naresh gohil
TRANSCRIPT
WEL COMETO
SEMINAR SERIES2014-15
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Seminar Presentation on
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Co-Guide,Dr. N. N. GudadheAssistant Professor
Department of AgronomyN. M. College of Agriculture,
N. A. U., Navsari
Speaker, Mr. Gohil Naresh B.
M. Sc. Student Reg. No:- 2010113027
Dept. of Soil Sci. and Agril. Chem.NAU, Navsari.
Fate of Nitrogenous Fertilizer in Submerged Soils
Major Advisor,Dr. D. P. Patel
Assistant ProfessorDept. of Natural Resource Management
ASPEE college of Horticulture and Forestry,N. A. U., Navsari
INTRODUCTION3
Submerged soils are soils that are saturated with water for a sufficiently long time in a year to give the soil distinct soil properties, because of oxidation-reduction processes (Brady and Weil, 2010).
Rice is the only major food crop that can be grown under various degrees of submergence.
Nitrogen is one of the essential nutrient for plants and it is widely recognized as the most limiting nutrient for production in submerged soil.
Poor efficiency of N fertilizers in rice can be attributed to it's improper management by farmers who have only limited understanding about the fate of N in submerged soils that is highly prone to nitrogen loss in different ways viz. Volatilization, Denitrification and leaching. (Savant and Stangel, 2008).
Besides, the majority of Indian soils are low in available soil nitrogen; the efficiency for utilization of nitrogen fertilizers in most of the crops has been rather low, particularly in submerged conditions.
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Upland rice frequently use 40-60 per cent of the applied N, whereas submerged rice crop typically use only 30-40 per cent (Bulbule et al., 2002).
Hence, it is essential to know fate of nitrogenous fertilizers and factors affecting it in submerged soils which will helps us to increase nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) by minimizing the losses of nitrogen from the root zone.
Furthermore, this will also help us to identify soil management practices that are climate change compatible by reducing green house gases such as CO2, CH4 and N2O.
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Nitrogen: a primary essential element Nitrogen is one of the most important
primary nutrient because of is larger requirement by the plants (1.0 to 5.0 percent) and its wide spread deficiency across the world.
Nitrogen is taken up by the plant from the soils in the form of nitrate (NO3
-) and ammonium (NH4
+) ions. It occurs in the atmosphere, lithosphere and
hydrosphere. 78% nitrogen present in atmosphere but
plant is enable to utilize it. Soils contains nitrogen in the range of 0.02
to 0.4 % on weight basis. It is a highly mobile nutrient in the soil as
well as plant. 6
FORMS OF NITROGEN IN SOILS
SOIL NITROGEN
Organic (92-98 %)
Hydrolysable-N
Amino sugar
Amino acid
Acid soluble humin
Non-Hydrolyzable-N
Inorganic (2-8 %)
Ionic
e.g., NH4+
NO3-
NO2-
Gaseous
e.g., N2
N2O NO
NO3
NH3
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Functions of NitrogenNitrogen is a basic constituent of plant.
It is an integral part of chlorophyll.
It is indispensable part of genetic material viz. DNA.
It improves the protein quality of the plant.
Excessive supply of nitrogen develops excessive succulence which results harmful effects
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Nitrogen deficiency in plant Chlorosis: Due to high mobility of N in the
plants, its deficiency symptoms first appear on the older leaves in the form of light green to pale yellow coloration.
Stunted growth: Stunted growth may occur because of reduction in cell division.
Quality: Reduced N lowers the protein content of seeds and vegetative parts. In severe cases, flowering is greatly reduced.
Early maturity: N deficiency causes early maturity in some crops, which results in a significant reduction in yield and quality.
