BOSTON STUDIES IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

' Editor

ROBERT S. COHEN, Boston University

Edito rial Adv is o ry B o ard

THOMAS F. GLICK, Boston UniversitY

ADOLF GRUNBAUM, University of Pittsburgh

SAHOTRA SARKAR, Dibner Institute M.I'T.

SYLVAN S. SCHWEBER, Brandeis University

JOHN J. STACHEL, Boston UniversitY

MARXW. WARTOFSKY, Baruch College ofthe CitY UniversitY of New York

SYED NOMANUL HAQCenterfor Mi.ddle Eastem Studies, Harvard University

NAMES, NATURESAND THINGS

The Alchemist Jabir ibn $ayYanand his Kitdb al-Ahiar (Book of Stones)

With a Foreword bY

David E. PingreeBrown UniversitY

),i (

EN7J

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"pott *ti.h I build my hopes

And for-my father,.Professor Maulana Muntakhabul HaqA scholarly giant and my ultimate source of inspiration

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vll

CONTENTS

FORE\rORD BY DAVID PINGREE

AUTHOR,S PREFACE

ACKNO'$f LEDGMENTS

EXPLANATORY NOTES

ix

x i i i

xvl I

xlx

A l5th-century European portrait of "Geber," typically. identified with the Arabic Jdbir ibn $ayydn

Codici Ashburnhamiani I 166Courtesy Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence

NAMES. NATURES AND THINGS

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

I The Jabirian Corpus: Scope and PeculiaritiesII The Thesis of Paul Kraus and its Methodological

ImplicationsIII A Preliminary Criticism of lGaus

1. On the Size aod lJnevenness of the Corpus2.Iebir and the Shi'i Imam Ja'far3. Religio.tt Trends of the Corpus: Fitaus' Late Dating

4. Citaiion of Greek \(i'orks in the Corpus

5. The Sirr of Balinis: IGaus' Search For a tertninus ?ost quern

IV The Present'Work Methodological IndifferenceV Notes

CHAPTER 2. THE DOCTRINAL CONTEXT OF

JABIR'S KITAB AL.AHJAR: SUBSTANCE, QUALITIESAND THE SCIENCE OF BALANCE

I Substance and Matter , '

II The Four Natures (Taba'i)

III Quantification of Qualities and the Science of Balance

IV NotesV Addenda to Notes-Arabic Quotations

35

81011L42124293033

495T57626978

vtll C ONTE NTS

CHAPTER 3. NAMES, NATURES AND THINGS:PREFATORY NOTE ON THE CENTRAL THEMET}JE KITAB AL.AHJAR

I The Quantification of l,anguageII The Metaphysical SynthesisIII Application of the Balance of kttersfV NotesV Addenda 1e \fesss-A.rabic Quotations

THE TEXT OF THE KITAB AL.AHJAR

CHAPTER 4. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONSI Manuscriptsil Studies/EditionsIII The Present Edition

CHAPTER 5. A CRITICAL EDITION OF SELECTTEXT OF THE KITAB AL-AHJAR

CHAPTER 6. TRANSLATION, COMMENTARY ANDTEXTUAL NOTES

I TranslationI Commentary and Textual Notes

APPENbICES

I Contents of the Excluded Sections of the Ahjaril Modern Editions and Translations ofJabirian Texts

B IBLI OGRAPHI C ABBREVIATI ONS

INDEX OF JABIRIAN ITORKS CITED

INDEX OF PROPER NAMES

AOF

8184899298

105

FORE\TORD

It is indeed a great pleasure to be able to introduce to the scholarly worlda new contribution to Jabirian studies. In it the author provides a criticaledition of substantial parts of a key work, the Kitab al-Abjar ,ak Ra'1rBalinds, in the group of 144 treatises known as the Kutub al-Matudzin or"Boola of Bdances." In it, as Dr. Haq meticulously orpounds the theory,Jabir describes his ideas about the numerical and phonetic substructureof pure and compound materials, and about the ways to analyze thesesubstructures by manipulating the consonants in the names of thematerials in the Arabic language and, in principle at least, in otherlanguages including the anificial.

Dr. Haq's treatmenr of the Kitab alAl.tjar is preceded by a chapter inwhich he, following the lead of a few other scholars, raises seriousquestions about the conclusions c/ncerning Jibir that Paul Kraus arrivedat fiftf years ago: that one individual did not write dl of the nearly 3000works that Arabic tradition allowed }kaus ro attribute to Jabir, but thatthese texts were composed by the members of a school over severalgen€rations; and that the corp.us Jabiianum does not date from the latterhalf of the second century Hijra/eighth century A.D., when Jabir isalleged to have been active, but from a period berween 875 and 975 e,.o.Some of Dr. Haq's arguments :ue not convincing; e.g., it seems to meirrelevant to the question of whether or not one man could havecomposed all of the 3000 works that only some 500 can be individuallynamed. One need only remark that the great collections of Onc Hundredand Tuclae Boohs, of Seucnty Boohs, and of Fiue Hundred Boohs,combined with the 744 Kutub al-Maudzln and the minor collections,abeady account for about 950 treatises. Certainly the corpus may haveconsisted of far fewer than 3000 items, as lGaus realized, since many ofthe known tides may belong to one or another of theserlarge collections,but it must have contained at least 2000 treatises. Still, the argumentsput fonh by Dr. Haq in favor of taking seriously the historicity ofJabiras a disciple of the sixth Shi.i Imi,m Ja.far al-Sadiq are compelling; andsome of Kraus' arguments in favor of his dating of the corpus.*e basedupon very uncertain foundations.

l1 l111112r12

r17

r63r63203

24925r255

259277279

*

or. Haq's solution is to ';"r; tLl.,"", of the author or autlors

and of his or their dates as unanswerable. But there are some things thatpoint to a date closer to 900 than to 800 A.D. For instance, 'Jibir" wrotea book entitled Kitab al-Nawdmr.s wa al-Padd'ald lfli.tun (Kraus 1981),in which, as we know from citations in the Kitab al-Sumum and theKitdb al-Tajmr', he attacked a magical tract, the Kitab al'NauamIs,falsely

"t.ri-bed to Plato. We have a Latin translation of this pseudo-

Platonic work, the Liber uacce, from which it is clear that the author usedHunayn ibn Ishaq's translation of Galen's On the Opinions of Phto and

Hippicrates, which was made in the 840's. Even in the Kitab al-Ahiar

itsiif there are hints of a probable ninth century date-e.g., the

geometricd definitions and vocabulary ol ff.78a-78b (published from

ihe Paris manuscript by lGaus in his Jdbir ibn Hayydn. Textes choisis,

Paris-Le Cafte 79i5, pp. 184 and 186-187, but omitted from Haq's

critical edition) and thi discussion in section 35 of Dr. Haq's edited text

of the Neoplatonic cosmology of the Sabians of Harrln. In both cases,

while absolute proof is impossible, it seems to me more likely than not

that these p"rr"g.t were written decades after 800 A.D. One possible

solution ,oihi, iroble." is that advanced by P. Lory (Gab* ibn HayyEn'

L'ilaboration di t'nt;x;r supr|me, Damas 1988, pp. 12-13): ". -'-'

I un

noyau primitif de textei alchimiques i caracttre essentiellement

t.chrriq,.r., des commentateurs plus tardifs auraient ajouti des gloses et

des explications doctrinales. L'ensemble aurait dt€ repris. et-encadrC par

des notations bibliographiques attestant I'origine fab-irienne. etlou

fa'farienne de chaque texte, anisi que sa place dans I'ensemble du

Corpus."The text itself of the Kitab al-Ahjar is preserved in five manuscripts.

The present location of one of these that Kraus Qabir ibn Hayan.

Coot ;botio, h I'histoire des idhs scientifques dans l'Iskm, vol' I, Le Caire

7943, p.180) had located in a bookstot. itt D"-"tcus is unknown, and

on. of th. two copies in Teheran is either a copy or a gemellus of the

other. IGaus, in hii publication of excerpts from thiswork (all ofparts I

and 2 and a part of p".t 4), used only the Paris manuscript' f)r' lltq h*^

collated all three, "ni

pr.r.rr., us wiih an authoritative critical edition of

excerpts from all forri p"ttr (unfortunately he could not at this time

"chieve a critical edition of the whole treatise) including the third, in

which he has discovered an early translation-or rather' an expanded

paraphrase-of part of Aristotie's Categoies. He is indeed to be

FORE\fORD ,

* t

congratulated on this achievement, as on his successful effort to dnravel

.nd"explain this obscure discourse on the Jabirian theory ofbalances.

M,r.h ,e-"ins to be done in the field of Jabirian studies, as in the

larger field it opens into, of the sources and the development of,,sclentific" ideas in early Islam. I am delighted to be able to welcome a

brilliant young scholar dedicated to improving and building on the

foundations so ably laid by Paul lGaus.

November, 1992David E. PingreeProfessor of tbe History ofMatbernaticsBroun UniuersityProuidence, Rhodc Ishnd

AUTHOR'S PREFACE

This study, in its original version, constitured my doctoral dissertationwhich I presented som€ yeirrs €o to l,ondon University. Now,that it isappearing in print, and thus places upon my shoulders a different kind ofresponsibility, it has been revised and extended. It seems to me that bymaking these changes and additions I have gained a wider audience. Fornow this work should be read with benefit not only by experts in thenarrow specialty of the history of mediaeval science and medicine, butalso by those whose inrerests lie in mediaeval philosophy, in the historyof religion and in the generd area of the intellectual history of Islam. Byadding much explanatory material and presupposing very little on thepart of the reader, I have also aimed at making this study accessible tostudents in these fields.

In a sense, this book may be regarded as consisting of two parts. Thefirst chapter in which I have ventured to reer€mine the notorious Jabir-Problem" is an integral but self-contained part of the whole and can beread independently in its own right. The remaining bulk of the bookmay be considered its second part. This comprises of five chapters whichtogether consritute a critical study of the Kitab al-Ahjar rali Rd! Bahnas(Book of Stones According to the Opinion of Balinas) attributed to thedchemist Jabir ibn flayyin. Naturally, these latter chapters are notmeant for reading in isolation from one another, nor will they makemuch sense if read in an order other than t}re one in which they appear.

But the two parts of the book are not mutudly independent. Indeed,it is one of my fundamental messages to the reader that the vexedquestion of the authorship and dating of the Jabirian corpus, a feverishlydebated issue dubbed 'Jabir-Problcm" by an earlier generation, is neithertrivial nor irrelevant. Yielding profound methodologicd consequences, itis a question that determines in most fundamental ways our veryapproach to Jabirian writings. In search of a methodology, then, I beginby subjecting to a critical reexamination whaq is by now an ofthodoxscholarly position on this issue. This is the, position based on thecompelling thesis of Paul Kraus that the Jabirian corpus, with thepossible exception of one trcatise, was written not by a single individual

xlll

]i,r'. z"alsth century ",

,'";a';:r but by several senerations of agroup of Shi'i authors who lived no earlier than the latter half of thecentury that followed. Having tentatively concluded that this thesis isproblematic, I have refrained from committing myself to themethodological imperatives it begets. But I have not dismissed Kraus'thesis; rather, in my approach to Jabirian writings, I have remainedsystematically indifferent to it.

'With these methodological considerations I proceed with my study ofthe Ahjar. Thus begins the second and main part of the book. Here,operating with the guidelines constructed in the first part, I identifrcertain firndamental nodons of Jabir's system and examine how theyfunction within the internal perspective of his cosmological, alchemicaland philosophical doctrines as these latter are developed in the Afiar.Thus, I have reconstructed the doctrinal context of this treatise,expounded its central theme, and presented a critical edition of itsthematically selected Arabic text. In the final chapter, I translate myedition in its entirety and provide extensive commentaries and textualnotes. The contents of the excluded sections of the treatise appear in anappendix at the end of the book.

It will be seen that at the core of the Ahjar lies a powerful idea of anontologicd equivalence between language and physical reality. Language,'we are told, did not merely depict the natural world, it was anembodiment of realiry itselfi indeed, language signified being. Therefore,an apalysis of language was effectively an anlysis of the objects of theworld. To know a thing was to know its name. Thus dwelops our audtoran all-embracing theoretical system, providing his logical proofs,explicating the consequences of his claims, and applying his system to,,,r*.ro.r*.tual cases. I do hope my account throws into sharp relief theenormous range of this system, its surprising logical coherence and itsundeniable philosophical wofth.

In the s"iond part ofthe book I also announce and Present a textualdiscovery of mine. I do so somewhat boastfully since this is the discoveryof a hitherto unknown translation of the 8th discourse of Aristotle'sCategoiae, a text of which only one mediaeval Arabic translation isknoin to us-narnely that by Ishaq ibn Hunayn. The discovery now ofanother Arabic rendering should delight the scholars of Arabic Aristodesince here we have something rather promising. This text, which I foundin the hitheno unstudied pait of the Ahjar, apPears as an integral part ofmy critical edition in Chapter 5; in ChaPter 6 it has been translated,

, , 'REFAC" ,

textually analyzed, and terminologically compared both with the text of

Aristotle as well as that of Ishaq.Let me now say

" *o.i concerning my criticism of Kraus. This

criticism, no mattei how animated it may aPPear, is not meant to belittle

the grand scholarship of this erudite historian. IGaus was' I acknowledge,

orr.if ,h. most ou;tanding scholars of his field and his contributions to

Jabirian studies are no less than monumental. To him I o'are an".rror-o.r,

debt, for throughout this book I draw heavily upon_his lcarned

and rigorous works. Yet I do mean to point out the inherent dangers that

lie in "an uncritical espousal of his views. As I have demonstrated, such

blind followirrg ,o-.iintes obscures more than it illuminates. Indeed, I

feel that -y

teitrl"l discovery of the Jabirian translation of Aristotle is a

fruit of a .ii.i""l stance toward Kraus. This is so because the existence of

an Aristotle-like discourse in a text ofJabir would have hardly constituted

a problem for a researcher unreservedly committe{ to lGaus' late dating

of the Jabirian corpus.Finily, I dare say that despite my painstaking efforts to- 1e!! 1f

fa.t , ard despite my ,r.r-.ro.ri readings of the manuscript of this book,

errors might still have gone unnoticed. I appeal to my readers 1o qoint

th.r. o,rt."Arrd now, ",

i looL forward to criticisms and appraisals of this

endeavor of mine, I wish to assure the experts that I am not unaware of

the many shortcomings and imperfections of this work, nor do I place it

before them without haunting trepidation, nay, even reluctance.

October 1992Centerfor Middle Eastern SndiesHaraard Uniucrsity

ACKNO\TLEDGMENTS

I wish to express my gr.ateful thanks to Professor P. M. Rattansi ofUniversity College london for his inspiring supervision of this work inits formative phases. To Professors A. I. Sabra, 'l7olfhart Heinrichs,Frank Vogel, Roy Mottahedeh and'VTilliam Graham, all belonging toHarvard University, I owe a very heavy debt of gratitude for dl the €xpeftguidance, encouragement and help they have variously and so readilyoffered me. Professor Everett Rowson of the University of Pennsylvaniadeserves my special thanks for his meticulous reading of some of myearliest editorial drafts of the text of the Ahjan

I have already acknowledged my debt to the works of lGaus. But Idraw upon the researches of many other scholars and this too must beacknowledged. My heaviest borrowings are from Richard Sorabji,'Wilfred Madelung and F. '!7. Zimmermann. I thank them profusely.

Numerous friends and colleagues have stood beside me and assistedme throughout the different stages of my protracted scholarly strugglesand to all of them I remain most grateful. Among them are EsterVyhnalek and Kevin Smith of.the School of Oriental and African Studiesof l,ondon; Elaheh Kheirandish, al-Noor Dhanani, Michael Cooperson,Hassan Mneimneh, AJ. Hollmann, Kenneth Kreshtool, Stefano Lepre,Muhammad Yusuf Siddiq, Mohsin Sdeh and Erik jacobson of Harvard;Iftikhar Zaman of the Oxford Center for Islamic Studies; Erik Moore ofBrown University; and Gloria Burke of the'STeymouh Youth and FamilyServices. But these are only some of the names that readily spring tomind.

It was Professor O",ti R"hbar of Boston University who hadpersonally introduced me to Professor Robert Cohen, Editor of theBotton Sndics in thc Philosoplry of Scicnce series; and this was a gesture Ishall always cherish. Indeed, to Professor Cohen I ow6 a very humblegratitude for dl his affection, attention' and guidance that I have received&ersince. I also thank Annie Kuipers of Kluwer Academic Publishers forbeing so considerate and patient.

The Executive Committee of tfie Center for Middle Eastern Studies atHarvard approved a small grant to cover some of the exPenses incurred

xvtl

:<vlll ACKNO\gLEDGMENTS

in manuscript preparation. The enthusiastic generosiry of the Committee

is gready appreciated."I, ir'ro i*"gg.r"tion to say that I could have h-ardly accomplished

"rfifri"f *i*o? .h" profoorrd and perpetual sacrifices of the members

ii'-y a?tify. Their,rrr"o-pro-isingsupport and care' dreir unwavering

ir*t i" me, their dignifiei commitment to qhe. legaT of scholarship in

,fr" a-ify-all this f,", b..r, crucial to my whole endeavor' Investing so

-,r"h ho'p., how anxiously have my sisters.kfii T"j'

Sd*: Naz and

3-"iif," eijri "r,d my littft nephew Asad Ahmed been waitirrg for the

completion of this work!

DATE S

Dates have been'specified both in the lunar Islamic cdendar and the

solar Christian caleniar respectively, with a virgule separating the rwo.

Thus, 1308/1890 = 1308 Hijra/l890 e'o'

JABI RIAN VORKS

All Jabirian works have been identified !f $-t nulb;3 assigned to

6; ; the bibliographic census conducted by Kraus in his p942-31' I.

pt.n-.a by the "abtre'iation 'Kr,' thesi numbers are - specified

i*-.Ji"."fi' after the title of the work' Thus' "Book of the Swen'

fu i32,, -.*r

that the named treatise has been assigned the number

l32in lGaus'census.

CITATION OF PRIMARY VORKS

unless otherwise noted, edited primary works are cited resP_ectively by

,h. ;A;;;n and lit."iior, of iht tdited volume' Thus' Badawi ed'

tf %gll l l:13 = Page 11, line.13 of Badawi's specified editio.n' , ,'-

fi"i"Ufirl.d^ i"rri""l rexts have been iited tesp.ctively- Uy-rl"

foliation and lineation of the specified manuscript' Thus' 11a42.= folio

ii", tirr. 42. Sometimes foliaiion has been tp..ifi.d by prefixing the

abbreviation "f".-- pl"ao,, texts have been cited in the standard manner of cornford.

Lirtotl.', ,.** t"t" been cited by the standard pagination and

lineation of Bekker.

EXPLANATORY NOTES

CITATI ON OF SEC ONDARY 'WORKS

See Bibliographic Abbreviations'

xD(

EXPLANATORY NOTES

EDITED TEXT

"Edited Text" refers to the critical edition of the Ahjaras it appears inChapter 5 of this book. This text is printed with double pagination: onein sequence with the rest of the book, the other independent and typedin the Arabic script at the bottom of the page. It is the independentpagination which is referred to in citations.

ADDENDA TO NOTES (CHAPTERS 2 AND 3)

fuabic quotations which form an integral part of some of the notes inChapters 2 end 3 have been given in the "Addenda to Notes." Theseaddenda are keyed to the notes to which they attach.

TRANSLATION. COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES(CHAPTER 6)

For the purpose of analysis, the translation of the Ahjar has beendivided into a number of sections and subsections, and each section hasbeen treated as a separate, though not independent, unit. Thus in the"Commentary and Textual Notes," each section first receives a generalcommentary followed by a narrower commentary on the subsectionwherever this latter exists; after this appear specific textual notes. Thesenotes have'been numbered independently in each unit.

NAMES, NATURES AND THINGS

)o not bc angry, O my brother, if you fnd a discourse conccrning religionr thc middli if a d;itount on alchemy uithout the laner haaing becn,mphted; or if yoa fnd a discoursc on ahhemy arter a discourse on religionlfo,re the pinciphs of thc htter haae becn fally establishcd!"

Jabir ibn Hayyin

CHAPTER I

INTRO D UCTI ON

Jabir ibn Hayydnr still remains one of the most enigmatic figures of thehistory of science. To begin with, there are doubts as to his very historicalexisience. But then, even if this question is glossed over, rhe enigma ishardly simplified for it is not at all clear if a historical Jabir is the realauthor of that extensive corpus which passes under his name. Thus, theinrerlocked questions of the authorship and dating of this labyrinth ofalchemical writings have remained a matter of seriously conflictingopinions and speculations. The.task of solving what came to be known asthe 'Jabir-Problem"2 is further complicated by the refrrarkable pauciry ofcritical studies ofJabirian treatises. As a result, much darkness looms overthe actual substance and range of these writings and their historical andphilosophicd sources. In fact, since Paul IGaus' mdgnum opus, completedby 1943, these questions have largely been abandoned in a mist ofcontroversy.3

'What makes thi6 probleni even deeper is the fact *rat controversy over

Jabir haunts the very tradition that has come down to us. As early asaround 3601970, barely 170 years after the supposed date of Jabir'sdeath, the philosopher'Abt Sulaymin al-Mantiqi in his Ta'dliqconsidered Jabirian works apocryphal, the true author of which, heclaims, is one al-Hasan ibn al-Nakad al-Mawsili whom he knewpersonally.4 Later on, in the 8th/14th centuryi we s.ee, for example, acritic of the history of Arabic lirerarure, Jamal al-Din ibn Nubataal-Misri, explicitly declaring that all writings attributed to Jabir are ofdoubtful authenticity.S And, in the earliest preserved biography ofJabir,irs generally reliable author Ibn al-Nadim (d.3441955) records a lucidreport about the prevalent controversies and doubts in an early periodnot only over the question of the authenticity of t[e Jabitian corpus, butalso concerning the very historical existence of its alleged author.6

But Ibn al-Nadim himself belongs to the opposite side in this contro-versy, dismissing all doubts emphatically and categoricdly: "Jabir didexist," he writes in the Fihist, "his case is certain and famous, hiscompositions being most important and numerouC."T On the same sideis Ibn '$7ahshi1rya (b. second half 3rdlgrh century),8 invoking the

CHAPTER I

authority of Jabir in his l{anz al-Hihma (Treasure of '$Tisdom)e andmentioning the Jabirian Kitab al-Sumirn (Book of Poisons, Yrr 2145) inhis own work of the same title. Jabir ibn Hayydn al-Sufi['s] . . . book onpoisons," we read in Ibn'Vahshirya's Sumum, "is a great work. . . . It is awonder."lo

Restricting ourselves to this earlier period, we have, likewise, the threemajor alchemists, al-Razi (d.3131925),ll al-Majrigi (fl. mid 4thl1Othcentury)r2 and lbn Umayl (d. c. 3491960;rt: ,6. author Abu Hanifaal-Dinawari (d. c. 2821895);la and the historians Ibn Tihir al-Maqdisi(fl. mid4th/lOth century)r5 and Sa'id al-Andalusi @. 46211070)re-Otof whom in one way or another refer to Jabir, with no implications intheir accounts either that his historicity or that the authenticity of theJabirian corpus is in any sense a problematic issue requiring explanation.

Turning to our own times, we see that during the thousand yearswhich separate us from Ibn al-Nadim the whole Jabir question hasbecome even more obscure and elusive. For, in addition to the conflictsin the tradition, the modern historian must now contend with yetanother puzzle that has in the meantime dweloped: are the Arabic Jabirand the l-atin Geber identical? The writings ascribed to this Geber, inparticular the Summa perfectionis, have been known in the Latin Westsince the early middle ages, for a long time considered to have beentranslations of the fuabic works of Jabir.tT Indeed, tlle classical editionsof the Geberian texts reinforced this view in which t}re author is variouslydescribed as "The Most Famous Arabian Prince and Philosopher,"ls"Kirg of the Arabs,"l9 "King of the Persians,"20 and, in e rareincunabulum, even as "Kitg of India."2l

But with the publication in 1869 of Hermann Kopp's Beitiige zur

Geschichte der Chemie,zz the scholarly world realized that the

identification of Geber with Jabir may well be an oversimplification; forKopp had announced that he was unable to find any bibliographic trace

of Arabic originals of the Latin Geberian texts, and that upon a

philblogical examination by an Arabist, tle latter showed no clear signs

of ha"ing been translated from Arabic. Thus, the same sorts of questionswhich had troubled the Arabic bio-bibliographers of Jabir were nowfaced by the 'Western scholars of Geber, and much wo1e: given the

Jabir/Gebcr identity in the l,atin tradition, the scions ofArabic historianst"t tto longer resolve the Geber issue in isolation from the Jabir issue,

nor, indeedl can the latter be settled without addressing the former. '!7ith

I NTRODU CTI ON

a new puz-zle added, the modern era of the Jabir-Problem has now beenushered in.

THE JABIRIAN CORPUS:SCOPE AND PECULIARITIES

Unfortunately, all these problems are further compounded by theinternal complications of the Jabirian corpus, a corpus that resisrs earyaccessibility. A formidable difficulty, for example, is presented by theenormously wide scope of these writings. "No alchemical work of Islam,"to quote one authority, "reveals such vast knowledge of ancient literatureor has such an encyclopedic character."23 Thus, on tJre one hand, thesewritings deal with the theory and practice of chemical processes andprocedures, classification of substances, medicine, pharmacology,astrology, theurgy, magic, the doctrine of specific properry of things (,Ilmal-Khawiss), and the artificial generation of living beings;24 allinterspersed with discourses on philosophy, logic, mathematics, naturaland artificial languages, music, and cosmology.Attd, on the other hand,many parts of the corpus bear a thoroughly religio-politicd character inwhich the chiliastic cosmology of proto-Shici gnosis constitues theautlor's subject matter; here one finds discourses on the occultation ofthe Imi.m and his mcssianic return,' on the unfolding of the Shi'i hiero-history, and on the politicdly charged question of the leadership of theMuslim community.

