, and clever examples rather than statistical regularities.[29]

Other specific applications

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A narrative case study is a case study that tells a story.Narrative environment is a contested term that has been used for techniques of architectural orexhibition design in which 'stories are told in space' and also for the virtual environments in whichcomputer games are played and which are invented by the computer game authors.Narrative film usually uses images and sounds on film (or, more recently, on analogue or digitalvideo media) to convey a story. Narrative film is usually thought of in terms of fiction but it may alsoassemble stories from filmed reality, as in some documentary film, but narrative film may also useanimation.Narrative history is a genre of factual historical writing that uses chronology as its framework (asopposed to a thematic treatment of a historical subject).Narrative poetry is poetry that tells a story.A narrative verdict is a verdict available to coroners in England and Wales following an inquest.Metanarrative, sometimes also known as master­ or grand narrative, is a higher­level culturalnarrative schema which orders and explains knowledge and experience you've had in life.Narrative photography is photography used to tell stories or in conjunction with stories.

See also

FolkloreMonogatariNarrative threadNarreme as the basic unit of narrative structureOrganizational storytellingHow stories affect our brains and why stories shape and impact culture(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BrtTyEmDLKQ) in "Hardwired for Story" a 2014 TEDX byEMMY­nominated writer, producer, and university professor SJ Murray.

References1. Oxford English Dictionary (online): Definition of "narrative"2. Oxford English Dictionary Online, "narrate, v.". Oxford University Press, 20073. Hodge, et al. 2002. Utilizing Traditional Storytelling to Promote Wellness in American Indian Communities.4. Owen Flanagan Consciousness Reconsidered 1985. Owen Flanagan Consciousness Reconsidered 1986. Vladimir Propp, Morphology of the Folk Tale, p 25, ISBN 0­292­78376­07. Piquemal, 2003. From Native North American Oral Traditions to Western Literacy: Storytelling in Education.8. Hevern, V. W. (2004, March). Introduction and general overview. Narrative psychology: Internet and resource

guide (http://web.lemoyne.edu/~hevern/narpsych/nrintro.html). Le Moyne College. Retrieved September 28,2008.

9. Dennett, Daniel C (1992) The Self as a Center of Narrative Gravity. (http://cogprints.org/266/)10. Dan McAdams (2004). "Redemptive Self: Narrative Identity in America Today"

(http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a729208757~db=all~jumptype=rss). The Self and Memory1 (3): 95–116. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195176933.001.0001(https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780195176933.001.0001).

11. Gold E (August 2007). "From narrative wreckage to islands of clarity: Stories of recovery from psychosis"(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1949240). Can Fam Physician 53 (8): 1271–5. PMC 1949240(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1949240). PMID 17872833(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17872833). Hyden, L.­C. & Brockmeier, J. (2009). Health, Illness andCulture: Broken Narratives. New York: Routledge.

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12. Gayle A. Sulik (2010). Pink Ribbon Blues: How Breast Cancer Culture Undermines Women's Health. USA:Oxford University Press. pp. 321–326. ISBN 0­19­974045­3. OCLC 535493589(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/535493589).

13. Hirsh, J. B., & Peterson, J. B. (2009). Personality and language use in self­narratives. Journal of Research inPersonality, 43, 524­527.

14. Conle, C. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Research tool and medium for professional development. European Journalof Teacher Education, 23(1), 49–62.

15. Bell, J.S. (2002). Narrative Inquiry: More Than Just Telling Stories. TESOL Quarterly, 36(2), 207–213.16. Abell. P. (1987) The Syntax of Social Life: the theory and Method of Comparative Narratives, Oxford University

Press, Oxford.17. Abell, P. (1993) Some Aspects of Narrative Method, Journal of Mathematical Sociology, 18. 1­25.18. Abell, P. (2009) A Case for Cases, Comparative Narratives in Sociological Explanation, Sociological Methods

and Research, 32, 1­33.19. Abell, P. (2011) Singular Mechanisms and Bayesian Narratives in ed. Pierre Demeulenaere, Analytical Sociology

and Social Mechanisms Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.20. Abell, P. (2009) History, Case Studies, Statistics and Causal Inference, European Sociological review, 25, 561–

56921. Kenneth Gloag and David Beard, Musicology: The Key Concepts (New York: Routledge, 2009), 11422. Beard and Gloag, Musicology, 113–11723. Beard and Gloag, Musicology, 11524. Beard and Gloag, Musicology, 11625. http://cojmc.unl.edu/nativedaughters/storytellers/native­storytellers­connect­the­past­ and­the­future26. Piquemal, N. 2003. From Native North American Oral Traditions to Western Literacy: Storytelling in Education.27. Basso, 1984. "Stalking with Stories". Names, Places, and Moral Narratives Among the Western Apache.28. Lawrence Stone, "The Revival of Narrative: Reflections on a New Old History," Past and Present 85 (1979), pp.

3–24, quote on 1329. J. Morgan Kousser, "The Revivalism of Narrative: A Response to Recent Criticisms of Quantitative History,"

Social Science History vol 8, no. 2 (Spring 1984): 133–49; Eric H. Monkkonen, "The Dangers of Synthesis,"American Historical Review 91, no. 5 (December 1986): 1146–57.