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Sources of
Nitrogen in soil
Fertilizers
Organic manures
Crop residues
Biofertilizers
Green manures
Rain water
Sources of Nitrogen in soil
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NH4 NO3
Nitrification
Plant uptake
Leaching
DenitrificationVolatilization
NH3
N2O N2, N2O
Nitrogen loss by different process in soil
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Why to fertilize the soils with Fertilizers
More losses of nitrogen from the soils than the natural sources
Depletion of SOM (Soil organic matter) in arid and semi arid regions
To maintain the soil fertility as well as productivity
Fertilizers
Organic Inorganic
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Type of Inorganic Nitrogenous FertilizersNo. Name of fertilizers Nitrogen Content %
Nitrate (NO3-) fertilizers :
1. Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) 16
2. Calcium nitrate [ Ca(NO3)2] 15.5
Ammonical (NH4+- N) containing fertilizers:
1 Ammonium sulphate 20
2 Ammonium chloride 24 - 26
3 Anhydrous ammonia 82
Nitrate and ammonical (NO3--N) containing fertilizers:
1. Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) 33 -34
2. Calcium ammonium nitrate 26
3. Ammonium sulphate nitrate 26
Amide (Both NH4+ and NO3-) forms:
1 Urea 46
2. Calcium cynamide (Ca CN2 ) 2113
Source: IFA, 2010
Fig. 1: Fertilizer consumptions
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Source- https://npk101.wordpress.com/category/nitrogenous-fertilizers/ (2010)
Fig. 2: Nitrogen Fertilizer Products (105 million tones nutrients)
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Source: IFA, 2010
Fig 3: World Nitrogen Fertilizer Use By Crop
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Characteristics of Submerged soils Greater amount of soil solution. Reduced oxygen level. Low aerobic microbial activity. Altered chemical status of the soil (Reduction processes).
Submerged soils Submerged soils are soils that are saturated with water for a sufficiently long time in a year to give the soil distinct gley horizons resulting from oxidation-reduction processes.
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Aerobic soil
Anaerobic soil
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Dominant forms of elements in submerged versus aerated soil
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Fig. 4. A schematic diagram of N transformations in a submerged soil.
Buresh et al. (2008) 20
Nitrogen Transformation in Submerged SoilMineralization and Immobilization
+2H2O +O2 +1/2 O2
Organic N R – NH2 OH- + R- OH + NH4
+ 4H+ + energy + NO2- energy + NO3
-
(Amine) (Ammonium) (Nitrite) (Nitrate)21
In aerobic soil layer: mineralization microbial oxidation microbial oxidation organic form NH4
+ NO2- NO3
-
of nitrogen ammonification
In submerged soil :mineralization : stops at this pointsOrganic form NH4
+ : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .of nitrogen
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A. Aminization: (Aerobic /anaerobic) heterotrophicProteins R – NH2 + CO2 + energy + other additional (Combined microorganisms (Amines) organic productsWith minerals)
Organic N + 4C2H5COOH + H2O 4CH3COOH + CO2 + 3CH4 Propinate Acetate Carbon Methane dioxide
B. Ammonification R – NH2 + HOH NH3 + R – OH + energy
+ H2O NH4
+ + OH-
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Nitrification - Denitrification
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Volatilization
(NH4)2SO4 2NH4
++ SO4-
2NH4+ + 2 OH- 2NH3 +2H2O
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Leaching Losses
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Urea Hydrolysis
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Soil (NH2)2 CO + 2H2O (NH4)2 CO3 Urea Water Urease Ammonium Carbonate (NH4)2 CO3 + 2H+ 2NH4
+ + CO2 + H2O Ammonium Ammonium Carbon Water Carbonate dioxide gas
Factors affecting N transformation
1. Composition of Organic matter
2. C : N ratio of organic matter
3. Moisture content in soil
4. Soil temperature
5. Soil aeration
6. Soil reaction
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1. Composition of organic matter
Fig 5.- Nitrogen mineralization or immobilization
with organic residues based on
C:N ratio.
Source : R. Weil (2010) 29
Composition of organic matter Rate of decomposition
Sugars, and simple proteins Rapid decomposition
Crude proteins
Hemi cellulose
Cellulose
Fats and waxes
Lignins and phenolic compounds Very slow decomposition
2. C : N ratio
Fig 5 - Effect of mineralization and immobilization based on C:N ratio.
Source : N.C.Bredy (2010) 30
2. C : N Ratio
Fig 6 - Effect of moisture on cumulative N mineralization.
Source : Aghera and Warncke (2005) 31
Incubation time (week)
3. Moisture content
Fig 7 – Rates of nitrification, ammonification and denitrification are closely related to microbial activity and water filled pore space.
Source : Bateman and Baggs (2005) 32
Heavy rains resulted in nitrogen loss by denitrification and leaching.33
Fig 8 - Effect of temperature on cumulative N mineralization.