. The authorities cited, invoked or quoted are equally numerous anddiversified. Thus one finds in the corpus references not only to ancienthistorical or legendary writers such as Zosimus,25 Democritus,?6Hermes,27 Agathodemon,28 etc., but also cited therein Socratef9 andPlato,30 and quotations from all parts of Aristotle's v/orks,3l as well asfrom the commentaries of Alexander of Aphrodisias,32 Themistius,33Simplicius3a and Porphyry.35 Galen is,found to be cxtensively quoted,36and Archimedes and Euclid are not only referred to, but-like Socrates,Plato, Aristotle and Balinas (Apollonius of Tyana), etc.-a separatetreatise is devoted to each one of them.37 In addition,' the Kitab al-Hasil(Book of the Result, lk 323) preserves a long extract from the Pktiaphihsophorun of ps-Plutarch.38 And, of course, throughout the Jabiriancorpus one comes across numerous refefences to the sixth Shiti Imim

Ja'far al-Sadig(d,1471765) who is claimed to be the aut*ror's teacher and

CHAPTER 1I NTRODUCTI ON

corpus.4l Therefore, no single treatise was complete by itself-bydefinition, each remained fragmentary.

The author always insists that the reader ought to refer to other worksin order to get the whole meaning of what is being treated of in thetreatise under consideration; other works urge the reader to consult yetotlers; and so on.a2 Full of copious bibliographic references to its ownworks, the corpus dso gives clear instructions as to the order in which itsdifferent writings are to be looked at; it even specifies the number oftimes each one them should be read.aS Strictly speaking, then, one needsto have before oneself the entire body of Jabirian writings if the wholetruth of the author's teaching is sought. And while it is in principlepossible to reconstitute his corpus and to complete the picture, inpractice it remains an impossible task.

The application of the Principle of Dispersion of Knowledge may alsoexplain the fact that in the same treatise, without contextual justification,thi author often deals with vastly disparate subject matters.44 Thus, allindividual writings of the Jabirian corpus are full of digressions, shifts ofperspectives, discontinuities and half- truths: these features Presentdifiiculties of a serious order.

Finally,'one is confronted with the problem of an irritating lack ofconsistency in the Jabirian corpus. Thus, in the classification ofsrrbstarrc.r, for example, mercury is at one time counted among spiritsa5and, at another time, among metals;46 substituting for it sometimes"glass" (*jala7 and sometimes the chinese alloy hhdrsini' 8 Also,sohetimes the status of mercury is specified categoricdly as in the abovecases, and som€times equivocally: "There is uncertainty concerningrrercur/," writes Jabir in the Kitdb Utuquss al-Us (Book of the Elementof Foundation, Kr 6-9), "it is a spirit with spirits, and a soul withsouls."4e Similarly, in the Kitab al-Sab'iz (I)O( Books, Ik 123-192)' inthe vein of a numerological speculation, a special status is accorded to thenumber 18; whereas ln the Kutub al-Mautdztn (Books of Balances,Ys 303-446) the number 17 is declared as the foundation of werythingin the natural wodd.5o These inconsistencies are not easy to explain-and yet lhe onus of explanation must remain on the hiStorian.

lord, the Master under whose direct guidance the author had composedhis works.39

Given this tremendous vastness of the scope of Jabirian writings, afuller and intelligible picture of their contents is not easily drawn. It is

clear, for example, thai these writings have to be approached from at least

two different angles: (a) from the perspective of the religious history of

Islam; and (b) as a problem of the history of science. But in either case

one has to grope in- darkness, for just as the early history of alchemy is

wrapped in obscuriry, so are the historic origins of the Shi(i sects in

Islam-. Both these areas are fraught with controversies and chaos as we

will have occasion to see below.But there are other problems associated with the Jabirian corpus, and

this leads us to the second difficulty, namely the difficulty of making

sense'of the language of these writings. To be sure, the author avoids

obscure allegoriJs s6 typical of the Hellenistic alchemists and even of

some later Mutfim dchemical writers such as Ibn Umayl or Dhu'l-Nun

al-Misri (d.245t859). But his style is often crude and uneven, freque-n1l)'

uioi"tit g "ytttacticd

rules. More critical, however, is the problem of the

technici terms in the corpus for which our standard le,xicographic aids

prove to be seriously inadiquate. Thus t9 make sense ofJabirt scientific

i"ng,r"g., one has io go thiough the laborious process of seeking help

f.oi, nih"t wi have of lhe worfts of other Arabic alchemists, troxicologists,pharmaceutical naturalists, etc. But this may nor_be a good metho.dology

aft.r all, for if Jabir is the first alchemist of Islam-a possibility we

cannot overrule--then to seek illumination from later writings would

constitute a reverse process which cannot help us much in settling the

qu"riion particularly of the dating of the corPus' And as for-the- earlier

"l.h.-ic"l writings, thby can hardly throw any light on Jabir for they are

themselves *oppid in a thicker blanket of obscurity'Third, thereis this difficulty of Jabir's peculiar brand of "esotericism."

As it is gcnerally known, dchimy has traditionally been a s€cret practice.

Thr.,s, ."t *"rry places in the corpus we lead warnings of.the arrthor's

allesed *"rt., J".f"r that these *iitittgr should n.'tn.tb. allowed to fall

into"th. hands of the unworthy or thc irresponsible.4o But quite unlike

the ancient practice of using cover names a1d- allegories; Jabir's.esorericism" ̂consisrs

in whatie calls tabdid dl-'ilm, the Principle of

Dispersion of Knowledge: truth was never to be reveded completely at

orr.^pl"".. Rather, it wJs the aim of the author to cut it up and,-like so

-"rry pi...s of a jigsaw puzzle, spread it all over tlte maze of a vast

8 cHAPTER I

THE THESIS OF PAUL KRAUSAND ITS METHODOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

How does one steer through these defeating external and internalcomplications that surround the figure ofJabir ibn Hayyin and the bodyof his writings? In seeking an answer to this question we can hardly rurnto a scholar more erudite in this field than Paul Kraus whosemonum,ental study of 1942-43 was a major breakthrough in Jabirianstudies.5l Indeed, historians such as Holmyard and, in more recenttimes, Fuat Sezgin have found reasons to challenge not only l(raus'conclusions but his very approach,S2 yet this does not reduce the validityof his work. In fact, so comprehensive and so learned is his study that itprovides the scope of its own refutation, and those who criticize himdraw upon the raw material that he himself provides. Thus it hardlyseems possible to begin a subsequent study of Jabir without acceptingPaul IGaus as the major guide, and without recognizing his findings as afirmly established starting point.

'After ini'estigating at a grand scale the Jabirian corpus and the bio-bibliographic traditions built around it, lGaus had reached two radicdconclusions which, if accepted, make the task of the historian muchsimpler. His first conclusion, to be found nowhere in our modern orclassical sources, concerns the question of the authorship of corpus: withthe possible exception of the Kitab al-Rahma al-Ihblr (Great Book ofMercy, IG 5), says Kraus, these writings are the work not of a singleindividual but of several Benerations of a group of authors sharing certainphilosophical, ideological and political concerns. Kraus' secondconclusion, which ultimately derives from a hunch of Berthelot,53 isequally radical: the writings ascribed to Jibir were not composed in the2ndl8th century. Rather, they are the products of a later period, theoldest part dating at the earliest from the second half of the 3rdl9thcentury.54

The methodological implications of Kraus' thesis have a number ofvery attraitive features: if many hands of many successive generationswere involved in the production of the Jabirian corpus, then no longerdo we need to undertake the difficult task of explaining all the trouble-some gaps, inconsistencies and all the non-uniformities tlat are found init*a plurality of authors provides a sufficient explanation and relieves usof this burden. Likewise, by shifting the dates of these writings into, so tospeak, broad dalight when scientific activity in Islam was being carried

INTRODUCTION , '

out openly under court patronage, we do away with the need to go intothe obscure literature of an earlier century in order to reconstruct thehistorical context of Jabirian ideas. Thus, on lGaus' view, we will beperfectly justified in consulting the writings of the alchemists such asal-Rzi and Ibn U-"yl to annotate Jabirian texts; this will involve noanachronism.

From the point of view of the historian's reliefi another favorablemethodological implication of the late dating of the corpus is the factthat it renders unproblematic the Jabirian familiariry with the vasr scopeof the Greek scientific and philosophical literature. If the writingsascribed to Jabir were composed in the second half of the 3rdl9thcentury and later, then no problem is presented by the fact that theycontain quotations from, for example, the works of Aristotle-by thistime translations of Greek works into Arabic had already become a full-scale activity and the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma)mtn (1981813-2231833)had established in Baghdad his celebrated Bayt al-Hihma. Thus, thecontents of the Jabirian corpus do not demand a fresh examination ofour long-held'modern views cancerning the history of the Fansmissionof foreign ideas into Islam, nor can these writings be taken to throw anynew light on this phenomenon.S5

Givin all these attractive features of lGaus' theory, it'is small wonderthat the bulk of modern-day scholars chooses to accept it. Thus, whenAlfred Siggel learnt that in a discourse on the anatomy of the eye, the

Jabirian text K;tdb lhhrQ maf'l-Quwuta ih'l-F;'l(Book of the Passage ofPotentialiry to Actualiry, Kr 331) speaks of three moistures (rutabat)and seven layers (tabaqdr),56 representing an advance over the beliefofthe Christian physician Yuhanna bar Masawayh (b. t6ll777), hedisposed of it by saying that the Ihhraj must be dependent on the worksof Hunayn ibn Ishaq (d.2641877).lz tf Siggel had not accepted the latedating of Kraus, Jabir's anatomical knowledge would have opened up awhole set of challenging questions for him. Similar is the case of anotherhistorian ofArabic science, Martin Plessner, who strongly criticized FuatSezgin for his suggestions that it would be more fruitful, though at thesame time more chdlenging, to take a relatively cons€rvative approach to

Jabir than the one shaped by the views of l(raus.58But the temptation to follow lGaus uncritically must be curbed: for if

the writings ascribed to Jabir were, after all, composed in the 2ndl8thcentury, then we have in them a whole literary treasure which can tell usmuch about the period of transition of Islam from its classicd to its

10 CHAPTER I

mediawal phase-that is, a transition from the times when the heritage

of "rr.i.rr,

i."rtirrg had not been systematically appropriated, to an era of

intense translatiJn acrivity "rrj

brrrg.oning cultivation of natural

sciences. Many questions pertaining io this transitional period still

remain-qu"riiorr, "orrceining

the role of the Harrinians' the

dissemination of Hermetic ideaslthe origins and assimilation of pseudo-

Greek works, the nature and channels-of oriental influences, and so

ori.il;abirian texts dl us something about all of these questions and can

s€rye as a valuable source if they are not later compilations'

Aguin, if Jabirian treatises *r. rrot to be shunned as later apocrypha'

,h.y-^"y *.il be recognized as comprehending a.mine of information for

the ,.lieiou, historianl the confuseJ mess of eschatological speculations,

,h; l;:t";tes on the metaphysics of Prophethood and Imirnate' the

r"-.yr "f "

heavy religio-p"liti""l TllC:, the alph"betical symbolisl:',th'

p.orro,.rn..-ent of prophecies-all these f-eatures of Jibtr's rellglous

lriiing, reflect the iurmoils of the proto-Shi'i ethos in Islam. But to

,*f.. ""t. of Jabir as a majo^o,',"L il 9ut search for the origins of

sectarian Shiiirm, *. *,rri first critically reexamine trGaus' positive

identification of tfie authorship and dating of the Jabirian-colPY_s.Indeed, an uncritical .td thorougligoing espousal of Kraus has

sometimes led not only to futile o<ercir.i b,ti also, embarrassingly, to

;;;;;;;;."Ji"",iJ"s. For example, in the vein of his unreserved

,,rooo* for-Kr",rr' late dating of the jabirian corpus, Plessnir-a highly

;;Ifi;i; ,"-fr"i",. indeed-jonce diclared that-"Jabir llyoy uses the

sciintific language as perfected by. $un-ayn ibn Ishaq and his

pupils. . . .'60.-gutlhit is false. Similarly, as I have shown elsewhere' a

i."'4, comParadve study of the. Jabirian corPus ":1

qt well-known'n^i;itirprl

i.O of the Iichwan al:9afe' (Brethern of Purity; established

" ilititill turned out to be fruitless-another'unfortunate result of a

doematicacceptanceofKraus' thesistogetherwithi tsfar.reachingm.lthodolo gical i m pl ications' 6 I

A PRELIMINARY CRITICISM OF KRAUS

It is evidently beyond the scope -of

the present work to attemPt an

exhaustive oramination of the *id"tt"t and reasoning w-hich constitute

ii. *ro.rrrd, of lGaus' thesis. Thus the criticism that follows remains

;l;;;;;;;;;rt". It aims merelv at a summarv investigation of

I NTROD U C TI ON

some of the major arguments of Kraus, and claims to go no further *ran

stating a first result.

L On the Sizt and'Uneaenncst of the Corpus

IGaus presents two main arguments to suPPort his theory of a group

",rthorrhip of the Jabirian "oip,rr.

The-first-argument concerns what

;;;; ,; f,. ,.g"rd.d as the "immense" and "Fantastic"62 size of the

.oit..,i". body?f th.re writings; while the second is based on a consider-

ation of the fr"g.rrt"ry l-r"a.rr-" of its ind_ividual treatises which arises out

of the Jabirian" pr""ti.. of the principle o.f tabdid al-'ilm and which

results in "

.orp,ri marred by a thorough and deliberate unevenness'

in hi, ..rrr,rs of the writings belonging to the Jabirian-corpus-' Kraus

had enumer ated 2982 *orLi.63 F"i an individual author this is an

.;;;;; fif"t. i"a..a. Thus, Kraus -argued, -"the

great. number of

*rril rcr"*ft.rtirrg the corpusl renders the hypothesis probable. that they-

"r. no, due to a iingl.

"rithor."6a And again, ". . . ihe attribution of

thousands of treatisles to a, single author of the 2ndl8th century

contradicts all the ideas which"have been formed concerning the

*Jrr.ion of fuabic literature."65 These arguments aPPear to be sound

;;;: Br; Jr., ,f* l"Uirian corpus contaii litera[y 298.2 works? And

precisely how large are these works? 'when we examine these questions,

th. *hol. picture-changes drastically:

l. The enumeration of Jabirian writings does not run continuously in-'fr",rr;

census. Thus, for example, from the number 500 a leap is

,*i. .o the number 530 with ttlthit g in between;66 the number 532

ir, ,h. ...rrs is followed by 553, and the interval from 533 to 552 is

not accounted for;ii ""1i,[t "ottespond

to the numbers 554 to 62968

or from l75l ro 1777;69 ",,d 'o

on' IGaus' counting.of.Jabir's

treatises, then, is full of numerous la-rge vacancies. which were

i"irrJ"""a ori of .o*id.r"tion either of the internal indications of

;;;il;; o, of .h. Arabic,bibliographers' rough estimates of the

wealth of literature. 'When'*. d.i,r.t these vacancies, the total

number of titles restituted by lftaus reduces to a litde over 500-an

abysmal drop from 2982!2. In the census of lGaus each section or Part of a single treatise has

been counted ..p"r"t.ly as an independent work' Thus' the single

"*,ir" the Kiib al-Jlmat al-,Ishin70(Book of .Twenty -lvlaxims,

i ia-lSZt, ha, 'beeri counted as twenty works; t\e t1s; 3tlrba'il'n

r,iitii*y'Book,IG 1l0l-1140) as forryworks; the Kitab al-Ahjar,

12 cHAprER I

which is in four !T,r, lqp."rs as four works (lk 307_3lO); to thethree pans of the-Kitdb IJituquo ar-(Jss,thr.. diff.r.nt'r"u-i.., h"rr.been. assigned (IG 6-s),

"nd ihe commentary that follows it recei.,es

anothe.r separate .counting,(Kr 9). Su.h- !*"noph, ;;; easily b.muJtiplied. It is evident thal lGaus'' total of 298t i, ;;ilir,fl"t.d,

it has also been arrived at through a very liberar ,.i.,hod ofenumeration.3' Many.of the Jabirian works reckoned to be comprete independent

treatises .bg:ly occupy

"-.1g19 leaf in th.

-"rruri.ip,r. ii'. entire

Kitab aLsahl (Boolc'of Falirity, Kr947) "or,rirtJ

o'i"-or o.,.fi:F Tl-jt begins and ends on one harf of forno 64-oi'Ms paris5099. The Kitab al-Nar (Book of the Light, trG rD .i"m, fut onefolio (no. 183) in,the sam,e manuscript. ihi. pari.'m"nur..ipt

"lrocontains the Kitab.al-erdir (Book of the powerfur, rc iaoi whichoccupies the second half of folio 66 andthe first hrlrof tti. follo*injfolio 67; in MS T:h-e1an, Danishgah 491, the r*;;i,i a;;begin?on the first half of folio l4l

"rd-endr,on that of 142. Aiain, in MSParis 2606, for example, the rengths of the r;tab ar-tua'b;i at-Iebtr(Great Book of the _u_nique, IG r"l) and the t<;tat )t-tuiiiJ ri-p.ghr,(SmaII Book of the.g.liqug, lk 12) are, respeci.,rely, thre. foiior,

-anvo folios and a harf (f. r2b - f.94b, and f.^94b - { r)e^).Mori "r*.treatises in the corpus are smilarly very small.

The Da( Books consist of 2i5 foiios in MS Jerullah 1554. Eachfolio has the dimensio n lg.5 cm x 13.5 .-, .orrtrining 15 lines perpage. This means that, on th.

"rr.r"g;., th. i.rrgth

"f ;.ii;tise in

this.collection is just over three folios]Likewise,If *e add all the foliosof drfferent manuscripts which comprise another collection entitledKitab al-Khams Mi,a(500 Boola, y$'447_g46\ rhe total would barelyqg.b.y9"{ 120.7r The 500 Boohs, then, do nor even occupy 500folios. other collections of the corpus similarry turn out ,o bl'-u.hsmaller than an uncritical glance at the censu, of IG",r, would lead usto believe.T2

. This.lorgh investigation makes it abundantly clear that we shouldview with. ? .$ea1 deal of_suspicion_ any arguments for a plural ity ofauthors which is based on lftaus' inflatei .rtirrr"t. of the volum. of th.Jabirian corpus.

But IGaus has another argument to support his thesis: 'fDespite one'sconstant cfforts," he writes, "to impress upon the [Jabirian]

'corpus a

homogeneous character, we find each time g"p, Jnd .orrt'odiction,

I NTRoDUcrr oN ,

, ,

wtich, can only be explained _h "t

evolution in time [extending overlevelal generations of writers]. "73 Th.. pr".t ice of tabdid' oilji* p rouia.dfurther evidence-"could we not i*"girr.-' i-"i*'rti"ur,":,*",,r.bibliographic indications [which "..

fouid pr""iilJri i" lii ir,auau"tJabirian treatises] ... and such o<travagant use of the iri".ior.-rr tabdid

:,:"'!: fl::1M upon not.only to "rJ,,r. .,, .irr,. iii*""';;; of thecorpus' but also to conceal _s5.s"gr which exist between itsiarious parts?'vfhen in each collection Jabii iecrares that .h.;;il;;il."tior,,

present the science in an incomplete . . . form, .rri ,h". theiy n.ed to b.complemented by a 11er.plan"tion, isn't ,f,", " "..y

irrg.i'iJ,rr'ir."r,, .odl:y ". [constand addition of new;;;;i*r and new coilections to theoriginal stock?"74 lGa.us gogs on ro say that besides ar ,rt.r. i"Ji"ations ofa collective authorship,_ he has found conclusive .uid.rr.._ i Th.fluctuations in the classification of ,r"trr."lly

".;;ri;g ;;;;;;;., whichone finds berveen one collection and anothe, i,

" ,";fui;;;;;^ent infavor of a plurdity of authors,."75

Yet it is ironic that lGaus' own position on this issue flucruates.Elsewhere he had observed that the Jabirian writings h"rr.

-".r."i.,

stylistic-and linguistic properties in coimon," *d-i l""ri fro- tti,p"oint of view-tJrey were so interrinked that "it is impossible io-p;.t o,r.[trom these. writingsJ any single work and declaie it fake *i.ho.r,proposing that the whole colliction is spurious."76 And, as for thedoctrinal uniformity of the corpus, one discovers from Kr".rr, o*r,comprehensive sudy tfiat in various Jabirian writings " all scientificldet"il,are woven into a nhyent sryst1m and it is the Iatier which gives them*,iTi"s and.justification. Philosophical reasoning is the ,t"rtifrg point ofdtt these wntrngs. . . . Again and again, emphasis is raid on thJii." th.tin science practice (ramal) can leal to nowhere unless theory (;h, q\,a,burban) has had its due."77

, G,iven the srylistic homogeneiry of the Jabirian corpus on the one

hand' and its substantive coheience on the other, th. argumerrt for acollective authorship loses much of its force.'what about the thematic and stylistic continuity through the variousindependent collections of the corpls? IGaus admiti thar,,tL d"idr.r".,ojj3cfng and sryle b:y:.1 [the four major collecions, namely] thecxII Boohs and the Lfr( Boohs on the one hand,

^na *r--'runt

al-Mautiizln [Klufl and the 5 00 Boo hs on the other, *; ; ;r;;;enoughfor one to admit that the rwo groups of writings *.t. .ofrforJ withmore than 100 years berween tliem."TsAnifurther, "d'.rpii. .h.

14 CHAPTER I

diversences, the teachings of the lful are the direct continuation of those

"iiZ m'aoohs."79 As""irr, this would mean that there is some degree of

unity in the Jabirian "o-.p,rr, and the differences between various BrouPs

of its writings are not gr."t "ft.,

all. Indeed, I have myself_discovered in

,fr. fr.r.", it,rdy th"t irt"i., fundamental alchemical doctrines expressed

io y'abir', Ahjai apeady exist in an identical contexual setting in the

al-Rabma oi-Kobir-^"a ,nir latter is the earliest extant work of the

lorprrr, separated from the form-er by no less than 300 treatises according

to Kr"rrr'L*r, .ot'rrrting. Therefore, ironic as it seems, the find word on

this issue is none oth.r-th* that of lGaus himselfi

The cohernce and unity oftbought expressed therein [sc' in the Jabirian corpus] are

astonishing.so

As for Kraus, speculative argument that the Jabirian Practice of tabdtd

ot-rln-,W*.rts "

plur"liry of i',rthorr, it is interesting that once again he

ii-r.lf pi|',ria., ih. gro,rrrd, for a criticism of hii own views' In his

learned discussion entiiled "The Principle of Dispersion.of Knowledge in

Ao'tin.,it and the vriJir. S.","t.t Kia,rs infor-s us that Jabir's-use of

i[i, i.iri"iple is no "n"-olf

in the history of dissemifii:l of ideas:

Maimonides Practiced it, and so didRoger Bacon' And tt that ts the case'

;tjo;. port,rl"t. a collective ",rthorihip

for the Jabirian works when

*.'dlrr', do th. same with the writingi of Maimonides and Roger

Bacon?A similar remark can. be made concerning Kraus' argument which he

calls ,,conc1uri.,r.",

"ould w€'not i*agin. tlh"t ,o-. .*planatio_n other

.t"n "-ptt

r"lity of authors, may legitilately.be sought forth-e-Jabirian

nue,,r"iio.r, ii the "t"""ifi"ttio"

"of n"tu'"I substances? One is here

reminded of Mariorie.Ct*. w.!rq talls of what primafacie.aP3cars to be'--':-:--'-- ' t' ,io

", the root of Aristoile's thought,"a2 but by

:";xt1'i:ffi":'fifi perspecrive ,h. u'alri"r.., .h. .fi"lt.nsing. "nii"i.r*ii"* i"sk of

-"ii"; this contradiction vanish. \{rhy should our

methodol6gy be otherwise for Jabir?

2. Jdbir and the Shtzi Imam Jafar

Jabir's alleged relationship- with the sixth Shi'i Imim Ja'far al-Sadiq

<aliqlnel-pl"y, . "."irlf

role in the traditional accounts of the

t-rrrr.r', life ;d f**. O,r, ,t"d"'d sources a81ee. tha; Jebir w-asin close

raDDort with the I*i-.83 On the other harid, in the writings of the

;;tffi ;;;;;h;r; "r. ,.,,rn.ious occasions when the author claims to

INTRODUCTION 15

be his intimate disciple: it is in the first place to this "Master' (Sayyil)

that Jabir owes the knowledge of the secrets of alchemy, it is under his

direcl inspiration that Jabir composes his writings, and it is this Ma'danal-Hikm) (Mine of Visdom)84 who is Jabir's critic and guide par

cxcelhnce.S5From the point of view of the dating of the Jabirian co-rpus, an

enquiry into-the Jlbir-Ja'far relationship is obviously-of crucial

imiortance. Of the dates of the Imam we have much reliable historicalinformation-ifJabir is his disciple, then we can determine his dates too.