Sources

Kelley, Stephanie R, Rumors in Iraq: A Guide to Winning Hearts and Minds. Storming Media, 2004.ISBN 1­4235­2249­4Asimov, Nanette. "Researchers help U.S. Military track, defuse rumors." (http://imgs.sfgate.com/cgi­bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2011/10/14/MNQM1LD1QH.DTL) San Francisco Chronicle. October 14,2011.Hardin, Jayson. The Rumor Bomb: Theorizing the convergence of New and Old Trends in MediatedU.S. Politics, Southern Review: Communication, Politics & Culture 39, no. I (2006): 84–110

Further readingAbbott, H. Porter (2009) The Cambridge Introduction to Narrative Second Edition. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.Bal, Mieke. (1985). Narratology. Introduction to the Theory of Narrative. Toronto: Toronto University Press.Clandinin, D. J. & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research.Jossey­Bass.Genette, Gérard. (1980 [1972]). Narrative Discourse. An Essay in Method. (Translated by Jane E. Lewin).Oxford: Blackwell.Goosseff, Kyrill A. (2014). Only narratives can reflect the experience of objectivity: effective persuasion(http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/JOCM­09­2014­0167) Journal of Organizational Change

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Look up narrative in

Management, Vol. 27 Iss: 5, pp. 703 – 709Gubrium, Jaber F. & James A. Holstein. (2009). Analyzing Narrative Reality. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Holstein, James A. & Jaber F. Gubrium. (2000). The Self We Live By: Narrative Identity in a Postmodern World.New York: Oxford University Press.Holstein, James A. & Jaber F. Gubrium, eds. (2012). Varieties of Narrative Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage.Hunter, Kathryn Montgomery (1991). Doctors' Stories: The Narrative Structure of Medical Knowledge.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Jakobson, Roman. (1921). "On Realism in Art" in Readings in Russian Poetics: Formalist and Structuralist.(Edited by Ladislav Matejka & Krystyna Pomorska). The MIT Press.Labov, William. (1972). Chapter 9: The Transformation of Experience in Narrative Syntax. In: "Language in theInner City." Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.Lévi­Strauss, Claude. (1958 [1963]). Anthropologie Structurale/Structural Anthropology. (Translated by ClaireJacobson & Brooke Grundfest Schoepf). New York: Basic Books.Lévi­Strauss, Claude. (1962 [1966]). La Pensée Sauvage/The Savage Mind (Nature of Human Society). London:Weidenfeld & Nicolson.Lévi­Strauss, Claude. Mythologiques I­IV (Translated by John Weightman & Doreen Weightman)Linde, Charlotte (2001). Chapter 26: Narrative in Institutions. In: Deborah Schiffrin, Deborah Tannen & Heidi E.Hamilton (ed.s) "The Handbook of Discourse Analysis." Oxford & Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.Norrick, Neal R. (2000). "Conversational Narrative: Storytelling in Everyday Talk." Amsterdam & Philadelphia:John Benjamins Publishing Company.Ranjbar Vahid. (2011) The Narrator, Iran:Baqney(http://signbook.persiangig.com/document/literature/theory/raavi1.pdf)Pérez­Sobrino, Paula (2014). "Meaning construction in verbomusical environments: Conceptual disintegrationand metonymy"(http://www.academia.edu/7924477/Meaning_construction_in_verbomusical_environments_Conceptual_disintegration_and_metonymy._Journal_of_Pragmatics_70_2014_130­151) (PDF). Journal of Pragmatics (Elsevier) 70:130–151. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2014.06.008 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pragma.2014.06.008).Quackenbush, S.W. (2005). "Remythologizing culture: Narrativity, justification, and the politics ofpersonalization"(http://psychweb.cisat.jmu.edu/ToKSystem/Related%20Articles/Remythologyzing%20Culture.pdf) (PDF).Journal of Clinical Psychology 61: 67–80. doi:10.1002/jclp.20091 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjclp.20091).Polanyi, Livia. (1985). "Telling the American Story: A Structural and Cultural Analysis of ConversationalStorytelling." Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishers Corporation.Salmon, Christian. (2010). "Storytelling, bewitching the modern mind." London, Verso.Shklovsky, Viktor. (1925 [1990]). Theory of Prose. (Translated by Benjamin Sher). Normal, IL: Dalkey ArchivePress.Todorov, Tzvetan. (1969). Grammaire du Décameron. The Hague: Mouton.Toolan, Michael (2001). "Narrative: a Critical Linguistic Introduction"Turner, Mark (1996). "The Literary Mind"Ranjbar Vahid. The Narrator, Iran:Baqney 2011 (summary in english)(http://narrative.byethost7.com/ranjbar.html)White, Hayden (2010). The Fiction of Narrative: Essays on History, Literature, and Theory, 1957–2007.(http://books.google.com/books?id=8aO_oChF6HQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+fiction+of+narrative&hl=en&ei=Ie5oTpb7I8PhiALq8MyuDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false) Ed. RobertDoran. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

External links

International Society for the Study of Narrative(http://narrative.georgetown.edu/)

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Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to Narratives.

Wikiquote has quotationsrelated to: Story

Wikiversity has learningmaterials about storytelling

Manfred Jahn. Narratology: A Guide to the Theory ofNarrative (http://www.uni­koeln.de/%7Eame02/pppn.htm)[1] (http://www.stephaniebrandt.net/de/) InterdisciplinaryResearch InstituteNarrative and Referential Activity(http://www.thereferentialprocess.org/theory/narrative­and­referential­activity)Some Ideas about Narrative – notes on narrative from anacademic perspective(http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/pcraddoc/narhand1.htm)New cinema chair studies "narrative IEDs" SF State News.09/29/11 (http://www.sfsu.edu/~news/2011/fall/15.html)DOC Film Institute (http://docfilm.sfsu.edu/)

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Categories: Narratology Fiction Style (fiction) Fiction­writing mode Semiotics Mental structuresComposition

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