Source : Aghera and Warncke (2005) 34
4. Temperature
Fig 9 – Relationship between O2 and N2.
Source : John et al. (2014) 35
5. Soil aeration
Fig 10 – Ammonia volatilization is affected by temperature and pH.
Source : Glibert et al. (2006) 36
6. Soil reaction
Location Methane (kg/ha) No. of observations Average (kg/ha)Nadia, West Bengal 108-290 3 158
Cuttak, Orissa 7-103 44 91
Bhubaneshwar, Orissa 140-186 2 163
New Delhi 10-221 68 39
Allahabad, U.P. 5 1 5
Trichur, Kerala 37 1 37
Trivandrum, Kerala 90 1 90
Kasindra, Gujarat 120 1 120Pant Nagar, Uttarakhand 54-114 4 79
Karnal, Haryana 64-100 2 81
Raipur, M.P. 4-109 6 34
Ludhiana, Punjab 452-1650 5 875
Table 1 : Seasonal methane emission from rice fields at different locations in India.
IARI, New Delhi Pathak et al. (2010) 37
N losses can be minimized by following ways from the submerged soils
Use of slow release N fertilizers
Use of nitrification inhibitors
Selecting appropriate source and rate of N fertilizers
Adopting the diffident methods of fertilizer application
Other agronomical measures i.e. Methods of rice plantation
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Review of Research Work
Use of slow release N fertilizers
N sourceInitial N content
(mg/plot)
N content after the rice harvest
(mg/plot)
N leached% of N applied
% of N lost through other
mechanism
Control 4200 4079 - -
Sod. Nitrate 4660 4111 64.5 21.8
CAN 4660 4149 18.5 49.2
Am.sulphate 4660 4192 13.7 31.2
Urea 4660 4176 11.5 42.8
NSU 4660 4219 9.1 19.9
NCU 4660 4203 9.8 24.8
SCU 4660 4254 7.1 15.0
USG 4660 4124 12.6 18.2
S. Ed - 3
LSD (P=0.05) - 6
Table 2: Apparent N balance sheet for rice as influenced by N- carriers
IARI, New Delhi Rao and Prasad (1980)
CAN- calcium ammonium nitrate, NSU- N-serve blended urea, NCU- neem cake coated urea, SCU- sulphur coated urea, USG- urea super granules
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Source of N Days after nitrogen application
1 3 10 20 30
Control 0.02 0.05 0.16 0.41 0.41
Sod. Nitrate 0.38 0.93 1.64 2.54 3.00
CAN 0.14 0.32 1.03 2.53 2.53
AS 0.03 0.54 3.64 10.07 10.30
Urea 0.03 0.33 2.45 7.14 7.30
NSU 0.06 0.85 2.06 4.28 4.28
NCU 0.04 0.98 2.79 5.38 5.82
SCU 0.06 1.00 1.52 2.31 2.31
USG 0.03 0.24 0.81 1.68 1.78
Table 3: NO2-N (mg N) in leachates (cumulative values) as influenced by sources of N applied.
IARI, New Delhi Rao and Prasad (1980)
CAN- calcium ammonium nitrate, NSU- N-serve blended urea, NCU- neem cake coated urea, SCU- sulphur coated urea, USG- urea supergranules
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Treatment Nitrogen applied (kg/ha)
Volatilization loss of NH3 – N (kg/ha)
N volatilized as NH3 (%)
USG (all basal) 76 2.2 2.9
PU (basal, 50%) 38 1.9 5.0
PU (top dress, 50%) 38 2.23 5.8
GCU (all basal) 76 1.8 2.5
PU (all basal) + ECC 76 2.0 2.6
UNP (19-19-0) (all basal) 76 2.9 3.8
UNP (27-9-0) (all basal) 76 1.4 1.8
Table 4: NH3 – N volatilization loss from rice plots following application of urea based fertilizers.