Thus it is hardly surprising that, before presenting the constructive part

of his thesis, Kraus "ddt

ttet r}re question of the link between the two

figures. His teacher Julius Ruska had dready "eliminated Ja'far from the

hi"rtory of alchemy,"86 now Kraus sets out to eliminate him from the

story ofJabir.Ii.rt b.for. examining l(raus' arguments, let us look at some of the

significant peculiarities of th. -"tttt.r

in which the Imim is mentioned

by Jabir:1. . Throughout the Jabirian corpus, there ar,e literally hundreds of

references"to Jarfar. But in a ,rast majority of cases, these references

take the forfn of an invocation which consists in the fotmula " wa

haqqi nyidi' (By My Master . ..). h fact so numerous is this

i""?"tio" that it p.""ticrlly functions in the texts as theconjunctions"however," "and so therefoie," "thereby," "but," and the like'

2. In a very few cases does Jabir add the name Ja'far to this formula.sT

And the instances in which he specifies an actual encounter with the

Imim are even fewer.883. It emerges from an examination of a good number.of Jabirian

texts8g thal all those writings concerning which an actual encounter

with fie Imim is reported bilo"g to the earlier pan of the corpus. To

the best of our pr.r.n. knowled-ge of Jabirian writings, the.last such

work is the Kiiab al-Ahd (Boot of the Pact) in which the author

records a face-to-face conversation with la'far'9o Now, in l(raus'

census ih which the works are enumerated in a chronological

..q"."..,-* , 'rqlrl ouupies the-numbe,rs 1053-L0J5'91 The last count

in the census, ",

*. hate noted, is 2982. This means that when the

text in question was written, only about 35o/o of the Jabirian corPus

had been constitued.924. Although the invocation "By My Masler . . ." is found in dre latter

part of th". .orp.,, too, there "t.

ro indications in these subsequent

t6 CHAPTER I

references that Ja'far is alive at the time when the writing of these textis actually carried out. In fact, references to Ja.far 1n the Kitabal-Khawass al-IQbtr (Great Book of Propefties, Kr 1900-19j0), whichis a later work, make it quite evident that th. imam has now died: (a)In the "Sixteenth Discourse" of the al-Khawass, Jabir relates aconversation with *re Master (without naming him). But this report,which has been inserted totally out of context,g3 concerns aconversation about an earlierwork, the Kitab al-Hasil;9a to be sure,the topic of this conversation is not the work in which the encounteris being reported. (b) Talking about Ja.far in the "sevenreenthDiscourse," Jibir says: "My,Master often ased to sali' (kqad hanaSayyidi yaqulu lt hathlran).9s 1.to,. the use of the past conrinuoustense. (c) In the "Sixth Discourse" we find mentioned two Ja.fars-the Imim Ja'far al-Sadiq and the familiar Abbasid vizier Ja.far ibnY"ttya al-Barmaki.96 The latter Ja.far-appearing in the work as ayoung child-was born in c.1501767; two years after the death of theImim. Obviously it would be absurd to assume that the aurhor wastrylng to give the impressign that both Ja.fars were alive ar rle sametime-given the religious importance of the Imim, and the fact thathis dates have always been rather well-known, nobody could get awaywith such miscalculation. In fact, the opening ,.rrt.rr..r"of thi,"Discourse" clearly irhply that it had been some time since Jabir wasin dre service of'the Imim: "One day," writes Jabir, "when my renownas a learned man and true disciple of my Master had becomeknown. . . ."97 The author is tdking about a time when his reputationhad been established among the wider public, and this implies apassage of time.

5. Another possible evidence is to be found in the Cairo manuscript ofthe al-Khawass (Tabri1yat,621).ln the "Sixth Discourse" where theImim is actually named, the manuscript adds the formula " radiyaAlkhu 'dnhu" (may God be pleased with him!) after "Sayyidi Ja'far"(my Master Jalfar).ls Indeed, one cannot overrule the possibility thatthis standard prayer, which is always offered for the dead, is a spuriousaddition made by the scribe.99 But at t}e same time one notes theabsence of the formula from the manuscripts of earlicr Jabirianwritings.loo

Kraus finds no credibility in Jabir's story. He dismisses it first onrational grounds: (i) "According to the calculations of Holmyard," herecalls, 'Jabir was born at thi: beginning of 2nd, century Hijra and died

I NTRODU CTI ON

toward 200H.10r '\(/hen Ja'far died (about l47H) he [sc. Jebid could

scarcely have been more than 35." But since references to the Imdm arefound throughout the. corpus, " it is ncccssary to assamc that all uiings lofJdbir) u.,ere composed before the death of Jafar, that is to say, in theirauthori youth."toz (ii) The Jabir-Ja.far relationship "furt}ermore impliesa chronological misinterpretation." For if we assumed that the earlierpa.rts of the Jabirian corpus were composed during the lifetime of Ja.far,and the latter after his death, then "how can it be explained that alreadythe first collection [of the corpus], the CXII Boohs, contains treatisesdedicated to the Barmecides whose coming to power took place in1701786 [that is, some 2l years after Ja'far's death], and particularly atreatise dedicated to Ja'far ibn Yatrya al-Barmaki born aroundl50176T"ro3

Clearly, by vinue of the foregoing discussion, it is not at all difficult torefrrte the first argument of lGaus. A closer examination of the manner inwhich Jibir refers to. the Imim suggests that it is only necessary to admitthat some 35o/o of the Jabirian writings, not all of them, had beencor4pleted during Ja'far's lifetime. And now that we have redrawn thepicture of the size of the corpus, there is nothing fantastic in theassumption that by the age of 35 Jebir had accomplished this much. Asfor argument ii, it stands on seriously problematic foundations.

It is a consistent feature of the Jabirian corpus that each treatisementions, and is mentioned by, numerous others. There is hardly ano(ception, for this is the only way the principle of tabdtd al-'ilm couldwork. In fact so copious and so frequent are these intra-corpusbibliographic notices that Kraus calls them "bothersome."l04 4n4 i. Italso thanla to these mutual references that lGaus was able to establish therelative chronologicd order of these writings.

Now, there is something remarkably anamolods about the threetreatises which reponedly belong to the first collection in the corpus, theCXII Boohs, and are, IGaus tells us, dedicated to the specific members oftlre Barmecide family. These worla leave notrec,e anywhere in the entirecorpus-in no other works are they referred to, and za manuscripts ofthem have been found. And more, they are mentioned nowhere in theexternal tradition, and the only source stating.their existence is Ibnal-Nadim. 105 Also, there is somedring highly suspicious about them: twoof them are dedicated to figures totally unknown to historians-'Ali ibnIshaq al-Barmaki and Mansir ibn Ahmad al-Barmaki O.toa

t7

18 CHAPTER I

But in Kraus' catalogue of the CXII, wro additional texts apPear asdedications to the Barmecides in general. These titles, which lGaus hastaken from Ibn al-Nadim's Fihrist, read" Kitab (Jstuquss al-Uss al-Awwalik'l-Bararnihd' (The First Book of the Element of FoundationDedicated to the Barmecides) and " Kitab (Jstuquss al-Uss al-Thantikyhim" (The Second Book of the Element of Foundation Dedicated toThem). In 1928 Holmyard published these texts from a Bombaylithograph edition of 1891,t02 and subiequently in 1979 Peter Zirnismade them the subject of a citical edition.l0s It is most significant thatneither Holmyard's text, nor any of the additional manuscripts studied

by Zirnis (MS Paris 5099, f. l94a - f' 794a, and Ms Berlin Or. Add. Oct.

2250); make any mention of the Barmecides.The first title reads " Kitdb (Jstuquss al'(Jss 'ali Ra'1 al-Falasifa li Jdbir

ibn Hayyan wa huwa'lAwual min al'Thaktha" (The Book of the

Elemlni-of Foundation According to the Opinion of the Philosophers by

Jabir ibn $ayyin. This is the First of the Three);l0e there are no

r.ference, to the Persian family in the second title either, which aPPears

as'Kit. Ust. al-Uss 'ala Ra'y al-Diydna tua huuta al-Thdni li Jdbir" (The

Book of Elem. Fou.,d. Aicording to Religious Opinion. This is the

Second byJabir).110 one notes that sezgin too gives the titles of these

works *iiho,rt any mention of the Barmecides.lll 1. k therefore an

inescapable conclusion that Ibn al-Nadim's titles are corruPt. .Zitnis,therr, ir"d ample justification for his explicit declaration tliat "they [sc.these titles]

"r, irr.ott"..ly listed in . . . [the] ,Fihrist'"1r2

Irrl f".t, there .is yer another title in the Fihrist of Ibn al-Nadim

presented as the third book of the usl1tTuss, immediately following the

lbolr. two. This reads " Kitdb al-I{amil iuuta al-Thalith ikyhini' (Boo\

oiP..f..tion. This is the Third Dedicated to Them [sc. Barmecides]).ttl

Here l(raus himself, after examining the extant manuscripts, drops.the

refetence to the Barmecides. In the Lanuscripts the title is restricted to

"Kitdb al-I{amdl" (IG 10), and ILn al-Nadim has evidently made another

,rrirot. in reporting that ihis work is the third part of the U^syuqusl)ta'We have, ih.n, i.rfficient grounds to conclude that as far as the first

half of the Jabirian corpus ii "orr".rrr"d,

the alleged mentions of the

Persian f^^ily are highlysuspect,and u*erly undocumented' It is only in

the latter h"if rh"t tf,. 'B*-""ides

are clearly and evidently referred to.

This makes good chronological sense and answers liraus'objectio.ns.

lGaus' ,r.i .rg,r-.nt fo; dismissing the Jib r-Ja,!ar relationship is of a

historical ,r"t.rr.i"r, argument whictistems from his inabiliry to find a

r NTRODUCTION ,

tu

mention of Jabir in authentic Shi'i sources. If Jabir was such an intimate

disciple ofja,fa4 then he should certainly have been referred to in the

bio-bibliogi"phic sources of the sect: "It is surprising.," says lGaus, "that

the figure"ofjabir leaves no rrace in the vast biographic literature of the

Shi.i Tmimat-e, *h.r. conscientious theologians have gathered toBether

the lives of the famous men of their sect. These works . . . go to great

pains to enumerate all people who approached the Imim Ja'far, even

those of the humblest st-ate,-or those considered to be the worst heretics

and apostates. . . . The imimi biographers would scarcely have hesitated

,o ,.r.-. him [sc. Jabir] a place-in their works if they had reason to

believe in his existence.'ll5'what is the evidence of lGaus? \7e find him citing three works. The

Kitab Ma'rifit Ahhbar al-!.;jal (Boo! 9f {e Understandilg ll Reports

Con"erninglDistinguished P."pi.) of al-Kashshi (d. c. 3401951);l16 and

*o 1".", "|-pil"tii's.

Kitab'Tanqih aLMaqdlf lb-4 a.l-Rijal(Book

of the Reexamination of the Accounti conceining Distiguished People)

tff"l-Ma-"qini,ll7 and Muhammad Muhsin's Kitab al.Dhari'a ik

i^ant| ot-Sii.a (So,rrce Book of Shi.i \gTritings).118 None of these, it is

,.por,'.d, mentions Jabir. But one wonderi if Kt"ut has not been

urrur,r"lly hasty in -j.ing

a sweeping gcneralization on the widencejust

.iifrr.. *.rk . In f."t, f,. -"y

*.1"1l. "*"r.

of the scantiness of his

supporting data, since:

1. Kraus had regretted that he could not make use of al"Amin

al-lA,mili's Ajnn" al-Shi.a (Eminent Shi(i Personalities), a modern

*.y.lop.di. ivork which draws 9Po.n, an-d.quotes, l:Ttt"tt- classical

and mediaeval sources. Speaking highly of this compilation' ^liraus

had

*.f'.,ify observed that "ii h"s l.og yit ieached beyond fthe first] letter

i"i,tJer"Uic alphabet] alif"n't i{o**.r, to_th. good fortune of a

1"r.. g.rr.r"tion, the Aid; did progress further in the meantime'

No*,"to be sure, not only is'oui alchemist mentioned in the

"".yitp.ai", -he receives

" con'pict'ously extensive coverage J 20 The

;;iil al-1A.mili quotes, among several others sources, the Shi'i

"rrro'log.. 'Ali ibn 'ia*.tt al-Hilli (d'

.6!1!l?"6e) w^h" .in hi1 Faraj

al-HriA- bi Ma,rifat ,Ilm al-Nujun (Relief from Anxiety through.

ti. Krro*l"dg. of Astrology) int'odt"t', Jabir as a historical

"o-p"ttion of"Ja'far al-$adiq,-and as one of those Shi'is who were

t niit.agoUl. in th" .t^.'"ry "f "rtt9!9gl

and skillful in its practice.l2l

A similaitestimony of .abieilah *l-yah'i @.76911367)-is also cited;

and this is to be fo,rtd in Yafi.i's Mirrat al-Jandn (Mirror of the

20 cHAprER I

Heart).l22As for the modern author of the encyclopedia, al-.Amilihimsel4, he strongly sides,with this opinion.l23

2. But perhaps the authorities cited by al-.Amili are too late to bereliable. Is Jabir mentioned in earlier Shici sources? In fact, he appearsin a source that may well be,treated as the earliest possible a.r,i-o.rywe could imagine not only for Jibir's relationship with Ja.far, but alsofor his very historiciry. One of the first Shi.i a gents (da,t) of the2ndl8th century, al-Mufaddal ibn .Umar, has leFus a small body ofreports ofJa.fai's aphorismi, a compilation put together in a mannerakin to Hadhh collection. In this short work, b-aring the title al-Hiham oi-1ofor4,yo(|a.fari \Tisdom), the author twice lresents Jabirin the company of Ja,far.L24 It should be noted that ihe historicalpersonage al-Mufaddal was a student of the well-known ghali (Sht iextremist), and for a while a companion of Jarfar, Aburl-Khattab(d. c.1351755) who appears as the ultimate rransmitter (rdwi) in theHikani s chain of authorities (isndd.).l 2 5 The two majorheresiographers of Islam, al-Ash.ari (d,. 324193, and al-Shahrastani(d.54811153), both mention al'Mufaddal and say that after the deathof the extremist Abu'l-Khattib, the siit Khan.ai;ylawas named afterthe the former as Mufaddaliya.tze The work in question, the Hiham,is found in the MajAlis al-Mu'minrn of Nurallah al-Shustari(d. 1019/1610),tzz lttd there seems to be no pressing reason to doubtits authenticity. So we have here a mention ofJabir by a contemporarywhose historicity has never been called into question.

3. The famous Shi'i biographer al Najishi (d.45011058) mentionstwo brothers al-Husayn and Ab[ (Atib, sons of Bistam ibn SaburaI-ZaWat, both of *iorrr, he says, wrote a ,r,r-b.. of works ontherapeutic medicine.l2s The date of the death of al-Husayn is givenin the sources as 401 Hijra (= 1010 A.D.).129 To these two brothers ashort work entitled Tibb al-A'imma (Medicine of the Imims) isattributedl3o-another Hadith rype of compilation which reports,with a chain of authority, different medicaments prescribed for a hostof ailments by Shi'i Imi.ms. And in this work again, we see Jibirfiguring: the authors report a letter written by him to Ja'fu seeking hisbenedictions during an illness.l3l al-(A\mili does refer to this work,and, in addition, to another ryork by the same pair of authors entidedRawdnt al-Jannit (Gardens of Paradise) which he quotes: "Ab0 Mfrsa

Jabir ibn fl^Wdn is among the most famous of the scientists. . . .D132

INTRODUCTION 2II

4. The rather well-known 5th/1lth century Isma.ili compilation,Dastur al-Munajjimln (The'!Vay oF the Astrologers) also mentions

' Jabir, and in a most.instructive manner: he is counted among the four"most famous supporters of |a<[ar,"133 the other three being Abu'l-Khatteb, al-Mufaddal ibn 'Umar, and the historically importantreligio-political figure 'AbdAllah ibn Maymun al-Qaddah (d. r.L8Ol796).134 Kraus is familiar with the Dastilri reference to Jabir, butcommits this information to a footnote.l35

Indeed, much of what has been said above requires furtherinvestigations. But one thing is certain: in saying that the figure of Jibirleaves no trace in classical Shiti sources, Kraus has been too hasty.

3. Rcligious Trcnds of the Corpus: Kraus'Late Dating

The emergence of the Ismi'ili movement from the breast of proto-Shi'i gnosis is one of the most perplexing episodes of the religious historyof Islam, no less shadowy, and no less controversial, than the Jabir-Problem itself.l36'$7hat are the origins of the Ismd'iliyya? \7ho was thefounder of Ismi.'ilism)137 \(/hen and how did the Qarmati branch of theIsmi'ilis come into existence? '\l(/'hat kind of literature was being writtenand circulated among the early leaders of this sect, and who were theauthors? There are no clear answers to these questions.l3S The periodbetween the death of Ja'hr al-Sadiq and the appearance of the Isma'iliyyaas a secret rwolutionary organization is a time interval sunk in darkness.

All we know clearly is this much: after the death of Ja'far a group ofhis followers clung to the imamate of his eldest son Ismi(il who, by therule of rass,l39 had been designated by him as his successor but hadpredeceased him. Some of them maintained that Ismi(il had onlyreceded into occultation and will reappear as the Qd'i* or Mahdi; othersrecognized Ismi'il's son Muhammad as the Imim. fet sthsls-\ /ho wereto be tlre larcr hhnd

" shari (the twelver Shi'is)-first chose Ja'far's eldest

surviving son'AbdAllih as his successor; then, upon'AbdAllah's hierlessdeath a few weeks thereafter, proclaimed the imimate of another sonMusa al-Kazim. After more than a hundred years, around 2641877,emerged the Ismi'ili movement under the leadership of Hamdan Qarmagin Kufa, Khalaf in

"l-R"yy, and under various leaders elsewhere.l40

llfhat happened in the intervening period is a blank spot, and so farhistorians have been able to fill it but only partially and tentatively:"Nothing is known about the history of Isma'ili movement developingout of [its] nucleus until after the middle of rhe 3rdl%h century," wrote

22 CHAPTER I

Madelung not so long ago.l4l Given that our knowledge concerning theformative phase of the Ismi'iliyya is, at best, fragmentary, one feelssomewhat surprised that it constitutes the very foundation of theconstructive part of trGaus' thesis. But to explain one obscurity in termsof another is not a very promising methodology.

In a nutshell, Kraus' reasoning runs as follows: Jabirian writings show

Qarmati-Ismd'ili tendencies and employ the esoteric vocabulary of thissect.142 This provides a definite clue to the dating of the entire corpus.These writings, the argument proceeds, could not have been composedearlier than 2701883, because it was at this time that the Qarmatiappeared on the scene.l43 Therefore, given that the internalchionological sequence of the various constituent pans of the corpus hadalready 6een established, these writings could now be dated withsufficient accurzcy.l4{

Two questions immediately arise: First, what degree of certainry canw-e attach to the claim that Jabirian ter<ts do, indeed, display a Qarmaticharacter? And second, does our present knowledge of the origins of theIsmi(ili movement allow us definitively to declare that the technicalvocabulary of the Qarmati religio-political propaganda did not originateand come into usage before the year 2701883?

As to the first question, it is interesting that although Kraus insists thatthe Jabirian .otp,tt displays "Isme'ili trends,"l45 he himself wavers in hisjudgments drastlcally and frequently. Thus, sometimes Jabirian ideas are'"coitrary

to the official doctrines of the Ismacilis";146 sometimes, "he is

"lore to the teachings of the Nusayrts,"l47 $s1, then, he also

,,distinguishes himself fiom thsm."l48 'ih.r. are times when he has the"t.rri.i.y to sur?ais the teachings of Muslim gnostics,"l49 and occasions

when he "co-pil.1r the list of heirarchical grades of Shi.i gnosis] from

the vocabulary of dffirent sects.'150 Here we find Jabir expressing the

aspirations of the f"ii-ids who named themselves after the Prophet's

daughter Fitima;l5l there we see him in the condemned camp-of the

Chikt excluding the Prophet's son-in-law .Ali from the list of seven

Imims, "nd

suplotting the imimate of Muhammad ibn {-tl*"fiyy",tlre son of .Ali,-but notby Fatimal|52 This gives a very confused picture

ofJdbir's religious tendencies.But there are further confusions that }Gaus does not point out. For

example, take the question of the number of Imdms in Jabir's system' In

the kitab lhhraj ma f'l-Quuwa ;k'l-F;'l, he talls about two religiols

groups which, "-o"g

othirs, fixed the number of Imims to seven'153

I NTRODUCTI ON 23I

!u1-ssn11xry to what Kraus saysl5a-Jabir does no-t-approve of it;

rather, he frrbids the reader to share such views.l55 In the Kitab

al-Khamsln'(Fifty Books, lG 1835-1874), Jabir has rix Imams.l56 But

again, in the Kitab al-Hajar (Book of the Stone, Kr553) he refers to

seuenImams.l5T ll his religious orientation, we see: Jlbir does not seem

to be allied to any one grouP' nor is he consistent.Kraus sees in Jabir's reference to the seven Imims an Ismi'ili

tendency. But in the Hajar where there is, indeed, a mention of seven

Imims, jabir assigns toeach one of rhem a different function, something

that does not seeir to be in harmony with the Isma<ili doctrines. And the

context in which all this occur$ is entirely non-religious: "He [sc'Zosimus] also mentions seven combinations. one is confronted again

with the seven combinations in the agreement between astrologers that

seven planets govern the universal course of events, and also in religion

ther. "r.

,*.n-I-e*s.'158 This passage.is in fact reminiscent of the late

lst/7th century vaqtfr doctrines of the s.vetter type-whose role in the

formation of Isma.ilicosmology has been emphasized by Strothman.lS9There are yet other eleme.rii in the religious ideas ofJabir which pllce

him at "

grl.t distance, both in substance and in time, from the

Isma.iliyyalFor example, he often talla about cycles of metempsychosis(taht4lleo and tfiis seems to have come directly from th9 teachings of the

ghali leader Abu'l-Khattib whose followerg had believed in reincarnation'"rd *.r, in the transmigration of the human soul into sub-human

bodies.16l Similarly, the gnostic symbolism of the three letters Mim,^r4!n

end Stn, Jabir's iubjeci matter in the Kifib al-MAiid (Book of the

Glorious, 'I(r

7o61yt had crystdlized in the pre-Ismi'ili ghah groups of

the 2ndl8th century.163Let us now look at the second question, namely the question

concerning the technical vocabulary of the Qarmati-Ismicilis. It has been

some tim; since Massignon had said rhat "an examination of the

Kermatian technical term-, shows that this doctrine was formed beforethe

"rrd ofih. second centuryA.H. [8th centuryA.D.] in the Imimi circles of

Kufa." And further, "the first clearly iKarmatian author is Abutl-

Khattab. . . . In cosmogony he replacei the use of letters ' ' ' by their

corrisponding rrumerici values. . . . Aft.t him Abu Shakir Maimfin d-

11"44hrel . .". g"*,. definite dogmatic form to the Karmatian doctrine of

.-*"tion."l65-I(raus is familiar with these observations of Massignon

but dismisses them by his remark that "whatever the origins of the name

of the Qarmatis, it is certain that they appeared on the scene around

24 cHAPTER l

27g1gg5.t'r66 It should be noted, howwer, that the views expressed byMassignon have been chdlenged by others too, and that we are dealinghere with a highly controversial issue which has been approached byrecent scholars from a number,of different angles.l6T An active parti-cipation in this controyersy, or even a critical survey of different views, isobviously outside the narrow confines of the present work; therefore, Icontent myselfwith a cursory remark that follows.

In recent scholarship, perhaps the most extensive and rigorous studiesof proto-Ismd'ilism are due to the historian \{ilfred Madelung. Many ofMadelung's findings, oni notes, seem to suPport the conclusions ofMassignon with the strength of fresh evidence.

For example, in an anicle published in 1961,168 Madelung points outthe importance of d-Qasim ibn Ibrahim al-Rassi (d.2461860) for theunderstanding of the early history of the Ismi'iliyya. In his al-Radd 'alaRawafd(Refatation of the Rafidis), theZaidi Imim al-Rassi gives much*'alu"ble information concerning the relationship of many 2ndl8thcentury groups with the Isma(ilis.l69 A work actudly written in the2ndl8th i.nrrlry, the Kitab al-Rushd uta't-Hidaya(Book of Rectitude andGuidance), is also referred to by Madelung.lTo This book seems to havepl"y.d an important role in the formation of early Ismi'ili terminology.Later, in a work entitled "Bemerkungen zur imamatischen Firaq-Literatur"lTl Madelung examined "the relationship of thp books on

Shi.ite sects by al-Nawbakhti (d. c. 3101922) and Sa'd ibn 'Abd Allah al

Qummi (d.301t914), suggesting that their source for the early

[slctarian] developments is the lost Kitab lkhtikf al-Nas f'l'Imama(Book of Controversy over the Question of Imimate) of Hisham ibn

at-Hakam (d. 179 1795-6)." r7z

All this indicates an earlier dating for the formation of the doctrines of

the Ismi.iliyya and *reir esoteric vocabulary than that whigh is suggested

by lGaus. Ii,..-r quite clear, arrywey, that Kraus did not have sufficient

evidence available 1o him to claim that the appearance of Qarmatiterminology in Jabirian writings proves that they tr/ere not composed

before thJatter years of the 3r-dl9th century. 'We still know very little

about the 2ndl8ih century, but recent researches seem Progressively to

weaken the position of Kraus.