IARI, New Delhi Mishra et al. (1995)
USG- urea super granule, PU- Prilled urea, GCU- gypsum coated urea, ECC- encapsulated Calcium carbide, UNP- urea nitro phosphate
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Treatments
Grain yield (q/ha)Mean NUE (kg
grain/kg N)
Soil available N kg/ha after rice
First year Second year
First year Second year
Prilled urea 26.2 28.1 11.9 238 230
Lac coated urea (LCU) 30.9 36.6 20.1 285 274
Rock phosphate coated urea 26.7 28.5 12.4 247 235
Karanj coated urea (KCU) 29.0 32.3 16.2 265 260
Neem coated urea (NCU) 29.2 32.8 16.7 280 271
CD (0.05) 1.6 3.3 -- 13 10
Table 5: Effect of different slow release N fertilizers on grain yield and Nitrogen use efficiency of rice.
BAU, Ranchi . Singh et al. (1999) 44
Table 6: Effect of Neem coated urea on yield, N uptake and Apparent N recovery of rice.
Sources Grain yield (q/ha)
Straw yield (q/ha)
N uptake (kg/ha)
Apparent N recovery (%)
Prilled urea 38.8 43.7 71.1 26.9
Neem coated urea 43.0 48.6 85.9 43.8
10% neem oil emulsion coated urea 41.1 46.1 78.2 39.1
20% neem oil emulsion coated urea 42.0 46.9 81.2 38.2
CD (0.05) NS NS 7.1 8.7
IARI, New Delhi. Shivay et al. (2001) 45
Use of nitrification inhibitors
Table 7: Effect of nitrification inhibitors on denitrification losses and rice grain yield in a submerged soil.
TreatmentsRice Yield
(kg/ha)
Denitrification (g N ha-1 hr-1) on days after fertilization
2 4 6 8 10
Urea alone 4660 27.3 81.3 52.0 87.0 62.0
Urea + DCD 5360 10.4 15.9 16.7 10.8 12.5
Urea + ECC 6130 7.8 3.5 5.0 2.0 2.0
CSU,Fort Collins,Colorado Banerjee et al.(1999)
DCD = Dicyandiamide ECC =Encapsulated calcium carbide
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Nitrification inhibitor Mitigation (%)
Dicyandiamide 13-42
Neem Cake 10-21
Neem oil 15-21
Nimin 25-35
Coated Ca-carbide 12-29
Thiosulphate 15-20
Table 8: Efficiency of nitrification inhibitors in mitigating nitrous oxide emission in rice- wheat system.
IARI, New Delhi Pathak et al. (2010)
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Source and rate of N fertilizer
Rate of nitrogen applied (kg/ha)
Quantity of N applied mg/400 g
soil
Quantity of NH3 – N lost (mg)
Percent loss NH3 – N
0 0 - -
50 9 0.840 9.33
100 18 2.160 12.0
200 36 4.300 11.94
300 54 5.940 11.0
400 72 7.056 9.80
Table 9: Effect of different rates of N application on the ammonium volatilization losses from submerged soil.
GAU, Navsari Boraniya (1982) 50
Nitrogenous fertilizer
Quantity of N applied mg/400 g
soil
Quantity of NH3 – N lost (mg)
Percent loss NH3 – N
Urea 18 2.390 13.27
Ammonium sulphate 18 1.296 7.20
Table 10: Effect of different nitrogenous fertilizers on the ammonium volatilization losses from submerged soil.
GAU, Navsari Boraniya (1982)
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Table 11: Effect of different sources of N on grain and straw yields , NUE and N uptake.
OUAT,Bhubaneshwar Mishra et al.(1998)
Prilled Urea(PU)@60kgN ha-1in 3splits(50%basal,25%DATP,25%PI) , UB @ 60kgN/ha 15 DATP Prilled Urea(PU)@30kgNha-1in 2splits , BGA @ 10kg/ha was applied 7 DATP Azolla,water hyacinth,Gliricidia,Ipomea&Pongamia @ 10t ha-1
Treatments
Grain Yield
(qha-1)
Straw Yield (qha-1)
NUE (%)
N uptake (kgha-1)
T1 – Control 25.1 40.5 --- 50.13
T2 - 60kgN as PU 39.6 55.2 24.17 46.15
T3 - BGA(10kgha-1)+ 30kg N as PU 39.3 54.8 23.75 76.47
T4 - BGA (10kgha-1)+Azolla (10tha-1) 37.4 52.6 20.58 66.78
T5 - Urea briquette(60kgNha-1)+30kgN as PU 43.2 58.4 30.17 85.22
T6 - Water hyacinth(10tha-1)+30kg N as PU 40.6 56.2 25.83 79.18
T7 - Azolla(10tha-1)+30kg N as PU 46.4 59.8 35.50 92.34
T8 - Glyricidia(10tha-1)+30 kg N as PU 41.7 58.8 27.67 82.85
T9 - Ipomoea(10tha-1) +30 kg N as PU 37.5 53.7 20.67 68.95
T10 - Pongamia (10tha-1)+30 kg N as PU 38.9 54.4 23.00 72.38
CD (0.05) 5.2 7.8 --- 11.23
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Treatment Treatment N recovery (%)
15 N recovery (%)
N loss (%)
Plant Soil
Application to wet soil (conventional method)
28 25 29 46
Application to dry soil (alternate method)
76 57 24 19
Table 12 : Effect of urea N application (100 kg N /ha) to wet saturated and dry soils on N Use Efficiency by lowland rice.