4. Citation of Grech'Vorhs in the Corpu.s

It has been pointed out above that a number of genuine as well as

apocryphal Greek worla are found cited in the Jabirian corpus. And this

I NTRODUCTI ON 25

provides lGaus with further evidence for a late dating of these writings."If the Jabirian writings are authentic," he argues, "then the Arabictranslations of the works of Aristotle, of Alexander of Aphrodisias, ofGden, of ps-Plutarch, must have been carried out more than a centurybefore the date admiaed by all. Thus it would no longer be Khwirizmiwho introduced the Indian [techniques of numerical] cdculation, nor theschool of Hunayn which definitively fixed the scientific terminology inthe Arabic language."l73 But against this conservative view, w,: alreadyhave the strong dissenting voice of Fuat Sezgin. "Ve should freeourselves," Sezgin charges us, "from the earlier illusion that the time oftranslations of Greek works into Arabic began only in the 3rdl9thcentury."l74

Sezgin's generalizations notwithstanding, his opinion in the specificcase ofJabir seems to be correct. Indeed, when the Jabirian quotations ofGreek works are actually compared with their 3rdl9th-century fuabictranslations, the alchemist turns out to be independent of the latter.'!7hat is more critical, we often find archaic terminology in Jabir'scitations, as well ds striking inconsistencies in the translation of a givenGreek term; we also see Greek passages rendered into Arabic without theuse of technical language-all this may legitimately be taken to point toan early date.

It should be noted that dthough Jabir refers to his Greek predecessorsthroughout his corpus, in a vast majority of instances he_ eitherp"t"pht"..t their writings' or simply expounds their docuines in his own

-otJr. Direct quotations from Greek worlcs, or translations of Greek

tides, these are ielatively rare. Thus a comparison ofJabir's citations withstandard Arabic versions is not easily carried out. But, obviously, anargument for a late dating of the corpus which is based. on Jabir's indirectciiations of Greek authori cannot be a strong one. Is this what lGaus did?To be sure, the question does arise, since an examinantion of Jabir'sdirect Greek quotations, rare though they are, would once -again

renderKraus' position problematic. But I must now turn to the evidence,

beginning with my own tetftual discovery:

l. This is my discovery in Jabir's Ahjar of ahitherto Lrrkto",r, to,,,-

lation of fuisrctle's Categoiae,8,8b25'lla37-thet is, a translation

of Aristotle's discourse Jn qualiry.lTt This Arabic rendering of theGreek rext appears in the third part of the Altjar, a work that has never

been published or studied befoie; therefore, it is hardly surprising that

,ro -od.tt

scholar, including lGaus, seems to have identified it.

26 CHAPTER I

Indeed, in terms of its structure, language and terminology, the

Jlbirian rendering of the Caugoiae has nothing in co.mmon with

what has so far bein accepted as the earliest Arabic translation of this

work of Aristotle-namely the translation of Ist'aq ibn Hunayn(d.2991911). But the decisive feature of tfie discovcred text is not its

independence; rather it is its archaic nature. I have presented in

chapter 5 a criticd edition of this entire terc; in chapter 6 it has been

t."rrrl"t.d, analyzed, and compared both with the text of Aristode and

the translatio" Lf khaq. It will be seen that any suggcstion to-the-effect

that Jabir's Caagoiae postdates the Hunayn school flies in the face of

overwhelming evidence to the contrary.2. In Jabir's

-Ktab al-Qadtm (Book of tle Eternal, Kr 981), Aristode's

Pbysicaappears as"Kitab Sam'al-Kild'Lr" (MS Paris 5099 f'172b)'

Note the archaic chricter of the Arabic title: the term kiyd.n is an

fuabicization of the syriac'k1ini (= G' phusi)' a term which had

already been abandoned by the time the Huanyn -school

tttt:tg:+'

havine being replaced by the word'"tabi'a" derived from an fuabic

root.f76 Th"ur, *. have -here

an unmistakable evidence that Jabir'stranslation is older. In fact, t}e use of the term in question is described

by Peters inhis Aristotchs Arabus as the "telltale".sign-tlat is, a sign

opettly betraying the pre-Hu4ayn origin of etext'177^

nut the .i,l.Ih"rr*.r in a laier treitise. ln the Kitab al-Bahth (Book

of Research, !k 18-00) it becomes the standard " Kitab al-Samd'

al-TabIi" (MS Jarallah 1721, f.15a) of Ishaq ibn Hunayn' But

despite this identity of titles, Jabir's text shows no dcpendence on tlat

oflshaq, for3.

- In thc Bahth (f.92a) there also aPpears an actual quotation from

fuistode:

tv'+)lLul u,; +trS vJrll-ott tb €Jri*J 'Ji ,r''

.. . rl'-.r slis ,o,il|i,'o'J, ;rt<'-o! ,,!l Jri t+tl t 'y'| t 'u

He[sc.fuistot le]goessofarastosayinthebeginningof^thefirstchap;er(mitna)ofhis-Phlsica that form is priorto all elsc. It is byvirtue of form that therc qrsts ln a

thing i1s nature, its essenceau;rdits rnahil

There is no such passage at the beginning of the Plrtsica in the

translation of Ishiq ibr, fr,tt"ytt,178 ;or do we find at the place

I NTRODUCTI ON 'r'l

referred to by Jibir any mention of form in the standard "ri,i""l

editions of thl Gr.ek text. And once again, we read an archaic term,

mirnar (chapter) which, like kilan, h"ppenr to be of syriac origin.l79

This standi in contrast to th. later-Arabic tetm "maqiila" of the

Hunayn school.' But in the passage quoted, we also see a specific use of the term

rnlfni. Note tlhat ia,ia has here been placed in opposition rc dhAt

(essence), and, in the context, one would naturally conside r it to mean

it. ,o,ji.y of secondary properties, or accidents, of a phys;.cal body,-as

opposed to it, .rr.rrtial'or:primary properties' And this particular

t."hrri."l sense of rna<ni. r..mr io betray affinities with the

cosmological speculations of early hak-m.r9D To be sure, the term in

question"is found to be used-werywhere_ in the philosophical and

scientific literature of Islam,lsl but, as a first observation, one notes

that Jabir is here employing it to denote a concept_which it denoted in

the ivritings of th.'-)taEallimun (sing. mutahailir4 p-racritioner of

halnm) of ire l"t. 2ndl8th and early 3rdlgth centuries.l82 Indeed, we

Frnd ma,ni. being feverishly ani widely _dis.,r'..sed. in the halam

literature of this ieriod, *ith al-Ash.ari in his .Maqnkt tracing it al|

,-i;;;t back to the 2ndl8th century figure Hisham ibn al-Hakam.l83

The mutahallimlbrahimal-Naz.zim G:2211836) wrote a who-le work

on ma<ni, entitled Kitab at-Itia,ni. ,ald. Murdmmar (Book of Ma'ni

Ae"irrrt Mu.ammar),184 and this Mu.ammar (d.2151830) is another-rirly

-utahallimihose doctrine of ma,nd has been expo'nded by

"i-Kh"yyat (d. after 300/910) in his Kitab al-Intisar.rl5 Given this

climate,'it does not seem surprising to find a haldmconcePt finding its

;ti"; the works ofJabir, and tlir i, y.t another indication that he

*", dr"*irrg upo' tr"iitions which antedate-the Bayt al-Hihmd'r86

4. lln th. rirrr.;"biti"n work, the Bahth (f'!7a), *:,!"Y-t--."ttothtt--

q,r"i"rio" fro,,,'th. eight chapt_er.of Physica (251bl1-15). 'When this

q,rot"tio' is comp"rJd *ith Ithaq's iranslation, one does find a

Jor..rpond.n.., b.rt no dependenie' The two versions are totally

dissimilar not only in terminology, but also in sryIe-and structure'

with the version of Ist'aq thJ*i"g a much hlgher degree of

,ofhir.i"".ion. The left and'right "olttmtts

below give' respectively'

JaLit'r text and that of Isbaq:187

28 CHAPTER I

3vr+'AJl Lul$i qt5 l .,.UJl ,-:f ll JUi ,.rtbr.L-riJb

/oir+o;6riJy rlisJ;lc.;li.tr)4 Jrr r.t; & ltSlt*.r,J,.,rF4JUI't*5ri r:;6;l laJ.ra j.u .ll ot- r,Jrr:, l-i ,us rui,,d I jlj te,.i u-

,irl-r;Jui t{.rfy(.ltj.i;irr t+, r+Jf/r+:(J..t;-rrsr,i l-,5}tiui,,i,r.rirfl\uru l+!Juitlri t i.rr,.r' c*=t-r.JJrar,i [., rlai Jt;.t, oz.

... Jn,f Jlidt v ,rJ vt Jrn uu .. ot4ailj ,rp -t:

5. Turning now to the works of Galen, we nore that the title of his Dacr-mpositione medicamentorum secundum locos appears in Jabir as " Kitabal-Maydmir"(Book of Chapters; "mayamir';-is the plural of theabandoned term "rnlmdr").188 Against this, we have the literalrendering of Hunayn ibn Ishaq which reads Kitab alAdwiya bi-hasaba l-Mautadi, al- Alimd.rse Evidendy, the Jabirian translatiori is older.

6. Galent De ehmentis secundum'Hippicratem is cited by Jabir underthe title "Kitab al-Anasir,"r90 as opposed to Hunayn's Kitdb f'l-Usyaqsdt'ak Ra'y Buqrdt.r9l

7. In another tide there is a slight difference. In Jabir we find Gden'sDe propriis pkcitis referred to es "ttti lrtaqadaha Raryan"lg2 inHunayn it is fi md Ya,taqiduhu Ra,yan.re3

8. As for the actual citations of Galen's texts, they are not beingexamined here. But we ought to acknowledge that this matter haialready been .investigated by Sezgin who testifies that Jabir'sqdotations do not generally agree with the translations preserved.l94Pending further research, this testimony must prwail.

9. The legendary account of Archimedes'discovery of the hydrostaticbalance is given in detail in Jabir's Bahth (f. l31b-f. 132b). IGausquotes this entire passage, but remains completely silent as to thesource which may have been available to the autior.l95 It should benoted that the comprehensive work on physical balances by al-Khazini(composed c. 5l4lll20) does contain the legend,l96 but, interminologT and in matters of detail, it is totdly dissimilar to the textof Jabir. For example, the term used for crown is " tilo' in Jabir, " ihlil'in Khzini, the king in question is Miliqiyad[s (Domitian?) in theformer, Hiero in the latter, and so on.r97 Obviously the two textsdraw upon different iources. But this whole question needs furtherinvestigation.

I NTRODUCTI ON

- The evidence iust presented is neither exhaustive nor foolproof 198 but

it seems sufiicient to point to the problematic nature of Iftaus' position.

5. The Sin of Balinas: Kraus'search for a terminus post quelnOne work which has influenced in a fundamental way the

cosmological and alchemical doctrines of Jabir is the well lsown' Kitabsin al-Khaliqa ua san'at al-Tabi'a (Book of the secret of creation andthe Art of Nature) falsely attributed to Apollonius of ryana (in Arabic,Balines, Balinls, Balinifis, etc.).199 Also known as the Kitab al.rlhl(Book of Causes), this text has exercised scholars for nearly rwocenturies.200 \(zhile the sirr still continues to puzzle historians, certainfacts about it have been conclusively established by Ruska,2ot Plessner,2o2and, above all,'Kraus himself:2o3 (ij The .Sin shares with the Svriac Bookof Treawres(Iu. Kitab al-Dhahha,ir) ofJob of Edessa (AyFb al-Ruhawi,d.2201835) a probhmau plrysica source; (ii) its longer vsrsion (and this isthe version used by IGaus) includes extracts from the book De ndturahominis (Ar. Kitdb f Tabi,at al-Insarz) of Nemesius of Emesa (composedc. 400 e.D.); (iii) it shares some marerial with the Arabic Hermetictreatise IsyimAyis;2o4 end (iv) it contains the first occurence of the tabulasmaragdina (Ar. al-lawh al-zumurntd) which is also found in theSecretum sccretorum (Ar. Sin al-r*ra) of ps-Aristode.2o5

'uZhen was the Sirrwritten? In his pursuit of this recalcitrant question,IGaus carried out an incisive study of Jabir's debt to the ps-ApolloniusIiterature, finally bringing to light a passage in a writing of the Ismii.iliagent Abtr Hatim al-Rzi (d.3221933) wherein, he confidently felt, laythe answer.206 In his Kitdb A,km al-Nubatawa (Book of the Signs ofProphethood), Kraus announced, Abu Hatim reporrs a debate betweenhimself and the alchemist Abu Bala ibn Zakariyye al-Rzi during whichthe former is asked about the author of the Sr'rr. According ro the report,Abu Hatim replied that the terft was apocryphal, written only during thetime of the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mtn (198/813 to 2181833).207 Krausthought that this dating was acceptable because other indications wereapt to confirm it.208 Now he had found a terminus posl qaen for theJabirian corpus. '

Once again, one obscure issue is being explained by another whichhappens to be just as obscure. To date the .Sirr we first have to date (i)the Arabic translation of Nemesius' De natura hominis, and (ii) thecompilation of t{re Hermetic treatise Istimdtis. But neither task has beenaccomplished. Concerning the first task, one notes that the standard

29I

30 CHAPTER I

translation of Ishaq ibn Hunayn could not have been available at the

time of al-Marmun since the translator was two years old when the

Caliph died. Besides, a comParison of the to<t of rhe De nat' hom', as it'

"ppi"r, in the Sirr, with that of Ishaq's,translation shows the archaic

,oi rr. of the former's terminology and style.209 This means that we have

to presuppose an earlier tr"nslaiion-none has so far been discovered.

Brri -or.

,.tious is the problem concerning the second vsk: Istimdtis still

remains undated.2loA significant Progress toward the dating of the Sirr has recently been

m"d. dy UrsuhVelsser who has made available to us for the first time a

critical .di,io.t of the text.2ll An important discovery of '\07eisser,is that

there exist two extant versions of the Slrr.' a short version, which she cdls

A, and a longer version, sryled B. 'weisser believes that A was translated

from a Gr..f original in the 2ndl8th century, and.it antedates. B'.Now'

IGaus had access"only to the longer version B, and the text which Abu

Hatim refers to i, also, in'Veisseris view, the same version 8'212'W'eisser's conclusions have not gone unchallenged'2l3 But since the

publication of her work, one fact h-as been established: the dating of the

lsi,"rrrgg.r..d by IGaus is seriously problematic, and his late dating of the

Jabirian-corpr* L"r.d on tlat of the former is equally problematic'

THE PRESENT'! fORK:METHODOLOGICAL INDIFF ERENCE

As early as 1929, Julius Ruska had..proudly made a resounding

declaratiorr. ',A_fteruo *"rry errors, oscillations and reverses," he wrote,;Ji Ar"bi. Jabir-probliirn has'[at last] been b-rought to a satisfactory

,o1,raiorr."zt4 It notu seems that Ruska's sense of triumph was much too

;;.;;;t.. E*,"n the 'monumental work of tr3aus turns out to be a

t;;ali;;..ercise; for it only throws into sharp relief the. fact that we

i.""* ,.ii"i" about the .orr.Ln., of the Jabiri"tt tott on the one hand,

and about the 2ndl8th century religious and intellectual history of Islam

on tle other, that any solution proposed at this stage is bound to.remain

highly precarious."Kr",rr' thesis, I shall submit, cannot be taken to be faultless and

"riai."lly "stabliriled. His work is a milestone, but not the destination; he

6"fpt "l

formulate our questions, but does n9t-grovi{e incontrovertible

answers. Indeed, o,r, pr.li-irrary criticism of lGaus forces upon us the

moral that it is . better str:rtegy for th. moment to place in abeyance the

INTRODUCTION .3I

question of the authorship and dating of the corpus, and to invest ourenergies, rather, into critical studies of Jabir's writings themselves. And,at the same time, to investigate further the scientific, philosophical andreligious climate. of Islam in the century in which the dchemist allegedly1irr.4.215

About the texts of the Jabirian works our knowledge is painfullylacking. There eist literally hundreds of manuscripts of these writings invarious libraries of the world lying unread and unstudied. To be sure,this is a lacuna not only in the Arabic Jabir-Problem, but also in thelatin Geber issue, a handicap both for the l-atinist as much as it is for thefuabist: we now accept that Geber is not to be identified with his Arabnamesake, but we also know that the ideas of the author of the Geberiantexts were not altogether indepedent ofArabic alchemists, and these ideasdisplay dso a dependence on Jabit.zrc

\?'hat is the nature of this dependence? And how was Jdbirappropriated in the Latin 'West? 'We know too little about Jabirian textsto answer these questions satishctorily. In fact, even those works ofJabirwhich are known to, or suongly suspected to, exist in mediaeval Latintransladons largely lie unexamined.zlT Our deficient knowledge of

Jabirian writings introduces gaps in our understanding of Geber, andultimately, of the Chemicd Revolution. The pages that follow constitutea modest step toward supplying this deficienry.

But the question of the authorship and dating of the Jabirian corpus isneither trivial nor irrelavant. It is non-trivial because to take a positionon this question is to take a methodological position, a position that

governs itt -ott

fundamental ways the historian's- very approach tojabirian writings. And, to be sure, a position must be taken since onecannot study these writings in the emptiness of a historical vacuum-hence the t.l..,'"n.. of thJvexed question. But what is Jabir's historical

milieu? Given that this issue remains unresolved, the present work takeswhat may be called a position of methodological indifference.

In carrying out "

ciiti."l study of one tle most important and difficulttreatises of the entire Jabirian corpus, the primary aim of the work is tounderstand Jabir in his own terms. That is, to identifi' certainfundamental notions of his system, and, then, to examine how thesenotions operate within the internal perspective of his scientific andphilosophical doctrines. But to make sense of Jabir's ideas, and to

i."orrrt*"t their historical and concePftal framewok, the present workseels its illumination essentially from those doctrines and writings which

32 cHAprER I

are known to have come into existence by the 2ndl8th century, andwhich could have been, in principle, available to an author of this periodin the Islamic Near East. For l(raus, and, indeed, for the vast majoiity ofcontemporary scholars, this would constitute only a subset of the sourcesavailable to Jabir; for Sezgin and Holmyard, this is the entire set. Butsuch an approach impinges upon the views of neither school, and amethodological indifference is thereby maintained.

This indifference also functions as a protective device. For even if,-toconsider the extreme case-every bit of my criticism of Kraus isdismissed by scholars, such dismiss"l .*rrot by itself provide grounds fordiscarding the main body of this work. Should such eventualiry befallme, all I shall need to do is ask the reader to skip this introduction.

INTRODUCTI ON

NOTES

I In the Jabirian trearises which have either been published or read by me inmanuscripts, as well as in the traditional biographies, the patronymic part of rheauthor's

',ame (hun|a) appcars frequenrly as Ab[ Mosa, but sometimes also as

Abu tbdAllah. often attached to it is the epithet al-sofi, the tribal name (nisba)al-Azdi and names indicating Jibir's place of origin al-Kufi or d-Tusi. IbnKhdlikan (d,.68111282) reports in his Biographicil Dictionary thar jabir wasfrom Tarsfis (see de Slane tr. 11842-71], l, p. IOO) and this is confirmed byanother standard source, the Karhf al-Zanfin of Hajji Khalifa (d. ro6gll65gi.However, this latter biographer-according ro whom Jabir died in 1601777_calls him d-Tarsosi at one place, but at ancither place says that Jibir was fromTarsis and is called al-Tnsi (!) (sec Fliigel ed. [1835-1358], p.34 and p. 79). Ibnd-Nadim, who in naming Jabir wavJrs berween both L'unyar,Abt^Mtsa andAbu 'AbdAllah, mentions the belief that Jibir was originally from Khurisan (seeFl0gel ed. [871], pp,354-358). For a discussion of this last account see below.2 This coinage seems to be due to J. Ruska writing in the 1920's and later. The'Jabir-Problem" essentidly consisted in a positive identification of the author(s)of the texts anributed to Jibir.3 It is somewhat ironic that this powerful work of Iftaus (Kraus ll94}-31) hasbeen followed by a period ofrelative indifference. The past fifry years have seenonly one edition of what is no more than a tiny proporrion of a vast corpus,namely the one-volume Lory ed. [1988] which contains 14 smdl Jabirian texte,l0 of which were translated into French in the earlier Lory tr. [1983]. NoEnglish translation of any Jabirian text has been publish'ed since lGaus, but wehave in addition a handful of two texts rcndered into Gcrman, and one intoFrench (Siggel tr. [1958], Rex tr. 11975), and Corbin'tr. [1950] respectively),Zirnis' edition and English translation of another text (Zirnis ed. and tr. 11979))never appeared in print. See "Modern Editions and Translations of JabirianTo<ts" in the appendices below.4 The Ta'dltq is quoted by Ab[ Hayyin al-Tawhidi (see al-shabibi 11923], p. 7).5 In his commentary on the Risdk of Ibn Zaydun, Kitdb Sarh al-,Uyin f ShnltNsdkt lbn Zaldan (Ibrafrim ed. 1138311964l).Iebir is mengioned in the workbcing commcnted upon. Cf K;fib al-Ghayth al.Mujsam df Khalil al-Safadi(d. 7641 1363), Cairo ed. [305/l 887), p. 242.6 See fuabic text in Fliigel ed. [1871], 355zll-21.7 lb id. ,355:18.8 On th. question of the authenticiry of his writings, see Irvey tl966l.

33

34 cHAPTER I

e MS Leiden 1267 f. 15; f.26.10 Tr. Lwey U966),p.22.11 According to Ibn al-Nadim, al-Razi used to quore, "our Master.Jabir ibn

tl.yyett saiJ' (flqel ed. [i871], lisrzo).Indeed, in one manuscript of the

X;iiO ot-*ra" of ieri, Jabir rs referred to as "our Master" (Stapleton, Azo and

Husain 11927), p.385i. IGaus in his 11942-3) has discussed the reladonship

b.r*".o th" nvo'alchemists (II, pp. LX-IXII), but as opposed to the picture hedraws, one notes rhat the evidence of stapleton, Azo and Husain points to a

much wider influence ofJabir on Rizi, and a much more ortensive knowledge of

tlre former on the paft of the latter (op. cit. pp.335-340)'

12 See his Rutbat al-Hakim, MS Cairo, Tabt,iyat 12, f. 198.-It is generally

beliwcd that this *ork *", written by one of his pupils, therefore we have to

place it somewhat later. Cf' Holmyard U924\13 Ibn umayl in his Kitab Ma' ,l:va/dq| refets to two Jabirian treatises

belonging ri rhe Katub al-Mi'a ua,l-lthni,,*hara (CXII Boo1s, 16"6-122),

;";.1'y rfre Kitab al-Khalis.(Boolk of th9 PT:, K 48) and Kitab al-Mujarrad,at

(Booli of Abstractions, Kr 63-64). Ibn Umayl's text has. been edited by

it"pi.ton,'Ali and Husain in their [1933] (see p. 93 andp'97)'

14 Holmyard lt9z7) had brought io light a paT$:-fjo\ fi" Kt:!!,:l-,Akhb3r

al-Tiwdl- of Abir Hanifa al-Dinawari (d. c. 2821895) wherc a Shi'i druggtst

i;"af by the name of Hayyin is. mentioned' According to- al-Dinawari' this

il"w* "l-'A,ra,

*", irrt.triy ".tiy'C "t

a secret Shi'i agent (da'i) ,worlung for

,ir.'iUi"tfa ;se in Khurisan. He iso knew Yaqtin to *hot. son 'Ali, Jabir has

Jedi.atcd a book and a poem (IG 1Il and Kr 1143). at-Dinawari r9po11s that in

1071725 Hayyan *". p,r, to'd."ih with other Shi'i agents b1 th^e. UTlyy{

*.r.r;., of '*huraran^(see Guirgass' edition of the Ahhbar in Ab[ $anifa

i-Oir"*"ti [888], pp.-334-33i..'.H.ayy-an aPPeal:-1-a S.h.i'i agent also in

'fabari, see De Goeie ct'al, eilj t1879;i90il, II, P' 1488)' In this man Holmyard

;;;ffi ift" i"ifi.t of,Jadir, the ,4ate of *hote execution provided him the

trrir* ad quem for tle son's date cif binh'

15 Maodisi's testimony exists in his Kitab Bad' wa'l-Ta'rihh (amposed c' 3551

966). See Huart ed' I l '899-1919], I l, p.236'

16 Tdbaqat al-(Jmdm, Cheikho ed. [1912]' p. 61'

17 Sch-i.de. [1832] and Hoefer 11842-3) are probably the last historians who

identified GeberwithJabir. Cf, Newman [1991]'l8 Russell [1678].19 In th" 1842 Danzigedition of the Summa perfecionis'

20 MS Bodl"ian, 'Western 190g9' entitled Libcr pracicus Geberis ' ' ' de

inuesigatione perfecta magistirii. Sde Holmyard tl925l'

INTRODUCTION ,35

2r Liber quiflitt natararum uocttfirr, 1473.This is reportcd in Holmyard 11925),2, Kopp [1869].23 lGaus [Plessner] s.z. "Djebir ibn Hayyin" [EI4, II, p. 358.z4 pbir talla about the possibiliry of an ardficial language in the Kitab al-Ahjar.See below (Chapter 3; Edited Text, 19:12-15).25 For example, in the Kitab al-Hajar (Book of the Stone, IG 553), Holmyarded. [1928], 19:12; cf. ibid. l84,23:2.26 Muianadar, MS Jarullah 1641, f . 248b, etc. Democricus is also one of those

philoJophers'to """h

of whom Jabir devotes a seParate musahhahdt(E-..rd"tiotts) treatise. Thts, Kitdb Musahhahdt Dhtmaqratis (Book of

Emendations of Democritus, Kr 210).27 For cxample, in the Hajar, Holmyard ed. [1928], 18:17; Kitab Utuquss

al-Uss, idzm, 90:10; etc.28 Refcrred to, for example, in the Kitdb al-Qtrar (Book of Stabiliry, Kr 172).

See l(raus 11942-3),II, p.44, n.4.

29 Socrrtes is held in high esteem by Jabir: In the Kitab al'Tajmi'(Book of

Concentration, Kr 398) he is referred to as the "father of philosophers and their

masrer" (lGaus ed. ll935l 389:3). 'we find him mentioned in sweral works

besides meriting a musahhahatffeatise (lk 204)'

30 A musahhabdt treatise has been devoted to him (Ift 205). Vhile Plato is

mentioned'elsiwhere roo, ir seems thar Jabir does not know any of his genuine

worla. The Timae*he quotes in the masahhahArhas litde in common with the

text as we know it. (See Sezgin [GAS], IV, 16l ff.).

3l Fo, "

detailed discussion of the Jabirian references to Aristotle, see below.

Jabir has written a musahhahatwork for him too.

32 In the larerwork, the Kitab al'Bahth (Bookof the Research, IG 1800)' MS

Jarallah 1721, f. lla.

z3 tb;d., f.4t^.

34 In the Kitnb al-Sin al-Mahnin(Book of the Hidden Secret, Kr 389-391), MS

Paris 5099, f. 46b-f. 56b.35 In the TajmI', Kraus ed. 11935),349t9. (

36 Thc following Gdenic works are cited:i) De puiibas rnd De pukibus al. tirones in rhe Kitab lhhrnj, Kraus ed.

ll935l,5l:4-5.- i0 Dc compositionc medicamentontm secundum locos in the Kitab al-Tajmf,

ib id,374: l l .

36 CHAPTER I

iii) De simplicium medicamcntorurn tcinperamcntis ct facuhatibas in theKhab dl-Hdsil (Book of the Result, Ik 323), MS Paris 5099, f.ll5a.

iv) De clernentis secundum Hippooatemin the Lfr( Books (Kr 180), MSJarullah 1554, f. 196a.

v) De usu partiumin the LH( Boohs (IG 139), ibid, f.8la.vr) De facabatibus naturalibus in th,e Kitab dl-Bahth, MS Jirullih, f 2l a;

f .3ra.37 For afuller discussion of Balinas see below. In the corpus we havc a Jabiriancommentary on Euclid, endtled Kitab Sharh Uqltdis (lG 2813), but this is norextant. The book dedicated to Archimedes bears the title Sharh Kitdb rll'azn

at-Taj li Arshamtdis (Commenrary on the Book of rhe Veight of rh. Crown byfuchimedes, Ik 2821); for Jibir's account of the latter, see below.38 MS Paris 5099, f. 1l6a - f. l16b; MS Jarullah 1641, f. llTa - f. I l9a. Textquoted in lGaus |942-3).II, pp. 332-337.39 In the HasilJabt says: "I have composed this book and my Master has calledit the Book of the Result" (MS Paris 5099, f.95b). Again, in the Kitnb al-Mdj;d(Book of the Glorious, Kr 706): "Know that my Master, may God be pleasedwiih him, ordered me to compoie these books. He established with regard tothem an order of gradation which I am not permitted to violate" (Kraus ed.

$9351799). Cf. lirans 11942-31,I; pp. )O(V-)O(VILns "BI God," says Jebir in the Kitab al-Kbawas al-IGbir (The Great Book ofProperties, Ift 1900-1970), "my Master disapproved of my having written thisbook [sc. Hasi\, saying: By God,.O Jabir, if I did not know thit nobody willhave access to it without meriting it, . . . I would have ordered you to destroythis

'book. Do you know what yiu h"t

" divulged to the public?" (Kraus ed.

11935),311.3-6). Similarly: "My Master often used to say: Proceed as you wish,O Jnbir, and reveal the sciences as you please-as long as only those who aretruly worghy of it have access to it" (ibid, 312:5-6).n1 "My books are numerous and knowledge is dispersed among them"(al-Khawass al-IQbir, qu. trGaus 11942-3),I, p. )O(VII, n. 1).

42 Kraut observes: "Often in.the middle of a treatise, which no reason of

composition can justifi, Jabir inserts long bibliographic notices" (ibid, p.)CFr|.In rhe Kitib al-Mizan al-Saghir (Small Book of Balance, Kr 369), we rcad: "First

collect riry boola and read what is in them. It behooves you, O reader, that youjoin these books togedrer so that through prolonged study the secret ofcreationand the art ofnature is reveded to you" (Kraus ed. 11935),442114'15),43 According w the KitAb Mayddn al-Aql (Book of the fuena of the Intellect,

Ik 362), thJstudent will draw no benefit unless he has first read a great numberof other treatises in the corpus (Kraus ed. [1935J, 209:3 ff,). Further, the Kitab

al-Afrd;l (Book of the Excellents, Kr313) should be read after all the others

I NTRODUCTI ONi

(ibid, 2O9lD). In the Abjar one reads (MS Paris 5099, f.59a): "How can oneaccomplish the task withour reading the Hudad[Book of Definitions, IG 328].Reading of this book is different from reading others. !07hile others should beread once a month, the Hudad should be kept before the eyes all the time." (Itshould be noted that there are rhree additional texrs in the Jabirian corpusbcaring the tide Kitab al- Huda4 trk l8l; IG 780; Ik 2745).44 For this Jibir himself offers an apolog;r: "Do not be angry, O my brother, ifyou find a discourse concerning religion in the middle of a discourse on alchemywithout the latter having been completed; or if you find a discourse concerningalchemy after a discourse on religion before the principles of the latter have beenfully established" (Kitab al-Mdji{ MS Paris 5099, f.67b; text in lGaus ed.119351,1 l5:10-13).45 For o"ntple, in rhe Kitab al-Ghasl (Book of lVashing, IG 183), MS Jerullah1554, f. ?02 (see Iftaus [1942-3], II, p. 21; Stapleron, Azo and Husain ll927l).46 For oample, in the Kitab al-Manaf. (Book of Utilities, k 159), ibid, f. 13747 For e*ample, in the Ghasl, ibid., f.202; von Lipmann [1919], I, p.377identifies this substance as yellow amber.48 For.*"-ple in the al-Kbawaes aLl(zbir, qu. IGaus 11942-3l,II, 19, n. ll. AKitab al-Kbarsini (Kr 953) is part of rhe Kitab alAjsad al-Sab'a (Book of thcSeven Metals, k 947-953). For a discussion of this alloy see Needham [1980],p.429 ff.49 Ustuqust al-Uss,Holmyard ed. [1928], 67:16-17.

50 In the Kitab al-Ihata (Book of Comprehension, IG 139), which belongs to theL)A(, Jebir presents a critical survey of the doctrines of different schools ofthought concerning the numerical proportion of the fourAristotelian qudities innatural substances. He o<presses his preference for asbab al-uba'i' (the panisansof the natutres) who, he says, belicve that in all things the weights of Fire, Eanh,'Water and Air exist in the proportion I : 4:5 :8, totalling 18 (MS Jarullah1554, f.8la). This appears to be inconsistent with his docrine of t'he number17 found in the Kunb al-Maudzin For an extcnsive discussion of the latter seebelow, Chaptcr 2 ff.

5l On" of the many valuable contributions of lGaus is his discovery of theinternal relative chronological order of various collection of writings belongingto the Jabirian corpus. Thus, beginning sequenddly with thC oldest:

i) IGnb al-Rahna al-IGbir(fhe Great Book of Mercy, IG 5),ii) Kunb al-Mi'awa'l-hhnd',Asltara (CXII Boola, lk (c-122),

iii) Kitab al-Sab,in(lJo( Boola, lk 123-192),i") Kurub al-Maudztn (Boola of Balanccs, Y'r 303- 446),v) IGtab al-Khams Mi'a (500 Bools, k 447-946).

37

38 C I{APTE R I

As for other writings, Kraus says that the relative dates of the minor works

cannor be dcrermined with much exactitude. The l0 Kutub al-Musahhdhat(Boola of Emendatioirs, Ift 203-212; see nn. 25, 28'30 above), as well as mostof the collections listed by Ibn al-Nadim, seem to date, in l(raus' view, from the

time of the LD{or ar leasttefoie the MawdzlnThe al-Ajsad al-Sab'afollow the

500. Kt,|lls places the Bahth and the al-Khawass al-Iabir after the Maudzin in

that order. The Kitab al'Khamsin (50 Books) came after these, etc' See l(raus

[r9 42-3], I, pp. )OO0II-)OOff .

52 Holmyard wrote prolifically on Arabic alchemy in general, and on Jabir in

particular. Until the very end, he remained reluctant to acccPt_the vicws of Kraus

which I am about to discuss. In an article published more than a decade after

Kraw, 11942-31, Holmyard still defended the historiciry of Jabir against lGaus

(Holmyard t19551). In his last writing published in 1957, he bitterly criticized

the methodology of the German school to which Kraus belonged, accusing his

teacher Julius -Ruska

of having developed "an exaggerard "l{

unreasonable

scepricism concerning the authorship of any early Arabic alchemical work"

(Holmyard [1957], ip.6:5'66): From Fuat Sezgin comes perhaps-the most

powerful, organized "nd

tigotor'tt offensive against lGaus (Sezgin [GAS], IV'

p. r32 tr.).53 To this French historian of science we owe the publication, for the first time

in the history of modcrn scholarship, of nine Jabirian treatises with their French

translations'carried our. by Houias (Berrhelot [1893], III). See "Modern

Edidons and Translatio"t oi;"Uiri"n:Texts" in the appendices below'

54 Kraus 1942-31,I, pp, )offII-I{V.

5i It is interesting to note that in their extensive studies of ps-Aristotle in the

Middle Ag"r, ."iih., g.qrrnett t,l9-S6l nor Zimmermann [1986] makes use of

Jibir as a source. .; * : ' ". ' ': -

56 Kr",r, ed. [1935], 5Z:3L r;cdiq r. [1975); p.41.

57 Sigg. l t r . [1958], p.2:, : , . . , ,1; '

58 Plessner ttg65);ltg72). ,.59 For a glimpsc of the importance, persistence and complications of this

qucstion sec Krayc, Ryan and Schmitt eds. [1986].60 Pl"ssrr"r ll972l, p.21'2 (enphasis added).

6l I "m

referring to Marquet [1988] in which Kraus'positive identification of

the authorship Jf ,h. Jabirian corpus functions as the very foundation o(, and

justification flr, a compaiative study of the Rasa'iland the Jabirian torts. This

ied Marqucr to the Llaim that thesc'tsrts are quoted in the RzsA'ilas well as to

the sensationd hypothesii that the.mro bodies of writings have some authors in

TNTRODUCTION ,39

common. Bur, as I have argued (Haq [1992]), Marquet's conclusions cannot

survive a. closer o<amination.62 Pl"..n"r s.a."Jibir ibn Hayyin" [DSB]' VII, p. 39.

63 lGaus 11942-3J, l, pp. 3-171.64 lb;d., p. )oo0II.

65 lbid., p. )il.ull.66 lb;d.,p. toj.67 lbid,p. lo6.68 lb id. ,pp.106-107.6e lbia, p.142.70 This is how the dtle of this work appears in Sezgin [GAS]' W, PP' 73; 254;

256. lGaus' reading of the title is Kinb al'Jumal al-'Ishrin

7l Thi, figure is somewhat imprecise because I I treatises of the 500 Boohs are

lost. But i' th" basis of th" "rner"ge

length of ueatises in this collection, thc

approximation of 120 i9 unlikely to prove radically inaccurate'

72 lt is to the credit of Joseph Needham that he was ablc to recognize the

inflatedness of Kraus' .rro-"r"tiott (Needham [1980], P' 392, note g)'

73 lfta,tr 11942-31,I, p. )Oo(V.

7q b;d., p. )ooilv.75 lbid., p. )oocv (emphasis added).

76 IG",rs ll93o), p.24.

77 Loc. cit (emphasis added)'

T8lGaur U942-31,I, p. LVII.

79 Loc. cit.80 Iud.,II, p. 135.

8r lbid.,I, p. )ooil.

82 Grett. 11963l, p.23.

a3 lbn t<h"Uikan mentions Jabir in the section devoted to J,a'fa1 (see- n'. I above) '

ff," "f"i.",i;i lita"U G.ruynlZ) in his Kitab al-burhan f .Asrdr 'Ilm

;i-M;;;;"yr, .iL i, thanks to Imim Ja.far al-ladiq that he [sc. Jabir] bccame

Imam himself" (qu. Hoh4yard U925), p' 442)'

8a Ktab lkhraj, Kraus ed. [1935),72:9.

40 . CHAPTER I

85'Due to the knowledge he has, implanted in me I derive from him as a sondcrives from his father" Kitab al-R4hib (Book of the Monk, IG 630), IGaus ed.U935),52825-6. (Sce n. 39 above).86 Ruska [929] (The citarion is from the reprint [1937],p. 310).87. In thc 25 Jabirian treatises p.ublished in Kraus ed. [1935], and ll inHolmyard ed.'[l928], therc are about 90 occasions when the author invokes the.ryth9rity of his Master. Yet out of these, only 4 times does Jibir actually specifihim by name.88 T9 the best of our prdsenr knowledge of rhe corpus, only the following worksmention an actud encounter with Ja,far: (i) Kifib al-:A1n (Book of the E r"rr..,IG315) (ii) Ktab lhhraj (iii) Kitab al-Hasil(iv) Kitai Nar al-Hajar(v) Kitab1l-Ra.\rya 4-gaghir(vi) Kitab at-ahd (Book of the pact, IG ld53-1055) (vii)Kitab al-Khawars al-Ihbin For the last nyo see below.S9These include all the texrs published, totalling 57, andsome addidonal 50treatises which I have eiramined in manuscripts.90 S'ee fuabic tei<t in Kraus 11942-3);I, p. )O(W, n. 3.91 lft'aus |942-3), I, p, 133. (Ngli th"t there is another text in the corpusbearing the same title-this latterb6longs rc the I)Q( Boohs,Kr l3l).92 Thi, situation is indifferent to the question of the size of the corpus, for nohistorian has ever challenged lkaus' rclatiza chronological ordering of theJabirian writings (see n. 51 3bove).93 Scen. 42above.94 Scc n. 40 above. The texrappears in lGaus ed. [1935], 311:2-9.e5 lbid.,3lz:j.cie lbid.,3lo3-30:,.e7 lb;d.,303t4,5.98 lbid.,3o5, n. g.

99 Themanuscript in question is dated 1280 Hijra.100 15;r statement must be vicwed as tcnrativc duc to our limited and in manycascs indirect knowledge of theJabirian manuscripts.l0l Holmyard had based his calculations essentially on the testimonies of AbnHanifa d-Dinawari (see n. 14 above) and of the alchemists ps-Majriti and Jildaki(see Flolmyard ll924l; 11925); [1927)).r02 6t"ur 11942-31,I, pp. XLMI-XLVIII (emphasis added).103 Loc. cit ,

104 75;7.,p. )ooilv.

I NTRODUCTI ON

ro5 Fltigel ed. [871], 355:27-28.106 qg Fiick [1951], p. l3o.lo7 Holmyard ed. [1928].ro8 Zirnis ll97l).109 Holmyard , op. cit., p. 6l; Zirnis, op. cit, p.25.I l0 Holmyard , op. cit., p.79; Zirnis, hc. cit.rrr Sergin tGASl, |Y, p. 233.ll2 Zirnis, op. cit, p.22.rr3 Fligel, hc. citI 14 There does exist a third pan of tlis work (Ift 8; Holmyard, op. cit., p. 99 ff.;Zirnis, op. cit., tr. p.74 ff.), as well as a commentary (Taftr, Kr !; Holmyard,op. cit , p. l l5 ff; Zimis, op. rit,, tr. p.92 tr.). Again, neither of thcm refers tothe Barmecides, and both of them are missing from the Fihist115 lftaus |942-31,I, p. XLM.I 16 11t" name appears as "al-Kashi" in trGaus (ibid, p.XLW, n. 2), but Sezgin'sreading is'd-Kashshi" (Sczgin [GAS], I, p. 185). Cf. d-Najashi [Teheran, n.d.],p. 288. liraus refers to the Bombay ed,.ll3l7ll899l.r 17 f(l1us cites (ibid, p. XLVI, n. 2) the Najaf lith. ed.ll349ll927l.tt8 p['t,sin 1L35711938), see lGaus, hc. cit.ll9 Kraus, hc. cit.The A'ydn had reached irc l2th volume at the time whenKraus was writing,r20 ;[-<n rrili devoted 26 pages ro Jibir (d-'Amili 11940],XV, pp. I 15-140).l2l 1-<[rrr1i, op. cit, p. l17 (does not givc dates). See Brockelmann [GALS], I,pp. 9l l-913. For a good account of Ibn Tawns s.. Al Yarin tl965l. The tide ofthe work appears in Sezgin ([GAS], VII,p. 17, p.26) as Faraj al-HamnmfMa'ifat Nabj al-Hakl min'Ilm al-Najnn122 al-(Amili, loc. cit; al-Yaf i's work is available in a,modern edition (al-Yefi'I

11388/19l9l) .123 He has separate sections on the qestions of Jabir's Shi'ism and of hisreladonship with Ja'far (ibid, p. 125; p. 127). 1 (124 1r" alchemist's name appears as Jabir ibn Hayyin" on p,27 ar'd p.42 ofArif Tamir's ed,. 11957).125 See lrwis s.z. "Abu,l Khatteb," [EI2], I, p. 134; Qidi al-Nu'mdn, Dacii'imal-IslanFyzee ed. [195l], I, p.62 ff.

42 CHAPTER I

126; tu1r<".i, Maqaht al-Islamiyin, Ritter ed,. 11963l, p. 13; al-Shahrasteni,Mikl wa al-Nihal" Badran ed. [951], l, pp.343-346.r27 Sezgin [GAS],I, p.530; Brockelmann [GAI-S],I1, p.607'128 al-Najeshi, op. cit, p.30.129 See Sezgin [GAS] ,l l l , p.295.r30 14r1t6i al-Khurisin ed. 03581 19651.131 16;7., p. 70. Tra_nsliterated withour shon vowels, the name app.ears-in printas "JABR,BN HSAN'L$IJFI," but thc nasab here is undoubtedly "Ibn

Hayydn" since (i) elsewhere, Jibir's name appears without this error (see below),(ii) givcn the orthographic peculiarities of thc Arabic script, a medial 7i' aneasily be mistaken for a medial sin, especially in manuscripts without diacritics,(iii) the cpithet d-Stft frequendy appcars in the sources as an integral part of

Jibir's namc, and (iv) no figure by the namc of J. ibn TISAN is known tohistorians.132 d-(Amili, op. cit, p. 117.133 MS Paris Or. 5968 f.333. See Qazwinit edition ofJuwayni's Persian work,Tarthh-e-Jahan Ghusha (amposed 6581 1259), Juwayni }937), IIl, p. 323.

134 5.. Stern r.z. "'Abd Alleh b. Maymfin' [EI2],1,48.135 Kraus 11942-31,I, p.XL, n.7.

136 po, examplc, Ivanow tI955] and Madelung (r.2. "Khafgibiyya'[EI2], IV,

p. I 1 33tr ) t.nd to minimize the importance of cenain early Shi'i groupings of

the 2ndl8th century for the formation of Qarmati and Fatimid Ismi'ilism.

Others such as Masiignon (r.2. "Karmatians"-[EIli, l{, p.767f0, Strothman(s.z. "Sab'iya" [ftt1, fr,p.23ff.),Lewis [ '1940], Stern a2' cit.,and-Hdm [1978]acknowledge some link- berween various secrarian currents of thc 2ndl8th

cennrry *J.h. carliest spcculations of the Ismi.iliyya. (I am gratefirl to Douglas

Crew for his guiding thougha on this maner).

137 This question is thc subject matter of Ivanow [1957).

J1t f" ger some idea of the obscuriry surrounding these questions see Madelung

t le85l.139 In the Shiti contort, nass denotes the Imim's explicit designation of a

su@essor; thus, such power of knowledge and undersanding is conferrcd upon

the successor as no one clse has.

140 5.. Madelung r.z. "Ismi'iliyye" tElzr, M p. 198ff.

l4l Mad.l,rng, op. cit,p. 198.

142 tG"* 11942-3),I, pp. XLMI-LVII. Jabir uses the rctms hini qadar' Cf'

Hdm [978].

INTRODUCTION 43

t43 lbid., I, p. XLDC He gets his datc from Tabari, Ill, s'a' 278 Hijn' Bur'

Madelung ([EI2], W, p. 198) gives an earlier date.

lff Se. n. 51 above. .

145 Thc very title of Kraus' section is "The Ismi'ili Trcnds of the Corpus"

(IGaus [l942-3], p. )(LVII).

v6 154, p. LII (emphasis added).

r47 Jbid, p. LIII (emphasis added).

r48 Loc. citr49 1,66, ae (emphasis added).

r5o 7or. aa (emphasis added).

r5r lbid, P.L.r52 lbid., p. LII; see Hodgson r.a. "Ghulat" [Et2], II, p' 1093 .ff' This

interpretation of Kraus, namllythatlibi-1 suppg5ts tfie imimate of Muhammad

lbn i-Hanafiyya, has, howevet, b."tt challenged by Sczgin in [GAS]' rV, p' 200'

t53 -adh'hab

al-mim wa,l-,a1m(I&aus cd. 119351,36116. Sec n. l4l below).

154 6t"* 0942-31,I, p. UI.

155 ffier orpounding the belicfs of thgsc group..s J.alir says: lA uuutahbamna . . .

*i^rooo yqalu bi'iha\'in min hadhihi'l'madhahib (Kraus ed" U9351' 3722'3)'

This was poittted out by Sezgin ([GAS], tV' p' l9O'

156 6r"* ed,. 11935), 439:14.17.

157 Hsfrnyard ed. [928], 23:8-ll.

r58 lb;d.,235-8.Again, this was dso brought into focus by Sczgin in [GAS]' IV,

pp. 199-200. (Note"an eror in Sezgin p' 199, line 24 p' 199' n'7; P' 200' n' l:

Rad Hajarfor BaYiin).

rtg oP. citlo For example,

'in the Kitnb al'Barydn (n99k 9f lxplication'-Kr

14-15)'

Holmyard cd.itlZSl, I l:13. See dso Kraus I1942-3),II, p' I l9' P' 123'

l5l See Hodgton, op. cit.

162 6or5fut ed 11950].163 Ttese are the first letters of thc words which name the Prophet, his son-in-

law and his celebrated Pcrsian coinpanion-"Muhammad," "Ali,' and

5d;;." Th. proto-Shi'i g'orrio had eio'ated thoepinonag. es &om thc arena

Jllr-,-y . ,ft'", of -"t

fhpio, dcsignating them by tht *t": letters as thc

ar* fryir"r,*es of diviniry and its rianifestations on earth. See Massignon

ll934l and Corbin U9831.

44 cHAPTER I

l& He i, rhe aurhor of a Kitab al-Mizdn (Book of Balance)' See Ibn Athir's

rc*iii"^Aerg cd. 11965-66l,YlIl' 2; Massignon [192]) p' 330'

165 Massignon r.z. "Karmadans," IEIl], fY, p'770 (emphasis added)'

166 16"* Itg42-31,I, p. XLX.

167 Qss can mcntion, for cxample, recent works by Richard Frank [1965]' and

Juynboll ed. [982].l6s Madelung tl96ll. This was funher dcveloped in his [1965]'

169 al-Rassi states that Ismi'ilis were called "d-Mubarakiaya'" He also relates the

former with the Khanabiyya (See Sczgin [GAS]' I' p' 561)'

t7o op. cit, p.52.17r Madelung 119671,.172 11;, is Madclung's own accoun! in the preface to his [1985]' P' X

r73 Kmu5 U942-3)' I, P. XLMII'

r74 gnOn [GAS], M p. 170.

r75 Editcd Tqc, 3o;l'33217.176 9.1r., archaic terminology is also found in Jabir-for ocample' in the Kitab

al-Safuta(Book of the Elite,"ift 384) the term used for the Aristotelian gualiry

-;fr1r*'i7iiro" (MS Paris 5099, f.l l7a). Likewise we have in Jibir an

;;;;"". of the word ; mdl" fot a quadrilateral (cf' IGaus 11942'3)' ll' pp' 62'

66, p. 178).l7 Petcrs [1968], p.32.

178 Badawi ed. [1964].r79 Sec Klamroth [1886], p.631.

l8o lhlam is sdll somctrmies translated as "Scholaseic Theology'" However'

reccnt scholars havc increasingly felt that such rcndcring is. 1o19whar

-irf*6"g. See, for cxamplc, IToi-Gbtt 1l976l;van Ess,

'u''Mu'tazila" [ER]' X

P.2?0'l8l 11r. term marn4 rendercd by mediawal Latin translators as " intmtio," has a

lone and complerc history which ira,s ,"ctttdy been captured by Sfr.a in his work

;;-ib; J-H"ih""' (se. Sabra [19S9], pt. Ii, pp. 7O-73).It should be noted that

jiUi, "pptio

,hi, ."t- in othcr contorts coo (sle n' 61, Chapter 3 bclow)'

182 po, the kaldmdoctrinc of ma,nh see especidly Frank [1967] and Daiber

lr975l.r83 Rinered. [1963], p.369,p.345.

I NTROD U C TI ON 45

r84 16n al-Nadim, Fihisa Tajaddud ed. Il97l),20616. (This is missing from

the tent of Fligel [1871]).r8t Nader u.lt957l,p. 15. Cf. Daibcr $9751, P.78 tr.