PAU , Ludhiana Katyal and Gadalla (1999)
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Table 13: Effect of different sources of N application on losses of fertilizer N from rice field.
Treatment N applied as Urea (kg ha-1)
Total loss(kg ha-1)
Percentage of fertilizer N
applied
Ammonia Volatilization loss (NH3-N)
Urea 120 15.26 12.7Urea + CCC 120 21.32 17.8Urea + FYM 60 7.84 13.1Denitrification loss (N2 + N2 O-N)
Urea 120 3.80 3.2Urea + CCC 120 0.87 0.7Urea + FYM 60 1.02 1.7Leaching losses NH4
+-N + NO3-N
Urea 120 1.04 0.9Urea + CCC 120 0.36 0.3Urea + FYM 60 0.55 0.9
Bandyopadhayay and Sarkar (2000)
CCC : Coated calcium carbideNew Delhi 54
Table 14: Effect of integrated N management on yield, N content and Total N uptake of rice.
TreatmentYield (kg/ha) N content (%)
Total N uptake (kg/ha)Grain Straw Grain Straw
T1 6161 6642 0.576 0.320 56.65 T2 5806 6057 0.677 0.266 54.65 T3 6390 5326 0.590 0.266 52.04 T4 6307 6370 0.616 0.288 57.40 T5 6475 5534 0.621 0.457 65.62 T6 8082 9502 0.758 0.492 107.69 T7 7519 8062 0.958 0.372 101.95 T8 6266 6224 0.700 0.324 63.60 T9 6349 5764 0.772 0.364 69.53 T10 7978 7895 1.001 0.341 107.32 T11 7185 6913 0.825 0.401 87.37 T12 7686 6746 0.590 0.372 70.36
CD (0.05) 1197 1142 NS NS 20.84GAU, Navsari. Anonymous (2002) 55
Treatment Details
T1- FYM (100% N)T2 - FYM (75 % N)+ Castor cake (25 % N)T3 - FYM (50 % N)+ Castor cake (50 % N)T4 - FYM (25 % N)+ Castor cake (75 % N)T5 - Castor cake (100 % N)T6 - Organic fertilizer (25 % N of which 50 % N each from FYM and Castor cake)+ Inorganic ferti.(75% N)T7 - Organic fertilizer (50 % N of which 50 % N each from FYM and Castor cake) + Inorganic ferti.(50% N)T8 - Organic fertilizer (75 % N of which 50 % N each from FYM and Castor cake) + Inorganic ferti.(25% N)T9 - FYM (25 % N) + Poultry manure (25 % N) + Castor cake (50 % N)T10 - FYM (25 % N) + Poultry manure (25 % N) + Inorganic ferti.(50% N)T11 - Inorganic fertilizer (100 % N) as per soil test (120 – 25 – 0 )T12 - Inorganic fertilizer (100 % N) as per recommended dose (120 – 30 – 0 )
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Nitrogen treatments
NH3-N NO3-N TN
Loss (kg/ha)
Percentage (%)
Loss (kg/ha)
Percentage (%)
Loss (kg/ha)
Percentage (%)
N0- Control 0.57 - 0.38 - 1.04 -
N1- 90 kg N/ha as urea (50% of TNAR) 2.91 3.23 1.25 1.38 4.57 5.07
N2- 180 kg N/ha (the TNAR) 4.07 2.26 1.14 0.63 5.73 3.18
N3- 270 kg N/ha (150% of TNAR) 5.21 1.93 1.73 0.64 7.62 2.82
N4- 360 kg N/ha (double TNAR) 11.22 3.11 2.20 0.61 14.75 4.10
Table 15: Nitrogen loss from paddy field in treatments with different N fertilizer applications.