186 !7e have noted also that Jabir talks about, and exPrcsses a prefcrence for'

ashab al-taba,i' (the panisanJ of the natures). This was a pre-Hu111n epitlrer

;i;;;;-;ppu.J ,1, among others, a -'rouP

of carly mutahallimfrn' See

al-Ash'ari, o? cit;Krgduls 11942'3),11, p' 166'

187 Badawi ed. [ l964],801:11-15'r88 Tajmi<, IGaus ed 1L935), 37 4zll.

189 lsrgsueess er [1925), no, 79.

r90In tlre Kitdb at-IhhtilAt(Book of Mixing, Kr 180), qu. Kraus [1942-3], II,

P.326.l9l B.tgttt""t er oP. cit., no. ll.

r92 In dre Baltth, qu. Kravs 11942-31, II, p. 329, n.7.

193 3s1g6x6sser, op. cit, no. ll3'

re4 5gz4tr [GAs], TV, p. 172;Ill, P'71 tr'

re5 lGaus 11942-3), Il, pp. 330-331.

196 11ri. work, entidc d Kitab MizAn al-Hihma (Book of the Balance of'!Tisdom), has been thoroughly srudied by Khanikoff [1860J'

197 g6s Khizini's text in Khanikoff, op. cit, pp' 12'13'

198 po. example, the notorious quesrion of Jdbir's familiariry with the Arabic

"-rf",i"" J pr-pl,.rt*"h', Placii philosophorumhas not been invcstigated here.

Cu, "gdn,

the question of the dadng. of this translation is not qlitc setdcd ycq

Sezei;'([CaSl,'IV, pp. 186-188) ttill ."llt into question the belief that Qusati

tb;";d ta. t.looiitz) was the firsr to render the Greek tort into Arabic; and

Sai" e"; so despire rhc lcarned.srudy of Daiber [1980]. In fairness, however, a

"orr"rid.r",ion of ihi, qucsrion does not seem necessary for the point of the

argumenr.199 For a fullcr discussion of Balinis see commentary on the Edited Text,

Chaptcr 5 below.200 Th. inaugurator of modern researches into the Sirwas Silvestre de Sacy (see

his 07991).20r Ruska [1926).202 plcssner [1927); [1931].203 Iftaus [t936); 11942-3],II, pp. 270-303. The summary that follows is

largely that of Zimmcrmann [1981].

46 CHAPTER I

zon gg. Burncn [986].205 The Tabrhapp€ars in Jabir's third Usnqus al-tlss endin rhe Kitdb ol'I!!A

(Book of the Livi'ng One, -Kr

133). Cf.Manzdaoui [1974); Ullmann 11972]'p. r7r.206 IG",tr U942-3J,ll, p.270 tr.

207 lbid.,p. 275 (Kraus tranlates thc passage in n. 2).

208 I^A.,I, p. LMII.209 \Teisscr tlg79l,Arabic Section, p. 13; \Teisser [980], pp.54;64;68.

210 5.., for o<ample, Zimmermann [1981], P.M0.2rl Y.fur"t ll979l.212 yr"ir.., 11979),Arabic Section, pp. 12-18; Veisser [1980]' pp' l'70'

2r3 Zimmermer'n, oP. "ie,

pp. 439-440.

214 p*1" [1929] (thc citation is from the reprint |9371, P.310).215 This is what Nenon has successfully done with the analogous case of dre

Rasii'ilof tre Ilcvvan at-Safi' (sce Netton U982]).216 11.*-"r, [1985] points out that the Gebcrian Summa presents three

principles of -."t*--u"tphur,

mercury and arsenic' As to the third p,rinciple' he

lq" ,ri* he has "not bccn able to locate it in the utcll-hnown luabo-Latin to<ts"

ipl ai, .-ph*is added). This is a cautiorrs stat€ment, for we have on the other

li"nd'th.' uninuestigated testimony of Holmyard: "several of [Berthelot's]

conclusions have beci proved to be incorect, notabll b;s.statcn1t,t!11!abit does

not adnit arsenic as a'third constituent of metab" (Holmyard [1924], p.497,

cmphasis added).

INTRODUCTION 47

U9281, p. 16l. In both cases, Holmyard reads MLK as'mulk'(dominion),whereas l(raus reads the word in the latter casc as 'malik' (king). Thus, in Kraus

[1942-3), the former, i.e., the Kitdb al-Mulh is part of the 500 Boohs (lG 454);whereas the latter, i.e., the Kitab al-Malih (lG 1985) is grouped among thoscindividual treatises of the Jabirian corpus which chronologically come towardthe end. Now, since Holmyard does not distinguish berween the rwo dtlcs, it isnot clear with which of the rwo he is identifring the Latin text. This wholematter remains uninvesrigared.

iii) Kifib al-Majarradar (Book of Abstractions, Kr 63'64) = LibcrDcnudatorum quoted in Dc aluminibus ct salibus of ps-al-Razi. This has beenverified by Ruska 11935).

t, Kitab al-Thakthin l(alina (Book of Thirry Vords, k 125) = Liber)M ucrbis, anonymous, appended ro Liber de scptuaginta in r.he BritishMuseum, MS Arundel 164. This is a correct identification, but neither text hasbeen critically studied. Cf, Kraus fl942-3),I, p. 42.

v) Ktdb Khamsat',*hara (Fifteen Books, I+ 137) = Liber,YZ asqibedto Geber in the Triniry College Cambridge Latin MS 1363 f. l37v'f. 140v.This cquivalence has bcen recognized by Kraus ibid, p. 48, but no furtherstudies have been conducted.

vi) Ktab Musahhahat Saqrdt, (Book of Emendations of Socrates, lk 204)= Ad hubm Sooatis diit Geber, Bodleian MS Ashmole 1416, f.148. Holmyardwas somcwhat doubtful about this equivalence. The fuabic text is no longerexranr, bur Jildaki's Nihalat al-Tahb (End, of the Search) contains an ortract in

Cairo MS Tabitiyat 114, f.47. However, the manuscripts remainuninvestigatcd

vii)- Kitab al-Llsul(Bookof Roots, Kr 412-413) = Liber radiatm' \7ith my

assistance, this was actually discovered and verified in 1985 by Villiam Newman(sce Newman [1985a]).

217 As eerly u 1922, Holmyard had identified a number of l,atin manuscripts as

m.diac"al'r.nd..ing, ofJabirian tieatiscs (Holmyard ll922l)' And these were in

eddition to the rwo translations with which modern scholarship is familiar'

,r"-.Iy, Libcr Misaicordiac = Kitab al'Rahma al-I(abir' Darmstacdter ed'

[tgaSij *a Libcr fu tEtudgintd = I)An Boohi, Bcnhclot ed. p906]. But, as the

i"il.;i;g critical survey wifshow, over the last 70 years very lirde anention has

becn paid to Holmyard's suspicions: .r'r) Kitab ai-Mautazin = Libe, dt pondeibus artis in Borellius ll554l,p. 103. This has not bccn been investigatcd'''

-]i - kirA

"fu"U (Book of tlie Dominion, IG 1985) = I,iber regni.of

Geber in Borellius, hr. jt Thcre is a complication concerning this-tide Ibn

J-N"ai- quotes Jabir as saying, "I composed. a book known as the'Boohs' of

Vfff hr-lnt.r"i.d without sipplying vowelsl." (Sce tcxt in Fl6gel p87ll'

o,359i.Indeed, there are tt"o;"bU.o-torts with thc same (consonanal). tide'

;;;; prtflri.a by Benhelot [18g3], III; the othcr by Holmprd himself, cd.

CHAPTER 2

THE DOCTRINAL CONTEXT OF

JABrR's r / rAn et-au1An,SUBSTANCE, QUALITIES

AND THE SCIENCE OF BALANCE

l

81 the time Islam ernerged o1 t}re world scene, the two towering glantsof Greek philosophy, Plato and Aristotle, had been blende-d-intoNeoplatonism. In f"ct the marriage

'of the rwo sets of ideas had already

been consummated whcn Poqphyry (d. 309 AD.) made it a philosophicalorthodoxy that Plato and Arisode were in agreement.l Islam founi itsclfheir to an Aristode soaked in Neoplatonism both of the pagan Athenianes wcll as of the christian Alexandrian kind, and inhirited both thedebates as well as the commcnatorial preoccuparions of thb rwo schools.2

In the hands of the Neoplatonisrs, Arisrotle underwenr a drasticuansformation. Thus, for example, his (prime).martcr,3 which he .had

{dl:d negativelya as an abstraction that can only be arrived at bythinlcing away fo-rms,5 became erctension (l;astand in simplicius (,,

"ot!after 529 A.D.).6 In John Philoponus (Ar. Yal.rya al-Nahwi, d.570,sA-D.), it became "dre rhree dimensional."T This had the anti-fuistotelianeffect of making.mamer, the 'first subject" (hapokeimcnon pr6ton)8 ofpropenies in bodies, concretc and, hnowabh, For Aristode it was neitherconcrete nor knowable in itself mafter was known only by analogy.g

Jibir goes one step further. First, despite Arisrode's warninfi to the?.o-ntrary, he confounds marter and substance, thus rendering t"..r.,

""this. somerhing" -(n&

rr)rto h thCn malces th. fo,rt primary,f,ist"tai*qualities (hot, cold, moist and dry) concrete, independent and corporealentities. For Aristotle, we recall, qualities w.ti formr, and wire inthemselves no more than logical abstractions.ll However, Jabir heremakcs a Neoplatonic compromise: his subsrance, as well as his fourqudities, still remained incorporeal in the intelligible world. It was onlyin the narural world that he endowed them with corporediry. In this wayhe. bridged *.. s"p between Plato and Arisrode tr,.rih itt the poqphyrianspirit. But all rhese observations musr now be elramincd in detail.

'

49

50 cHAPTER 2

Let us begin with the question of historical evidence supporting.this

filiation of iieas. To whai exrent is Jabir familiar with Aristotle and his

commentators? As for Aristotle, the evidence is overwhelming and

unmistakable: Jabir seems to know almost the entire scoPe of his

writings. Of his familiarity with the Plrysica (Kit4b aLKiin/Sarnd'

at-Tai;'l and the Categoriae (K;tab al-Maqulnt/ al-Qatkhaiyas) we

already know.12 ButJabiialso refers to several other components of the

Orgaion,l3 *d merrtlorrs, quotes' orparaphrases, intcr alia, the De coelo

et mundo (Kitab al-Samd'wa'l'Akm),ra the De phaenomenis

meteorologicis (Kitab aLAthar al-,IJlwiyya),r5 rhe De generati.one et

corru.ptioic (Kifib al-I(aun ua'l-Fasdd),16 and !te, Mcnphyica (Fi ma

Ba,ial-Tabi,a).tt ^,

also knows several works of the greatest ProPonentof Aristotelianism, Alexander of Aphrodisias (fl. c.205 e'o'),18 besides

referring to his commentary on fuiitode's Topica (!abiqa)!.e- .The Independent Aristoielian commentar;r Themistius W. l^:, 340' s-

38415 1,.O.)'is known to Jabir too. "Aristode says in his Physica that form

is the completion and perfection of motion (tamdm al-haraha ua

hamAluhd),'; writes Jabir in ilte Kitdb al-Babth, '-dris is what Alexander

had ,eported in -his

Risah (Episde). The same wes reported by

Themistius in his commentary on the Plrys;ca."zo The latter's

commentary on the Maapbysica is al.o cited: "As for Themistius, he

censured the philosoph.tr-in his Risala on the 'Book A' of the

Metaplr ls ica.. . .b2rCo.l.ming Jabir's direct knowledge of the Neoplatonists., the matter

is somewhat p".obl.*"ti.. In several *o.Ls, he refers to Porphyry, and in

rhe Kitab allTaj-l'(Book of Concentration, Kr 39S) he quotes this

pagan Neopl"to"r,irt fieq,r.r,tly and extensively,2].B21jt i: ::'clear if

jaf,ir h"d "...r,

.o -y "f

lit genuine texts'-or if he did, which ones' In

ih, Toi*i,, a Kitab'al-Tawlldat (Book of [Artificial] Gene.ration) of

Po.phyry is cited,23 but this is very likely a sputious.text' although the

id.", *ii.6 Jibir attributes to him could well have been derived from

some earlier Porphyrian works such as the Philosopfu of Orachs or the

Lctter to Ancbon?a Porphyry also appears in the Jabirian corP-ur as an

alchemical authoriry aiong with such_ figures as Zosimus, Hermes,

Pythagoras, D.mocritur, Ar'istotle, erc.25 li the Kitab al-Sin al'Mahniln(Bo"k"of the Hidden Secret, tG 339-391) Jabir gives an account of the

classification of spirirs according to several histoiicd Personages of the

antiquiry-Porphyry is among them.26 The same is true of simplicius,

h. too is r.f.rred'to in an alc-hemicd context.2T But as for Simplicius'

THE DOCTRINAL CONTEXT 51

arch enemy Philoponus, he is not mentioned by Jabir, nor is Porphyrytteacher Plotinus (generally referred to by the Arab writers as al-Shaykhd-Ylnani, d.2601.o.). Likewise, the name of Proclus (d. 485 A.D.) isnowhere to be found in t}re Jabirian colPus.

However, from a substantive, philosophical point of view, Jabir'scosmological doctrines betray not only a marked, influence ofNeoplatonism, but, as we shall see, even a continuity with that mode ofthought. For one, the theory of emanation and hypostases,which formsthe cornerstone of Neoplatonism, is accepted by Jabir as a given, withoutany criticism as to its metaphysicd jusdfication. Funhermore, there areseveral historicd reasons which suggest that it is more natural to assumethat Jabir was familiar with Neoplatonic ideas, than to do otherwise.These ideas had reached the Arabic tradition at an early date, havingbeen received, orally or textually, from the existing Hellenized Syriacintellectud cufture.28 In fact, theii exists in Arabic a whole series of earlyfragments ascribed to the founder of Neoplatonism, Plotinus,29 and it sohappens that "the Greek work whosc impact was most decisive on Arabicphilosophical thought [sc. fakafa]"30 is an apocryphal text derived fromthis same'Shaykh.'

This is the well-known Theologia Aristotclis (Uthakjila) whoseultimate substratum is Plodnus' Enncads ia-ai in Porphyry's arbitraryarrangement. But this work of ps-Aristotle includes also parts_of Proclus'Elemints of Thcotogt and some metaphysical doctrines of Alexander ofAphrodisias.3l Th; Theologia has been described as the epitome ofNloplatonism as it srrove in Hellenistic times to blend all the elements

gene.ated during the period of greater activ-ity;3z and.it-made anIpp."r"rr". in Islam quite early. The question of the exact dating.of theenbic version of this text is, however, still not quite senled yet,33 but we

shall let that pass. For our purPoses, we have sufficient evidence toassume at leasl an indirect knowledge of Neoplatonists on the pan of

Jebir.

SUBSTANCE AND MATTER

According to one explication of the nodon of substance which Aristodeprovides

^ rhr- Cattgoiae,his substance in the primary and strict sense of

tlre word denotes the being of every concrete, individudly existing thing:,this table, this tree, Socrates. It is the first and most fundamental mode ofbeing or category essentially distinct from nine others (quality, quantity,

52 cHAPTER 2

etc.) dl of which express accidental modc of being. "That which is calledsubstance most strictly, primarily and most of dl-is that which isneither said of a subject nor in a subject, e.g. the individual man or rheindividual horse.'34 Funher, "*rry substanie seems ro signify a certain'this'. . . ."35 The idea is again claborated in the Metaphysica.."Substance. . .- is not predicated of a subject, but everything elsc is prcdicated ofit."36 Thus, Socrates is a substance, rhis one here, an csse per se. His beingan Athenian (qualiry), his stature (quantiry), his being a son ofSophroniscus (relation)-all these arc predicated of him, but he ispredicated of none of these: these are all esse per aliud, accidents of t}resubstance Socrates.3T

But, then, is substance not the ultimare subject of all propenies of abody, itself predicated of nothing? Aristode would answer rhat it is notquite true to say that substance is predicated of nothing: substance ripredicated of a 'this,' for we meaningfully say, 'this is a substance.'Thussubstance itself needs a subject, a subject "made definite"38 by accepdnga form, becorning differentiated and individualized. And this uhimare orfirst subject (hupoheimenon pr6ton) is matter (bah).zs Aristode warns thatmatter is nor ro be confused with subsrance:

It has. now _been srated . . . what substancc is: it is not predicated of a subject, butwerything else is predicated of it. But we rnusr not merely put it like that, for that is norenough. The starement is not clear and funher [sc. on this viewf mattcr bccomcssubsuncc. . . .

By mamer I mean that which is not in iaelf said to be a givcn anyrhing, nor of a givcnquantiry, nor characterized by any of the other categories that define being. For there issomething of which each of these is predicated, and its being is differcnc from rhat of rhepredicates. For tbe rcst arc prcdicatcd of nbsuncc, and sabxance of natter, so that the lastthing [sc. maaer] is in itself neither a givcn anything, ,ro, oF

" given quandry, nor

urphingelsc. . . .so for thosc who think of rhings &om this point of view, it rurns out to bc matter tfiar

is subsrance (ousia). But this 1s impossible, for separabiliry and being a 'this' are thought tobe specid chractcrcstics of substance.40

In the same passage just quoted, Aristode makes it plain that ma$er,vas only an abstraction and could be reached only by mlans of a thoughtxperiment: one was to take a body and in one's rhought suip away alfits)roperties (color, taste, smell, Icngtfi, breadth, dept]r, etc.) io reach r]rerltimate subject underneath. Through this thought experimenr, onelistinguishes between the sum toal of properties making this body whatt is, and that which by its propenies is made into this thing. The laner isnatter' while the former is form. "Aristotle would insist that the

separation here is separation only in thought. Thcre is no suggestion thatthe first subject could ever acirrwithout having propenies [or, conversely,properties could e,rist without a subject]. The idea is only that one canthinh of the first subject without thinking of the ProPerties that itundoubtedly has."4l

Aristode's idea of rnatter proved elusive.'S7hen all propcnies of a bodyare stripped awan what is left? Plorinus called it a "mere shadow uponshadow.'-42 Jabir declared it "nonsense."43 Like Descartes' mind, therewas no language to mlk about matter' excePt by anelogy. And there wcreinternal problems too. Prime matter was imperceptible,aa and it wasthought of as a potendaliry, having the.capacity to receive forms. But thisvery capacity to receive forms is an inalienable Propefty, so matter couldnot after all be conceived without at least this properry amached to it-but, if this is the case, then matter is no longer unanalyzable.a5 Smallwonder that Philoponus dispensed with it as something useless andimpossible, and replaced it with three dimensional extension.46

So bothersome was the idea of prime matter forJabir that in the A(tjarhe wrote a whole critique of this elusive endry, ruthlessly censuring thosewho posrulate it:

[You bdieve that] it is not a body, nor is it predicated of anphing that is predicated of abody. It is, you claim, thc undifferendated form of things and the element of createdobjects. The picture of this [entiry], you say, exists only in the imagination, and it isimpossible to visualize it as a.defined endqy. . . .-Now

all this is nonsense!47

And, concerning the theory that natural objects arise out of a primematter which is not only "eternal and indestrucdble, [but dso] dwoid ofall natural and fabricated acts,o Jibir says:

Philosophen dismiss this theory, and they deny the o<istence of prime matter. To suppoftltheir idea ofl'an objcct dcvoid ofall acts, thcy [sc. the upholders ofthis theory] have beenable neither to offer a proof of what they claim, nor to cstablish it by inditectdemonsuadon.46

So Jabir too dispensed with matter, but he did what Aristode haddreaded. Substance was for Aristotle the subject of nine categories ofbeing, while mamer, in turn, was the subject of substance. Jibir'ssubstance (jauthn) needs no subject: it ir the first subject. The alchemistthus identifies one with the other. Aristotle, we just saw, had declaredthis confounding "impossible." And confounding it indeed was, for

THE DOCTRINAL CONTEXT 53

54 cHAprER z

Jabir's jawhar has the attributes both of Aristode's matter, as well as hissubstance.

On the one hand, the Jabirian substance was simple (barit) and,unique (wnhid)..capable of receiving all forms, and bllongingto allnaturd, perceptible things:

substance is thar which has the capaciry of receiving dl things [sc. all caregories of being].It is in- everphing, and cvcrything arises from it, and everything renuns-to it.a9 Thlsls

lo* ,lr: Most High cnreator, our Lord, has made ir and placed it in everything.

Evcrymmg revcrts to tt.,"

Indeed, substance (iawhn) is what some people called, hayula (hnh):

It is the ilwhy kom-,which arises . . . thc constirutive frame of this world. A group ofpeople calls it bayah.5l

Sometimes the term 'fifth principlc'is applied to it:

The four natures [sc. hot, cold, moist and dty] -.

the principles of werything. To thescnatures-therc is a fifth principle, namelp thc simple substance (al-jawhar al:bait), calledhayah.52

- In fact, Jabir uses a number of familiar terms synonymously to

designate the same enriry. Thus, criticizing the doctrine of thl Sabians inthe Abiar,Jabir has in a single pass€e tfiree different appellations:

[They say that] the first . . . stage [in the formadon of bodies] is tina53 . . . [According tothcm, when] we see.$7ater turning into Fire, the sante jauthar, which was the carricr firstof the qualiries and dispositions of'\?ater is the carrier now of the qualities anddispositions of Fire. . . . Therefore, [they belio,e that] the etrernal hayalais one and the."-..54

If Aristotle had been among Jabir's audience, he would have slmplysaid that the alchemist is rn fa* tell<tng about the first subject ofpropefties in bodies, namely matter. lZhile he uses different terms todenote the same entity, this can be condoned as mere verbal vacillation.But then, Aristode would soon find Jabir totally estranged. For, on theother hand, Jabir's subsrance exists independendy, it is concrete anddifferentiated, and-as far as the naturd world is gencernsd-it is visible,tho"gh not corporeal in itself. kt us see hory dris comes about.

In Jabir's cosrnology the universe is presented as a hierarchy ofconcentric spheres (ofuh, sing. fahh) lfng under the three Plotinianhypostases, the First Cause (= Demiurge-Creator, al-Ba*), Intelligence(al-Aqt), and Soul (al-Ua1g.ss The first sphere under the third

THE DOCTRINAL CONTEXT 55

hypostasis, which is often represented as a circle, is the one whichembraces our world: "This circle is the Suprcme Luminous Sphere,namely the one which embraces the wodd in which we are.o56 In fact,this Supreme Sphere, which is identified with the Ether,57 and whichforms the bounda{f between_the three hypostases and the natural world,is the\forld of Substance (Ahn al-Jawhar).58

In this Supreme Sphere a cosmological process comes to pass'whichmakes substance visible, endows it with a form and a distinct color:

As for substance, God protect you, it is the thing by which the intersdces are filled(al-mznli' hihi al-hhala|. It is capable of uking any form. Everything is in it, everythingis constiuted out ofit, and everything dissolves back to it. Ifthis account does not enableyou to undcrstand what substance is, then flet me explain funher that] it is the dust(al-haba'), and its color is somewhat white. And when the sun radiates on it, it becomesinflamed and visiblc. Thus you ought to know that it is the mass (jirm) of the SupremeLuminous Spherc, may its Creator be pnised, and His name hallowed. This is the bodywhich is in il three kingdoms of nature, namely anima.ls, plants and stones.59

At another place, the diffirseness of substance, which is indicated by itsidentification with dust, is categorically stated:

Substance is diffirsed dust (al-haba'al-nanthn). . . .60

'u7iti their corpuscularian suggestions, these assertions ofJabir are soremarkable that they deserve a separate study in their own right.However, restricting ourselves to a narrower perspective' we note thatour audror, in terms of his general approach, continues to operate fromwithin a Neoplatonic mode of thought. He says that substance is whatfills up the interstices, the unoccupied space between physical objects. Hethen equates substance with dif;fused dust. One can argue that Jabir ishere prompted by the same considerations which had led Simplicius toidentifr Aristotle's first subject with ortension. In fact, at one place Jabirdoes, indeed, visualize substance as empty space.6l And the similarity isdeeper: for Simplicius had persistently stressed the difuseness of extensionwhich put it at the opposite of the unity of the One.62 Evidently, Jabirlacks the philosophical sophistication of Simplicius; he does not offer anyarguments for a metaphysical justification of his cosmology, nor is heconsistent-but he does seem to be reflecting the concerns of hisNeoplatonic predecessor.

Plotinus, we recall, had taught that in the hierarchical descent,One (to hen) + Intelligence (nous) -> Soul (psycht) -) Matter (huh),each intermediate step has something of those on each side of it.63 Jabir's

56 cHAPTER 2

Supreme Lurninous Sphere also shows an intermediate character appro-priate to the place halfway between the intelligible and ttre materialworld: this is the place where it lies, serving as the link berween the firstthree hypostases and the 'wodd in which we are.'The Supremc Sphere,which was the 'lforld of Substancc, happcned to be the last of theincorporeal, and, simultaneouly, the first of the corporeal beings. Byvirtue of its incorporeality it was simple and uniform, in which theuniversal and the particular coincided;64 but at the same time it hadcertain features of corporeal bodies, for it had pans (mu'alhf),65 it tookpart in motion,66 and was subject to time and space.67

The idea of haba' (dust) is particularly interesdng here. '!7hat ishaba'f8 Fakhr al-Din al-Rzi tells us that it is "lilce the cloud of tinyparticles lgh*bar) which enters a small opening with the ray of thesun,o69 and, Jabir orplains, "it manifesrs itself to you (bayyinun hka)when the sun shines on it."70 One gets the impression that Jabir is heregroping for something incorporeal, yet familiar; an entity endowed withsome attributes of material bodies, though not material in itself. Thepardcles of dust must have seemed a good candidate for this intermediatestatus between the intelligible and the sensible. They became visible onlyin a ray of t}re sunlight, but rema.ined ihvisible otherwise; they could notbe held in the hand, nor could they be perceived by ury sense other thanthe sense ofsight. So substance:

It is not possible for anyone to perceive substance by the sense ofrouch. Even ifsomeonecomes into contact with it, he will not find it perccptiblc to touch. Nobody can handlesubsmnce by his hand. . . .71

Moreover, sheer visibility does not endow corporealiry. In explainingthe generation of everfhing from the One, Plotinus had used themetaphor of light,72 conceived sricdy as an incorporeal entity.ze Lithtwas visible, but it was not corpored; it made other things visible, but thiswas not an instance of rnaterid causation. Jabir's notion of r}re LuminousSphere, his idea of subsrance becoming visible and acquiring a colorwhen t}re sun shines over it-all r}ris is reminiscent of a Plotinian spirit.

Jabir's jauthar, as ir existed in the Supreme Sphere, was not a body,but there it certainly turned into a 'this'-differentiared, independent,and visible. It was no longer Aristotle's matter, rather it was hissubstance. Again, this identification of marter with substance is notwithout parallel in the Neoplatonic tradition. Philoponus, as we havenoted, had identified Aristotle's 'first subject' with his indefinite three

THE DOCTRINAL CONTEXT 57

dimensional extension. But he had also called this first subject the forn,differentia, essence, or essendd aaribute of body.Ta Indeed, if the threedimensional extension is "the essence of body, then he [sc. Philoponus] isturning it into substancc."75 As a matter of fact, he explicidy cdls itsubstance: "The substance of the body is nothing other than theindefinite three dimensional."T6 Moreover, in the contra ProclumPhiloponus goes as far as to say that his indefinite three dimensional canbe called body.n

THE FOUR NATURES (TABA'I ' )

Jabir has only a limited interest in abstract issues. He introduces themrnerely for a philosophical bolstering of his own cosmological anddchemicd doctrines, and rarely offers logicd arguments or proofs. Thenotion of substance is a case in point. He introduces it as a cosmologicdnecessity, only to slip it into the background. As a pracdcally mindedalchemist, he did not have much use for substance: it was common to allthings of the world, it was unique, and it did not admit of any alchemicaloPerations.

Much more important from an operational point of view were thefour Aristotelian elementary qudities. As a matter of fact, Jabir's theoryof qualities forms the very core of'his entire natural sciendfic system."The whole of Jabirian science," wrote lGaus, 'reduces itself to thetheory of qudides, their place and their combinations."Ts 'fhis is apenetrating obseravation and has to be taken very seriously. For ifonekeeps in view the centrd theme of theJabirian system-namely to reduceall explanations of the natural world to an explanation of the fourqudities-then the gains are many and with far-reaching consequences.It is no smdl gain,'for example, that when Jabir's scientific texts arestudied in the context of this reducdonism, they appear to bear a clearlyrecognizable doctrinal uniry. In this way their notorious incoherencelargely vanishes.

In developing his doctrine of qualities on clearly Neoplatonic lines,

Jibir moves in a direction far removed from his Hellenistic predecessors.For, breaking with the rradition, he hytostasizes his four qualities. On theone side of the Supreme Sphere, as we have seen, lay the three Plotinianhypostases. But on the other side of it he now places what he calls the'u7orld of Simple Elements (Akm al-Andsir al-Basd'it)-significandy,the term 'simple elements' here denotes not the Empedoclean bodies but

58 CHAPI-ER 2

the four qualities hot, cold, moist and dry.7t '15r- Supreme Sphere isrepresented by a circle; the r$7orld of Simple Elements is a smallerconcentric circle inside it.80 Like substance, these qualities-or rather,the simple 6lsrn6n1s-vrere incorporeal; but they were concrete,differentiated, and independently existing entities.8l

As Kraus points out, the idea of the Kitdb al-Tasnf (Book ofMorphology, k 404) to hypostasize the elementary qualides beyondtheir cbrporeal existence is not cenified in the Neoplatonic tradition. Onthe contrary, the Hellenistic philosophers had read in the Timaeus thatthe Heaven was made of the four elements, and, in the world of Ideas,there o<isted some "absolute Fire, prototype of the material fire."82 Thus,essentially deriving from this doctrine, it was the four Empedocleanelements which the predecessors ofJabir had hypostasized, placing themin the intelligible world. Jabir accords this position to the qualides. Andthis means that the qudities, not the Empedoclean primary bodies, werethe true elements of the natural world. In the intelligible world existednot some "absolute Fire," but the incorpored hot.

But how do these qualities manifest themselves below the sphere ofthe planets? How does the intelligible turns into the sensible, theincorporeal into the corpored, and the simple into the compound. Jabirexplain the formation of material objects in terms of the doctrine ofprogressive descent which is central to Neoplatonic metaphysics. At theiooi of the generation of the corporeal world lay the Desire (sha,hwa,83

sba*q,84 tauqdnaS) of the Soul which endowed substance with formativepo*.i. At some stage in the complex hierarchy of concentric spheresbeneath the Supreme Luminous Sphere, the Soul impaned to substancealso a geometric foim, a figure which was necessarily spherical. Thisspherical substance due to the Desire attached itself to one of the fqgtisolate qualities whence it became a corporeal body. This progressiveorganizalion of the material world has been explained, for example, in

rhi K;tab Maykn al-Aql (Book of the fuena of the Intellect, k 362):

First, we visualizr a region of spacc which is empry (ba'fom na Ia shal'afh),Then, wc imagine a substance which has acquircd a form by vimre of which a figure

has come to pass in it. This figure can only be spherical.Noc, [we visudize] that this mixture [substance + form] is aaached to onc of four

isolate naturcs [sc. elemcntary qualities].86

In Jabir's cosmology, a whole series of spheres are conceived as lying ina complex hierarchy under the Supreme Sphere, extending all the way

down to the celestid world.87 Inside the concentric spheres representingthe worlds of the four qualities, the Tasnfplaces another sphere whichafter some hesitation is called void (hhalz).88 And this void is the placewhere, according rc the Kitab al-M-rzan al-SaghIr(Small Book of Balance,I* 369), substance becomes differentiated (in hasr),8g and it is here thatthe qualities attach to it.

This process has been described more fully in the Maydnn al-vLql.eoThus, substance according to the desire of the Soul passes *,rough voidinto the world of elementary qualities and is charged wir:h differentquantities of hot, cold, dry and moist. The manner in which substancemingles with qualities is similar to that of "paste" ('oitrltr when soakedin wine, vinegar, honey, etc. !7hen substance takes a definite quantity o{,say, hot, its capacity for absorbing other qualities is reduced.

Beneath Jabir's void, both substance and qualities were corporealentities. All the objects of the natural world ultimately arose out of theattachment of the qualities to substance. The variery of things in ourworld was reducible to the variety of ways and the variety of quantities inwhich the qualities attached to substance. And in this wayJabir set out toexplain the entire natural world in terms of the four elementary qualities.

The four qualities were the frst sinplc elemcnts (al-'anasiral-bard'it/al-basPit al-uual) of all bodies. These were uncompoundedentities

'(mufadi out of which the first compourd .I.-.tttt

(al-murakhabat), Ajr, '!?'ater, Earth and Fire were formed.,92 which latterhe sometimes calls "second elements' ('andsir thawan;n).92 Specificdly,rwo of the qualities unite with substance to form one of the fourEmpedoclean elements. Thus, Fire = hot + dry + substance; Earth = cold+ dry + substance; etc.94 Further, qualities were not the simple accidentsof Aristotle, differentiating prime matter and endowing the elementswith actual forms.'\fith regard to the Empedoclcan bodies, theypossessed a real constitutive character, and took their Place, in the

hierrchical order of beings, above these elementary bodies.95

Jabir has drifted far away from Aristotle. To be sure, as Kraus hasobserved, he avoids designating the four qudities by the Aristotelianappellations, dunamis (quwA, sing. quututa) or poiott-s (kayflydt, sing.ha615,a7.te Hc calls them "principles" (usil, sing. a/),97 "bases" (arhan,

sing. rahn),98 "first simples,' 'first elcmenls"-f,u1 most frequently herefers to them by the term 'natures' (yaba'i', sing. tab),99 andsometimes explicitly distinguishes them from ha7fiy6s.r0o llnsappellation 'nature' was never used by Aristode in this sense. Here we

THE DOCTRINAL CONTEXT 59

7

::

II.

;

J

:.i"4

THE DOCTRINAL CONTEXT 6l60 CHAPTER 2

have, then, a case of a profound conceptual and terminological

difference.In fact, once Jibir leaves his cosmological mode of discourse and

enrers rhe area of naturd philosophy, he speaks in terms that are clearly

mechanistic and materialiitic: qualities come to live together, to subsist(balk) in a body.lol But this did not mean the inherence of accidenm in

a material s,.bstiat ,m. Substance unites with (u'alkqa) the natures;102 it

sticks to (ratiqa) them,l03 clings rc (ushabbatha) themr04 and mixes

(intazaja) with them.lo5 t07hile, on the other hand, the natures attach or

cling to one another;106 they enter into a mixturel0T and become

mingled (ikhtalzta).r0s Finally, the natures are comPosed in or with

substance, lo9 rhey are implanted in substance;ll0 the natures atmck

substance,ll l and'act upott isttz-they shape it,113 .*Ot"ce it, l14 and

iompress it.1l5By conferring on the qualities this independence and corporealiry,

Jabir has assigned to them the role of true elements. The primitive bodies

of the natural world were not the four Empedoclean elements, but the

four natures. Air, '$?'ater, Earth and Fire, were effectively composed of

the natures, and more than that: these Empedoclean bodies could

literally be decomposed into the latter. Aristotle had said that to each

elementary body there was only one affection-"sxsfi of them is

characterized simply by a single qualiry: Eanh by dry rather than by cold,'Water by cold. . . , Air by moist . . . , and Fire by hot. . . . "116 This

meant that when, say, Fire is deprived of hot, always the contrary qudiry,i.e. cold, appeared. Fire which was hot and dry thus beca.me Earth whichwas cold and dry. lt7

Jabir's doctrine stands in sharp contrast to this.According to him, we can extract hot from Fire, and in this way reduce

the latter to pure dry. This removal of hot does not result in theappearance of cold. Indeed, there did exist bodies which were only hot,or only cold, and so on.

How does one extract and isolate a nature from a body? Here is arecipe for the reduction of water to cold:

The operadon is performed in the following manncr. You project water in a cucurbit,where you have placed a substance possessing strong dry, like sulphur or a similarsubstance. In this way the moist of water will be dried up by the dry [of sulphur] and thehor [of rhe 6re of distillation]. The moisr will be entirely burnt, and only the isolated coldwill remain.llS

The physical characteristics of these isolated natures are also specified.

For ocample, dry

is hard, dull and siccative. or, it is a dust of atomic constitution, which decrcases involume by the contraction {of its atoms] and increases it by [their] -lansion.ll9

And in the material world, the narures have weights roo, so doessubstance. "Hot, cold, moist and dry," teaches Jabir in the al-Mtzinol-$oglir, 'possess weights, and substance too has a weight: this isincvitable. . . .ar20 Otherwise, the union of nyo things which are neithervisible, nor actually ocisting, would produce nothing. The sugestion todeprive the natures or substance completcly ofweight was absurd.'We have now effectively entered into the original aspects of Jabir'stlrought, for neither thc hypostasizing of the quditiei, nor is theircorporeality certified an)'where in the standard Greelc uadition. lGaus

luggested that the idea -of

qualities- as bodies is an indirect borrowingfrom the Sroicsl2l for whom, as we know, corporealiry was the hatlmarfof exisrence. 122 However, this does nor seem to be the case. The Stoics,acccording to lGaus, 'considered elementary qualides as bodies whichdue to their active enerry inform marter.'I23 But, then, the intention ofthe stoics, unlike that ofJabir, was nor ro rreat qualities as so many acrrabodies p".-k d into a single body it was rathe r a reductionerr atrempr rorepresent.rhe qualities of a body as various disposirions of a singb b"iy-pneuma disposed in so many different waysJz{

The Stoics embraced a theory of categories and they "somerimesthought of quality in terms of the third category-maner, or pne'ma, orso,ul, or reason disposcd in a cenain way. For the Stoic m"reri"Iisrs, eachof these . . . would be- thought of as body. [However], rhey would nor befour distinct bodies, for pneuma i soul and reason, and all of them arem1fter. *?"?!t-!!fposed. The lStoic] idea about qudities . . . is suonglyreductionist.trl25 Thus the qualides cannot be corporealsubst"nc.s. "Iionot see,o declares Sorabji, 'that the view owes ani'..hing to the Stoics aslGaus suggesrs.'126

Indeed, rhere are both terminological and conceptual links benveenJibir's doctrine of qudities and that found in is-Apoflonius' sr'rra!'KQrltqa..Likewise,_the writings ofJob of Edessa .rrry ri.r* which aresignificantly_:!9r..ttt 'Listen io what I say to you!," commands ps-Apollonius, 'all.things are from the four natwes'(tabdri.) namely hot,cold, moist (al-h") and dry. . . . All of them ,r,o". i' a circre about thesame cenrer. . . . AII of rhcm are from the same substance . . . which ishomogeneous (k ihhtikffh,r) until accidents come to pass in it. \7hcn

62 CHAPTER 2

this happens, it breaks up and- its-parts become different from one

;;,i;:' . ."i28 Ag"it, "nJh.r, the sihere. (aLf^alzh) moves perpetudly

and become, lrigJrout in its motion, the four natures form parrs

tirl"."Al,or,. ii.h dre other. They become different' and one knows

;;ffi; .1,. oJ., bv its essence and form'" I 2e The rcrm tubr;<' the

;;il;;rg ,f .h. qualities, the pairing of these entities through_ some

.iJ-ologi.iprocess in the intelligble*Irld-"ll this is shargd byJabir': e"llif..libir,;ob of Edessa also believes that the s;n.h chments of ill

brli; "r.lio,,

.oid, -oirt

and dry, while the most fundamental bodies'

Air, '$7"t.r, E"nh "rrJ

Fire are compound ehments (zna!-r.murakhabd

,rr"a. of toi, cold, *oirt *d dry. The four qudities should be viewed an

ffi;;t i'a;y^i,;;,h.liriac author of tle Booh of Treasurett3o

these are not accidentt G"itl l' p'optnit' behngtng.tla-substance'l3l

i"-]n".t., work of J:-i ;i Ei.,'", rhe Kitib itrlfi' (Book of

Irr,.ror.,",ion) which ilt qu"*d in Maqdisi's Khab Bad' ua al'Ta'rIhh

iiir"l .iotrgins and History, comP' 3551966)' certain assertions are

);;.; iJ.r,.iit to labiri. "rir. p;".iples (nabadi'= Gr. archai) of zll

thines," we read, ""r. irol"t. d#t"tt (al'''anasir al'mufafo)'."."-:ly'

hot(harr), cold, (bard), moist (balh) and dry U:?t)'By.thecombrnauon'(ii, A' iri *.r., .t . lo-po""a'atf-:l1t-(' l- <andsir

.al'munahaba)'namely Air,

.water 1...t . . .'*. fbrmed.Dl32 These assenions could well

h"rre clme out of a Jabirian tent'The eclecdcir-

"r jJii, i;-;.* evident. In fact, he is quite aware of

this feature of his ideas:

[Mvl affirmations will be equally va'lid for those who profess the oristence of natures

ffitffisub;;; riu_;Dli7';rr'rrr*"*r,. ""..p, "."id",,.. alone to the exdusion of

bodies;l34 as well as for those who-say, on the contrary' that the accident is invisible' and

th* Ji Al"gt are, rather, bodies'I35

QUANTIFICATION OF QUALITIES

AND THE SCIENCE OF BALANCE

Let us now turn to the most imponant' most interesting' and most

"-a"..r* aspect

"f Ja;it';h.ory of qt'jititt' If in the natur{ world'

ffit.t.t;.:;;; rri, ura if they po"o' weights' thgn $ey should in

;il;;ffi;;,'Ji. .o q,r.r,,ii".iv^e .treatment. Indeed, the four

Iabirian natures were not only quantifiable' they were also subject.to

t."rr'rr.-.rrt, and they admitted of a whole range of quentltatlve

THE DOCTRINAL CONTEXT 63

manipulations. And here, from the standpoint of the history of filiation

of ideas, we have something rather significant' For like the attemPts to

ouantifo qualities ",

Vo".f,tttier and"Oxford in the early 14th century

iri,iiurli q;Jfi;;i"n'of his tabd-'i'also makes an aPPearance in a

-.JiJ"+h"ri".ologiJn9'+t"1-t, In fact' the two aftemPts' namely

,ir.llifrl* "od

th."lrti"', U.* fundamental similarities of a formal and

methodologicd nature.Recent scholars have stressed the importance of two pioneering l'atin

worls in the -od.rn

hi'tory of the mathematization of medicine in

seneral, and that .f p[;;;;ty in particular: the Aphoismi de gradibus

:Hffi;fi,'ij.",piiri., "ro,,"d' I 300 A'D'' I 36 and--the .Icocedron' a

ft4.ri""i"" -ork

portd"titg the former by a few yeairstr3T It is interesting

to note that both ,t.,t i"tkt are written by authors known to be

alchemists-namely, A"t"ld of Villanov" ""d

'W'"I'er of Odington

;;;;;;;;i". Also, i, r,"t Ltt" shown that these two writings rvere the

il:"#.,;;f;;ft-o.rs dy'ami.at law of Thomas Bradwardine,

fr.-"* ii.it significance in the hisiory gf.physics'I38 And' most important

il;;;;p;i,,t of "i;;;

Loth the'ApQiyi and lcocedroz have been

found to be a.p""J."'- "n

the' Fi Ma'rifut Q"*4 al-Adwiyat

al-Murahhaba to" .i.-iinJtdgt of..the Iniensiry.of Cornpound

Medicines, f^r. qu;o p'i"i ti tf;t well-known and the earliest Arab

;iil:A; w fip';n, d-Kindi (d; c' 257t870)'t3e'rVhat are ,rr. ,.rr.rJl it*"ttt "f

J these attempts?140. First' all four of

e.;-iJ;, J-ri"ai, at"Jd and Valtet:"i- at making more precise'

elaborare and fuller ,il e"fi chssification of simple dn'gs according

to the degrees (taxeis) "i -tt"1V

of each qualiw in them' Indeed' Jabir's

interests go far beyond drugs into a ge"t'"I. -tth"d"l

ogy- for measuring

,'f,. q"".?i,i.. of th.Ht"i'*ttt in allthings.belonging to all three

kingdoms of th. n"tuJ *"tiJ' loUit-!4* di-stinzuishes himself from

his three "o,rrr..rp*,

tr'r*o"G bJ.r" classificla.tion scheme'v'ith a

more sophisticated "o*'p"titi"1tai'y"t-

claimed to be founded upon

universal theoretical ;;;ttPi;; ""tht'

than upon the empirical

gencralizations of medical experience' rar-

Second, al-Kindi makes e very imponant and conceptydtr-fuitni-l

diriirr"tion between the intensity of a quality and its extenslon' rrlus' 'z

&ct, hedistinguishes-it-*tt" (t"' *i

"-pt'"""t' Arnald and Valter

;i;;t;ii"i,.a il-i; ;;i"*inins this distinction, they placed a

strong emphasis t.;;;;Jing ih"t .in the Latin \fest proved

particularly germane ; " ;;;i;J t*?"'i""tio" of thc nature of heat'ra2

CHAPTER 2THE DOCTRINAL CONTEXT

But in Jabir too we find a conceptual distinction berween intensiry andextension-in fact, as wc shall see, one of the grounds on which hecriticizes Galen is tlris very confounding of rhe rwo.

And, finally, through one quantitative mathematical formula oranother, all four authors-Jabir, al-Kindi, Arnald and Sfalter-relate theintensive qualities of bodies with their extensive characteristics. Thespecific relati.onsh_ip proposed by d-Kindi, and which was accepted byArndd as well as sTalter, is one which linla a geometric increase in thenumber of 'parts' of a quality to an arithmetic itt.r."s. in the sensedgft.lt1, As for Jibir's systern, it will presently be our subject for adetailed studn b1, i" the meantime it should be noted that the validiryof the formulae of al-Kindi and his latin scions is, once again, limited todrugs. Jebir, on the other hand, considers his quantitalive system ashaving an unlimited scope, applicable universally to all things of rhenatural world.

'S7e see, then, that from a substantive point of view, Jibir seems to beat the head of the al-Kindi-Arnald-\Talter quantificationist uadition. yetwe have no direct historical widence at hani ro suppoft rJris conclusion.Indeed, if we accept Kraus' late dating of the-Jabirian corpus, theevidence Aight even appear to point m rhe conrrary, for then thequestion of al-Kindi's familiarity with the ideas of Jabir would hardlyarise. Likewise, no scholar has so far pointed our any texrual indicationthat Arnald of Villanova, or \Talter of odington had-direct access ro themediaeval Ladn translations of the Jabirian rexts. \0fe can only suspect anindirect Latin familiariry with Jabirian ideas through tle writingsascribed to Geber. l& Evidendp rhese are involved q.,.r.iorr and it seemsprudent to leave them at this juncture. Bur let us proceed with a closerlook at Jabir's sysrem.

Galen, we recall, had accepted the 'fourfold' scherna which hadbrought the four Hippocratic humors, the elementary qualides, and theEmpedoclean elements inro common accord.li5 Drawing uponAristode's idea of contraries, he had believed that when one of thf boiil'hum.ors- develops. to- the detriment of others, destroying the humoriequilibrium, the body loses health. The medicam.t t io, iountering theharmful effects of the orcess humor was therefore required ro possess aqudity conrrary to that of the humor. It was this greai general irincipleof cure by contraries which served as the rationd. Fot th! classification ofsimple drugs according to their pharmaceuticd potencies. 146

This was a classification in rerms of the opposing pair of primaryqualities: a medicine was determined eithcr to b. t ot oi cold, and, I.sssignificandy, eirher dry or moist. Galen further assigncd to thcse qualitiesa scde of measuremen-t in degrecs. Iatroducing

" rJ. of four degices, he

classified the action of.drugs according to the supposedly innate-degreesof hot, cold, rnoist

""d dty they posseised. Accoijing .o G"l.rr, in

-each

qu{iry four degrees of intensiry could be distinguishcJ: the fust includedordinary-food whose clementary q""lity is hardly appreciable, the second{egr9e of intensity was found in weak-medicines and srronger food, thethird in medicines w.hgse .F"o wgre

-appreciably swerc, *i, n"Uy, ,t.

FTl,j.S::e includedpoisons which werg ro rt oog ",

to d.rtroy th.body.tez This numerical specification had found its riay into the Arabicmedical tradition through which it continued in latin medical writers.

Like the.Greek physicians, Jabir acceprs that, in practice, all bodiespossess .ll +. four qualities: when we srythat such and such body is hotor cold, it simply rneans that the hot or cold has come ro dominate theother three. 148 But as for the Galenic approach to the classification ofdrugs, Jabir is.highly critical of it-he dismisses it both on empirical aswell.as rational grounds. To begin with, it was an arbitrary classification,f,or it gr"o.uped together.a very l1tS1.1qUer of drugs under a single{egree of intensiry-of a given qudiry. l4l Bur, argues Jabir, even if ar tledrugs allegedly of rhe r"m. gtoup did show iomi"r"bl. effects, theq,uan,tity tflht yolja in each of them was differen,. Fo, o"-ple, amongthe drugs classified under the_third degree of hor, "we definitiveiy k"oJthar the hor in sugar (al-suhhad is

""t rhe same as the hor i"

""ir..a(al-anisun). Nor is ir rhe same as the hot which is in colocynrh (shahmal-hanzat), nor rhe sarne as rhe hot in euphorbi^ (frrb;ian)."rio j-otranslare Jabir in modern rerms, a number of bodi., i"y t", the same

efeo(rempenrrure), but they do not necessarily iosr.r, the samequlntiry of intnsity (heat) producing rhat efi[ect.

s.-.?ldr, the Galenic classifications were refuted by experience. For,says Jibir, if we tike dl the drugs which

".. ,uppor.i ro t.rorrs to the

same degree of inrensiry, "nd

administer them in identici doses(measured in rerms of weight), their effects wil nor be identiJ. Thus,for example, among the drugs belonging ro the third G"r.;i; d.sree ofhot, only one dirham [dir.) of euphorbia (frrbra") produces thJ ,"*.effect as 2 dir. of scammony (saqmqn;y1),

-i0 di, "f

;";ri-tgiiiqa"),and 20 dir. of white agaric (gia;qi"). Similarly, Jeb; .o;i;,r.r, i'terms of entensive effects, th di;. of colocynrh = 2 ii of dodde, oicrete

t{I.{til,a

I

THE DOCTRINAL CONTEXT 6766 CHAPTER 2

(al-afthtmun al.iqnt) = 3 dir. of ltabb^ aLnil'|5r etc' These drug1'.then'

did iot h"lr. .q.r"l itr.rrgthr, to classifr- them all under the third degree

of hot was urrsyrst.mati. ird arbitrary' 152

Next, Jabir'anacks the physiciaJs classifiaction on rational. grounds.

fn. Ut"-l.dge of G"lerris ior' d.g,.." of intensiry \taxeis) of each

q"Jit in a th'irrg rested exclusively o'n t1e senses. But the testimony_of

,ir. ,.rr.., could "not

be trusted. Colors and smells are not reliable guides

to the constitution of a body, writes Jibir in the Bahth: one color may

represent each of the four qualities; and as for smells, they may turn

p,iuid in which case one smell is likely to be conftrsed with another.