Bangladesh Iqbal (2011)
TNAR- typical nitrogen application rate
57
Different method of fertilizer application
Table 16: Effect of application methods for N fertilizer (Basal treatment) in rice.
T1=Broadcasting of 50%N & full dose of P at TP.T2=Broadcasting 50% N & full dose of P at 7-10 DATPT3= Spot application 50% N & full dose of P at 7-10 DATPT4= Broadcasting of 50%N & full dose of P + castor cake @5q/ha at TPT5= Spot application of 50%N & full dose of P + castor cake @5q/ha at 7-10 DATPT6 = Broadcasting of 50%N & full dose of P + Neem cake @5q/ha at TPT7= Spot application of 50%N & full dose of P + Neem cake @5q/ha at 7-10 DATPT8= Broadcasting of 50 % N in the form of AS &full dose P at TPT9= Spot application of 50 % N in the form of AS &full dose P at7-10 DATP
TreatmentsYield (kg/ha) N content (%) N uptake (kg/ha)
Grain Straw Grain Straw Grain Straw
T1 6439 7702 0.92 0.438 59.3 33
T2 6086 6540 0.83 0.479 50.5 31.4
T3 6667 8384 0.77 0.473 51.2 39.6
T4 7576 8914 0.812 0.438 61.6 39.1
T5 8232 9823 0.850 0.448 70.0 44.1
T6 7348 8889 0.810 0.457 59.5 40.7
T7 7879 9218 0.802 0.438 63.1 40.3
T8 6894 8217 0.790 0.455 54.4 37.5
T9 6944 8662 0.790 0.444 54.8 38.4
CD (0.05) 302.6 543.0 NS NS NS 5.55 GAU, Navsari Anonymous (2002)
59
Table 17: Effect of split application of N fertilizers in rice.
Treatments Grain yield (kg/ha)
Straw yield (kg/ha)
N uptake Kg/ha
Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE)%
N1 3095 3714 52.6 ----
N2 5095 5881 75.3 33.97
N3 4048 4452 60.4 26.99
N4 4381 4857 63.1 29.21
N5 4869 5310 69.8 32.46
N6 5726 6333 85.5 28.63
N7 5817 6476 85.2 23.05
CD(0.05) 120 266 0.78 ---
N1=Control [0 Kg N /ha]N2=150 Kg N /ha [3 equal splits at Basal (B),Active Tillering(AT)& Panicle Inition(PI)]N3=150 Kg N /ha [3 equal splits at B, AT, PE(penicle emergence)]N4=150 Kg N /ha [3 equal splits at B, PI, PE]N5=150 Kg N /ha [3 equal splits at AT, PI, PE]N6=200 Kg N /ha [4 equal splits at B, AT, PI, PE]N7=256.7 Kg N /ha [4 equal splits at B, AT, PI, PE]
TNAU, Madurai Balasubramanian (2002)
60
Level (mg/g soil) Water depth (cm) Cumulative losses (%)
750 33.215 24.82
10 18.01
1500 30.635 22.25
10 19.85
2250 20.015 16.93
10 13.53
Table 18: Effect of N levels and water depth on ammonia volatilization losses (%) from urea.
CCS HAU, Hissar Kumar & Kumar (2005)61
Treatment Grain yield (kg/ha)
Straw yield (kg/ha) N uptake (kg/ha)
T1 : Control 2067 3264 30.22
T2 : 57 kg N ha-1 as PU (3splits) 2962 3956 43.85
T3 : 57 kg N ha-1 as NCPU (basal) 3157 4013 50.13
T4 : 76 kg N ha-1 as PU (3splits) 3208 4172 50.25
T5 : 57 kg N ha-1 as USG at 7 DAT 3738 4578 68.25
T6 : 76 kg N ha-1 as USG at 7 DAT 3738 4641 68.91
T7 : 57 kg N ha-1 as USG at 7 DAT + 19 kg N ha-1 as PU at PI 3994 5053 70.69
LSD (0.05) 242 458 -
Table 19: Effect of different doses and methods of application of PU and USG on yield and N uptake of rice.
Orissa Jena et al. (2008)
PU- Prilled urea, NCPU- Nimin coated prilled urea, USG- Urea super granule, PI- panicle initiation
62
Ultivation N rates Basal fertilizer
Tillering fertilizer
Booting fertilizer Total NH3 loss
TF
N0 (control) 1.02 a 0.80 a 0.32 a 2.14 a
N1 (80 kg/ha) 3.77 b 1.58 b 1.08 b 6.44 b (5.37)
N2 (160 kg/ha) 4.91 c 3.03 c 1.84 c 9.78 c (4.77)
N3 (240 kg/ha) 6.33 d 4.19 d 2.61 d 13.13 d (4.58)
SRI
N0 (control) 1.38 a 1.03 a 0.72 a 3.14 a
N1 (80 kg/ha) 4.22 b 1.98 b 1.67 b 7.88 b (5.93)
N2 (160 kg/ha) 6.06 c 3.65 c 2.48 c 12.19 c (5.66)
N3 (240 kg/ha) 7.78 d 5.04 d 3.41 d 16.23 d (5.45)
Table 20: Ammonia volatilization losses after N fertilizer application at basal, tillering and booting stages (kg N ha-1).
China Zhao et al. (2010)
SRI- system of rice intensification, TF- traditional floodingNotes: Values followed by the same letter within one column are not significantly different by LSD at the 0.05 level under the same cultivation system. The number in parentheses indicated the percentage of the amount of applied N.
63
Other agronomical measures
Fig 12 - Global Warming Potential of transplanted and direct seeded rice.
Jalandhar, Punjab Pathak et al. (2009)65
Fig 13 : Global warming potential of conventional continuously flooded and mid-season drainage technologies in rice.
Jalandhar, Punjab Pathak et al. (2009)66
Table 21 : Cumulative CH4 and N2O emission during the rice cropping season from land preparation to harvest as affected by residue management and season (Values are means of four fallow management treatments).
Residue management
CH4 emission (g/m2) N2O emission (mg/m2)
2011 WS 2012 DS Difference 2011 WS 2012 DS Difference
With residue 55 33 22*** 23 21 2 ns
Without residue 26 17 9* 49 71 - 22 ns
Difference 29*** 16*** -26 ns -50 ns
LSD 6 - - 54 - -
ns = not significant at P ≤ 0.05.WS = wet season, DS = dry season.*** Significant at P ≤ 0.001.* Significant at P ≤ 0.05.
Philippines Sander et al. (2014) 67
Table 22: Cumulative CH4 emission N2O emission during the rice cropping season from land preparation to harvest as affected by fallow management and season (Values are means of two residue management treatments).
Fallow management
CH4 emission (g/m2) N2O emission (mg/m2)
2011 WS 2012 DS Difference 2011 WS 2012 DS Difference
Flooded 72 a 47 a 25** 35 a 44 a -9 ns
Dry 21 c 16 b 5 ns 79 a 45 a 34 ns
Dry + tillage 25 c 14 b 11* 17 a 75 a -58 ns
Dry and wet 44 b 23 b 21*** 13 a 19 a -6 ns
LSD 11 - - 78 - -
In a column, means followed by a different letter are significantly different according to LSD test at alpha = 0.05.ns = not significant at P ≤ 0.05.WS = wet season, DS = dry season.*** Significant at P ≤ 0.001.* Significant at P ≤ 0.05.Philippines Sander et al. (2014)
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The unique condition of submerged soils promotes N - losses through denitrification, ammonia volatilization and leaching which not only to decreases in nitrogen use efficiency but also leads to water and atmospheric pollution to a greater extent.
Oxidized layer at soil water interface, sources and composition of N fertilizer, soil reactions, soil temperature etc. are influence the N transformation in the soils.
The yield of rice, N use efficiency and N uptake in submerged soil can be improved by adopting the proper techniques of N management like adequate level of N, Split application of N at critical stages and sources of N (Ammonium sulphate).
Other than this, use of slow release N fertilizers (USG, LCU), N inhibitors (NCU), spot application and deep placement of USG near root zone and integrated N application can also reduce the losses of N and ultimately increase the NUE under submerged conditions.
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CONCLUSION
Thank You
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