Lik *ir., taste is no indication of a body's qualities-indeed, a_large

,r,r-b., of bodies, such as gold and silver, had no taste whatsoever' It was

obvious that sense o.perieice could nor be talcen as reliable basis for the

exact determination of the preponderant qualiry in a body' much less the

intensity of this qualiry.tiljaii.'i, th* r..kirr! a theoretical s'stem that goes beyond the fallible

emoirical impressions of th. ,,rp.tficii sen'es' And in doin-g so' he stands

ffii;.h. medic"l tradition which had viewed itself as essentidly

gr"""a.a in er<perience. Prior to the l4th centuryA-D'' a.recent scholar

i.ll, ,rr, "physfti"ns . . . u'ere nearly- unanimous in insisting that in

pracrice medicine was an experiential art in which certain knowledge

i""iJ "."..

be achieved."lt4 Indeed, it was Galen's dictum that a

knowledge of the properties of simples comes only, by. -t*PttlTtnt'

Co--.niing on thi, ii..u-, the 4thltoth cenrury. physician 'AIi ibn

uqbu; alvtilosi (Lat' Haly Abbag tsi had "remarked despairingly that a

full ;p*t;;ntal knowleige would.take a thousand men a thousand

y."rr, La his statement *"i r.p."t.dly quoted in the Midddle Ages'D156'For

Jabir there is no cause for such dttp"it' He.simply *i::tt empiricism

il d;;; of a philosophical system_of .t..rr,"l truths which alone, he

believes, co,rld serve ",

,h. rh"or.tical foundation of scientific knowledge.-

jaUir' feels that the physicians' classificaliol 9f drugs. operates in a

thJoretical vacuum. g,ri b.fot supplying this deficiency' he proceeds to

-"k. .r, algorismic i-pror'.--.t;.i" itt comn1t11i91al structure of

CA-."i. a.g?.|r. \fithout a refined sy-stem of subdivisions, he thinks,

these degrees were .rJ. .rnit,t e't'en if one were to distinguish in each

CJ.ti" i.gr.. a mirrimr'rrr, (awwal al'ma*aba), a maximum (ahhil' and

"-;;; (rri^or) value of intensities, the precision of the result is hardly

i-ororr.i.ttz ih*, Jabir propos., "

*,t.h ortended scheme of elaborate

,'rlliJiri""r. Or;;;*e'(iartaba) is divided into certain number of

grades (daraja), egrade into minutes \daqiqa),I58 a 6insi6 into seconds(tharil'o), Jr."orrl into thirds (thatitha), a third into fourths (rdbi'a),

and, drrally, a fourth into fifths (hhamisa).rse Since all natural bodies

contained il ,h. fo,tr qualities, drere were now 4 (qualitie$ x 4 (degrees)

x 7 (subdivisions) = 1li differcnt positions,160 as opposed to_Galen's 16.

It is significant that Jibir borrows the names of his units from ancient

"r.rono.riy. His aim is to elevate the _practice of medicine to the

infallibili iy of an exact science. In fact, he sometimes emulates

completelf the astronomical units of measurement: in the Ahjir, the

units of his Balinfu follow a geometric progression with 60 as its base.

Thus, 60 fifths = 1 fourth; 60 founhs = I third l= 602 fifthd; 60-thirds =

I second [= 603 fifths];60 seconds = I minute [= 604 fifthsl etc'-16]

But how does one measure the strengths or intensities of qualities in a

body? Or, more generally, how does one discover the quantitative

,.r.r.r,rr. of the o61..tr of the physical world? It is here that Jabir'sScience of Balance ('rllm al-MUar)

-"k.t an entry. This was a universal

science par mcelhnce, a divine science ('ilm lahAti) 162 whose aim was to

reduce'all facts of human knowledge to a system of quantity and

measure.l63 The scope of this Science was not limited m-e-rely to the

measurement of q,rjit"tive potencies of drugs-in fact, "all things fdl

under t1e [principie ofl Bdance,"t6a and-'-i'-is--by means of this principle

that man is'able to make sense of t}re world"'165The principle of Bdance was truly.cosmic-in ft: .t199t' On. the one

hand itiove.n"d the sublunar world (ajnds thalath4,r66 submittin$ all

change, f"rr.r"tio^ and corruption to the exactness of mathemadcal laws.

On tf,. Jthe, harrd, it served ao -."rt,.

the distances and movements of

the celestial bodies and even linked them to the hypostases of the intelli-

eible world-just as physicd bodies had a balance, soul and Intelligence

f,"J ua*..r ,oo1ez ttre p.inciple of Balance was the Supreme Principle(Qu'Ao'IJVma) of the world.l6s 1n the natural world,^to give merely an

o,rilirr. of jabir's doctrine, all bodies contained the four qualities in a

specific, immutable; and noble proportion which lvas gov€rned by the

Srrpr.-. Principle.l6g This proportion was | : 3 :5 : 8 whose sum 17

(=i+3+5+g) was the foundation-( qA,ida) of the entire Science of Bdance.

fft"i ii in a body the qualities are arranged in the order hot, dry' cold

"rrJ -oirr, and if the hoi weighs I dir., then: dry will be 3 dir', cold will

be 5 dir, and moist will be d dit. Th. alchemist who has mastered the

science discovers through this proportion the quantitative structure. of all

t6ings. He is then ableio change anphing into any other by creating in

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68 CHAPTER 2

it a new configuration of qualities.lTo In fact, he can even changeinanimate objeca into living beings.lTl Ukewisc, by means of the Scicnieof Balancc the adcpt uncovers the inner structrue of the precious merds,and then effects transmurations of base rnetds into precious ones bybringing in the former the quditative structure of the larter-this iscarried 9ut by augmenting those qualites which are weak and suppressingthose which are o<cessive.

But this is Jabir's docrine only in ir bare oudine. To its development,elaboration, and orplanation he devotes a whole collcction of texts whichhe calls rhe Kunb aLMaudzin (Books of Balances). TEe Altjar, whichoccupies a cenud position in this collection, is the subject of a detailedtextual exarnination in the chapters that follow.

NOTES

I Muslim philosophers in general espoused this orrhodoxy, with d-Faabidwodng to it a whole rearise, namely lGtab al-tam, balna Ra'ya1 al-hahimaynAflatun al-Ikhi ua Aistitdlis (Harrnony bcrwccn the Views of thc TwoPhilosophers, Plaro the Divine and Aristode). See lTalzer r.z. "d-Farabi," fEl2f ,11,p.778; Mahdi U9621.2 It should be added at once thar Neoplatonism, or even Hellenism in general,was not the only mode of thoughr inherited by Islam from rhe ancienr-world.'!tr7hcn Alexandria fell in 21164l, rhe Arab conquesr of the Near East wasvinually complere, and witl' this came the legacy of many Hellenizcd centers oflearning that had flourished in the first six cenruries of the Christian era, andwhere many indigeno's ideas had been integrated wirh the Greek tradition. Butin 471667, thc Muslim armies crossed rhe river Oxus, and by 951713 Sind andTransoxiania had come wirhin the erpanding fold of Islam. And on rhe \tr7csrcrnside, 'Abd d-Rahman I had inaugurared his Anddusian Umayryad dynascy in the3rd decade of the 2ndlmiddle of rhe 8rh ccn:ury. Thus rhere was, in facr, morcin the Arab boory than the Hellenisticlegacy of rhe Ncar East. Ruska, forexample, poinrs in his [1926] ro Ccnrral Asia as an imponant locus for the roleit played in integrating and uansmining the human culrures of thc 'W'cst, Eastand South. And, singling our Harrin (class. Carrhae), IGaus had idendfied theSabians as a group which seemed ro have scrved as the agcncy for thetransmission to Islam not only of Neopyrhagorcan, Hcrmedc and Gnosricdoctrines, but also of indigenous Chaldean 'Nabarean' norions, and certaincharacterisdcally Chinese ideCI and things. (lfuaus 11942-3l,II, p. 305 ff.) Cf.Pingrec [1973).

To be sure, Jebir himself displays a grear deal of eclecticism, and it is nor atall clear what his immediate and specific sourccs are. HowEver, as far as hiscosmologr is concerned, a Neoplatonic substrarum is its mosr striking fearure,and it is this feature which provides. the perspective in which his cosirologicaldoctrines are here being examined. But this is nor ro say that Jibir is aNeoplatonisr.3 Thc enpression Prott huh (primary mancr) is very rarely uscd by Arisrotle. SeeRoss [923], p.73, p.168.a " Apophasei dihztai," Arisrode Maaph. 10.8, 1058a 23.5 Sce below.6 Simplicius in Pfus. 229, 6;230, 19-20, 26-7; 623,18-19; erc. See Sorabji[988], p. 7.

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THE DOCTRINAL CONTEXT

70 cHAPTER 2

7 "Thething in bodics which is independenr \a1thu|ost1t!n) lof aly substratuml

. . ,is the iid.firrit" three dimensional which is the ultimatc subject. (cshhamn

Up"la*-"";of *.rphirrg ," (De Aetcniute Mtndi contra Proclum 405, 23-7,

qu. Sorabji, op. cit.,p.29).

8 Arist. Metaph. 7.3, 1029a 2'7.g " Agnistos hath' haatan" (Arisr. ibid., 7 .l 0, 1036a 9-10)'

ro Arirt. ibid,7 .3, 1029a2,8'

r l Ar ist . Plrys. l . l , l90a-b; 191b.

12 See Chapter I above.

13 In th. al-Maudzin al-sagbir for ocample, Jibir refers to rhe Categoiac' Dc

;rirprrtot;ore, Ana$fica fr;oro, Analryica Posteriota' and the Topica' See

Benhelot ed. [898], III, P.107 ff.

l4 Fo. ocample, in the Baltth, qu-lkeus [1942'3], II, p' 322' n' l'

15 Bahth,qu. Kraus, ibid",p.323.

16 Fo, o"*ple in the Kitab at-Tasrif, lGaus ed. [1935),.PP:39.!J ' (Note that

there are in the Jabirian corPus *o io,' bearing this tide' lk 404 and Kr I 12;

the latter, belonging rc rhe QilI Boohs, is not entant)'

17 Babth,Ms Jarullah 1721, f. 3la; f. 36a; f. 80a. sce Krus [1942-3f ,ll, p. 323.

18 In the Bahth he mentions the Kitab at-Nafs (Book of the Soul); a

Kitab/Maqak f'l''In4a (Book oflDiscourse. on Providence); rhe Kitab- al'Aql

uta'l-Ma'qtil (D. inteliectu et intellecto); a refutation of Galen's lGtab

;;-M;;;;;;'"ii**o,t (sook of the Prime Mover) which the Arabic tradition

;;;ffi;J;; At**J", isee pines lr937l, p.73); and a Risdh (Episde) without a

particular title. See Kraus 11942-31, Il, pp' 324'5 '

re Babth,MS Jarallah 1721, f.38b. See Y'tevs, ibid' p' 320' n' 2'

20 Baltth, f. 166a, qu. lGaus p. 321, n' 2'

21 Bahth, f. 48a, qu. ibit, p.323, n. 8.

22 Kraus cd. I I 935], 36ltl7 ; 362212; 363:3; 364:3; 37 3:3; etc.

z3 tb;d.,364.3-4.24 Porphw's correspondence with Anebon leaves many tllt:]" the-{rabic

oJiiiJ".'e", o"-pi., tbr, "t-N"di-,

Fliigel ed' [1871]' 300:lZ-al-Mas'6di'

iit ofronbih, Carr"i" Vaux r. U8961, p'222' Cf' IGaus 11942-3)' Il'

p.127 ff.and Sczgin [GAS], IV, P'163'25 For example in the Mujarradnt MS Jarull+ f.247b; Ktab al-Nuhas (Book of

C.pp4i rt'gag), tuls peit Soig,' r.35a. Set lkaus [1942-3]' II' P' 30' p' ll4'

26IGau, ed. [1935], pp.333-340.

THE DOCTRINAL CONTEXT 7I

27 ln rhe al-Sin al-Mahnfin. See Kravs 11942'3j, l, p' 94'

2S See Vright [1894]; Duval [1899]. It is now generally accepted that.thc Arabic

uanslation"of rorpt yryt Eisag6g2was the first entry ofAflltode into the Muslim

world (see peters'[t'964], p. Il). The MS Beirut, Univ. St. Joseph 338,_names

15i d-Muqaff", (d. Utli60) as the translator, and this is accepted by Furlani

(see his ttgzal).'In his [1965], Richard Frank h?s -attempted

to- show that

il.opl"ronir- iiad ,.a"h.J Ishm as-ear1y as_the^first half of the 2ndl8th cennrry:

he talks about the Neoplatonism of Jahm ibn safivan, "" :"tly matahallim who

died in 1291746. (But see Zimmermann t1986] in which Frank's conclusions

have been challenged).2e See RosenthaIltg52hltg53); [1955J; Badawi, ed. [955].

30 Fakhry [1983], p. lg.

3l Zimmermann, op. cit., p. 113, p. 134,

32 see Duhem ltg53-59),1Y, p.325.

33 The latest octensive (and highly incisive) oramination of this question is due

to Zimmermann, op. cit.

34 Atirt. Categ. 5, 2all'15.

35 Atirt. Categ 5,3b10-13.36 Arirt. Maap.7 .3, 1029a8'9.

37 Arirt. ptrys. 1.7,190a-b; 8, 191b. Here I acknowledge my debt to Dijlaterhuis

l l961l .38 " Hoizomenoz," Arist. Mru?' 7.3, l029el7'

39 Atirt. Metap. 7.3, 1029a.2 (see below).

40 Arirt. Meup. 7.3, lo29a6'29.aI Sorabji, op. cit., p. 5'42 plotinus 6.3.8 (34-7), qu. Sorabji, op. cit., p. 45.

43 This comes from the Ahjar. See a fuller quotation in the immediately

following paragraph.44 Atist. Gcn. ct Coi.2.5,332^35.41 Th... were other problems too. For orample, Aristode yys in the De Coch

that one must suppose as many distinct species of mater as therc are bodics (4'5'

:il6l-i, oth# -ord, -"r...

er differentiated! Perhaps- these.were the

considerations that lcd some scholars to deny that Aristotle believed in prime

-"..., at all. see, for instance, Kingt [1956] which has the tide "Aristode

without Prime Maner"; dso Charlton [1983J'46 See Sorabji, op. cit', p.25,

72 CHAPTER 2

a7 Edned T qq 39 :9 -40 : l.48 Edired Tqt,43:6-8.49 In th. Altjar, Jibir criticizes the Sibians for rcjecring the idea that bodiesuldmarely returned rc jauthar: "\(/hat harm do you see in saying that things willreturn to that which happcns to be indestructiblc?" (Edired Tcrt, 42:9-l l).

50 al-Mizan al-Saghir, Kraus ed. [1935], 428:8-10. Sec Arabic tort in theaddenda below.5r Tat tf,Kt^us ed. [1935J, 407:14-15. See Arabic tet(t in the addenda below.

52 Sab'in, ibid,,4825-6. See Arabic text in dre addenda below.

53 Literdly'clay.' This term is sometimes employed by Muslim atomists (seePines [1936], p.39; al-I;\+, IGtdb al-Hayauan, VII, 5, 'Abd al-Salem Hirun ed.

[1938-42]). al-Maqdisi sap that "jawharis called ttna, mddd4, hayih, juz'. . . ."(Huan ed. [1899-1919], I,39). Kraus gives a highly learned account in his

11942-31, II, p. l7l, n. l.5a Edited Tort, 39:9 ff55 A detailed account appears in &e Tafif, lGaus ed. [1935),392-424.56 lb;d, 412:14-15. See Arabic roct in the addenda below.57 lb;d,4t3: t t .5a b;d.,4oa.59 al-Mtzan al-Saghtr, Kraus ed. [1935), 429:3-9 . See Arabic tent in the addendabelow.60 To:rtf, ibid, 407:14. Jdbir here quotes a verse of rhe Qur'in in which thisphrase occurs (Sara al-Farqdn, 23).6l Plato had introduced the idea of the'Receptacle'in Timeaus4Se-53c, whichhe idendfied with space (hhira). He viewed space as a rcceptacle which reccivedqudities, and thcse qudiries were copies of Forms. This idea had inspirid, bothin the Greek as well as Arabic tradidons, the identification of maner with somekind of a qualiryless extended endry. Indeed, Simplicius does refer to Plato'sTimacw, and we have in Arabic a ter<t endded "Naql Aflntfrn" (Transmission ofPlato, MS Berlin 5031) in which h* (hayalfl is explicidy identified with ipace(al-Makan): "In rhe Timacas hc [sc. Plato] said thar haynln and, balad (lk.geographical space) are one and the same thing. And since hayfrkis bakd, andbakdls space (al-Makan), what Plato inwitably means is that the intellecr is thespace for the natural forms. ... Space does not havc a shape or figure, and iswithout qualities. . . ." Sce Arabic texr in thc addenda below. For an excellentaccount of Simplicius see Sorabji, op. c;t., pp.3-21. For Jibir's (analogical?)idenrification of jawharwith cmpry spacc sce below.

THE DOCTRINAL CONTEXT 73

62 Simplicius (in Phyl) calls matter an extremely diffirse material dimension (qu.Sorabji, op. cit., p.34; see dso p. 17 and P'21). Matter was an "indefinitediffirsion" (Khusis aoristos). It was also a source of stretching, diffirsion andindefiniteness. (Simplic. in Plry. 537, 22-538, 14; oxrensive quotarions are to befound in Sorabji, op. cit, pp.3-21).63 Sec Deussen [9l l -1915), I I , i , p.497;InBet l929], I , p. 189; I I , p.70;' lThicakcr

[918], pp.54 tr.;94.6a Tat iS(<t^us cd. [1935], 412:7-12. See Arabic toct in thc addenda below.65 lbid, 4l2zl6-413:L See Arabic ter<t in the addenda below.66 al-Mizdn al.$aghir, ibid.,427:9-10. See Arabic torr in the addenda below.67 Taff ibid.,408:2-3. See Arabic text in dre addenda below.68 For a comprehensive discussion of this term, see IGaus [1942-3),I1, p. 154,n.4.6e tr,taftttQ al-Ghafi [308/1890], Yl, p.314. This was pointed out by Kraus,loc. cit.70 " Hutua balryinun hha idhd tah'at'ahyhi'sh-sharns." (Sab'in, Kraus ed. 0935),482:6-7).71 al-Mizan al-Saghir, IGaus ed. |935), 429:9-10. See Arabic text in theaddenda below.72 Enneads,Y, l:6. (Henry and Schwlzer ed. [195]-73).73 lbid,tV,5:6-7; cf. \fdlis [t972J, p.6t.74 Philoponus, contra Proclam 405, 24-7 ; 423, l 4-424; 424, 24; 425, 5-6; 427, 8.75 Sorabji, op. cit., p. 28 (emphCIis in the source).76 lb;d., qu. p. 29.77 lbid.,see the long list of rcnrud references on p. 27, n. 29.78lGans |942-3),II, i . l5l.7e Tarrlif, lGaus ed. U9351, 392424.80 "L"t us, then, visualize inside the Circle of Substance another Circle whosesize is unknown. This latter is the Circle of Simple Elemcnrs(di'ira*4-<anasii'l-bard'it), namely hot, cold, dry and moisr." (Ibid,, 408:J-6).8l For an er<tensive and rigorous accoun! ofJibir's r$forld of Simple Elcmcnrs,sce l(raus |942-31,II, pp. 135 ff.82 Tim.5tb8.83 Kitab Maydan al-,Aql Kraus cd. fl935), 21 1 :3; 212:4; 213:10, l l.84 lb;d, 2llt5; 2t3:ll.

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85 lbid,2t2:286 lbid,207:6-8. See Arabic tcxt in the addenda below.87 Sce panicularly Tq*f ;bid,392 ff; al-Mtzan al-Saghir, ibid.,425 tr.88 lbid., 4tt:16; 412:1.8e tb;d,453:2.eo lbid,2tt:t4 ff.9l This is reminescent of the chmageion of Timacus 50c.92 o "The simple clements, namely hot, cold, dry and moist." (See n. 80 above).

. "The first simples are not compounds; rather, they arJ uncompoundedentities . . . such as hot and its sisters [sc. cold, dry and moist]; and such as theSoul, Intelligence and Substance. And the enamples of compounds are Fire, Air,Vater and Earth. . . ." (Tasnf, lGaus ed. Il935l, 412:ll-13). See Arabic text inthe addenda below.

. "The simples are hot, cold, moist and dry out of which Fire, Air, \7ater andEarth are formed." (al-Mizan aLSaghn, ibid., 425:6-7). See fuabic text in theaddcnda below.93 "These elements, namely Fire, Air, 'S7ater and Earth are scconds to the firsts[sc. to hot, cold, etc.]. (Sab,in, ibid.,482:lJ-14).e4 sab,iu ibid", 482:1 4-16.95 'In our discourse it is first ofall necessary for you to know that hot, cold,moist and dry are absolutely higher than Fire, Air, 'lZater and Earth." (al-Mizanal- S agbir, i bid, 4261.1 2-l 4).96 In;"birian writings qiluua never denotes an elernentary qualiry-in fact, thisis the term Jibir uses to designate the intensity of the four qualities in differentbodies (see below). Ihlfytofor qualiry is ercrcmely rare (see Edited To<t, 39:2-, .97Seen.52above.

98 "The four mutudly dissimilar conffary arhan (al-mutadada al-mutabayina) arehot, cold, moist (nadiwa) and dry." ( S&a MS Paris 5099, f . I 17 e).99 To be found throughout the corpus.l@ See n. 170 below.l0l pot example, see Sab'in,Ikaus ed. Il935l, 462:7.ro2 Mrydnil alAq l, ibid., 207 :8; al-Mizan al-Saghir i bid, 454:17 ; 455:1.to3 Moldar, ibid, 207:8; 208:4.rM Maldao, ibid, 207 :15.

THE DOCTRINAL CONTEXT

ro5 Maldan, ibid., 208:13.rM Sob,Ir, ibid, 462:9; al-Miz;n, ibid., 438:9.ro7 sab,in, ibid., 463:7,to8 go5<ir, ibid, 46023; 4631.ro9 'Famd tarrahaba min hadhihi'l-'aniLsiri f hadha'l-jawhari ua'n-hamala,ahyh. . . . " (Sab,in, ibid., 482l.12); " tarhibu't-taba'i'i ua'l-jawhar" (al-Mizan"ibid,45l:17).| 10 " Turkaba't-taba'i'tt'ak'l-jauhaf (al-Mizan, ibid., 45526),llr * 17o*o7o>9-soba'i'u'ak'l,jauthar" (Occurs frequently in rhe al.Mizan),rr2 c dl-mu'aththirl (Sab'in,IGaus ed. ll935l,482:9).rr3 " Tacuairahu" (al-Mizan, ibid,444t14).114 " os-so56>1'u nbsiru . . . 'l-jawahir." (al,Mtzan, ibid.,444:13).rr5 " Tujo-*i'u'l-jauhaf (al-Mizin, ibid, 454:2).116 6*. et Con.,2.3,331^3-6.rr7 lbid, pasinrr8 5o5<in,Iftaus ed. [1935),473:3-5. See Arabic text in the addenda below.

1r9 Sab,in, ihid, 474:10-l l. See fuabic text in dre addenda below. (Here, onceagain, wc note Jabir's coqpuscularian tcndcncies).12o lbid, 432:48. See Arabic tort in the addenda below.

l2l 1qr"nr [1942-3], II, p. 168 ff.122 5.. Long and Sedley [1987] , p.162, p.163.123 Kraus, op. cit., p. 168.I24 5"" Sorabji, op. cit., p. VIII.r25 lbid, pp.89-90.126 lbid., p. 56, n. 54.one can, however' argue that the question here is

historical rather than philosophical. Thus, one might say that it is irrelevantwhat the Stoics redly meant when they said that qudides were bodics' Ourconcern should be with thc way the Stoics were received and perceivcd by theArabs. But--given that there is no evidence of a direct transmission, and that the

scope of the present work must remain narrow-to takc up this question is to

digress.127 we met these authors in Chapter I above.

r28 5lo,'Weisser ed. 11979), 3:3-ll.r2e lb;d, 186:l l; 187:1.

I

i

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76 cHAPTER 2

130 Mingana ed. [1935], Discourse I, Chap. I (emphasis added).r31 lbid., Chap. 3 (cmphasis addcd).r32 Ed. Huan [1899-1919], I, p.140.133

Jebrr seems ro be referring here !o an interpretarion of plato's Theaetcns tharplopenies need no subject-that bodics are just a bundlc (hatbroisrna, nndrom€1of propenics (see "Bodies as Bundles of Propenics" in Sorabji tlgSSl). Thi;qucstion is taken up also by Plutarch (Stoicorzm uetcram fagmicnta, 2.126, vonArnim ed. |903-241).134 .1-rL5<"ti in his Maqdkt aruibutes this vicw to thc 2ndl8rh cenrurymrtahallim Dirir ibn'Amr (See Riner cd. [1963), For a criricd discussion seevan Ess 11967l; [968]).135 al-Mzr;n, MS paris 5099, f. 123r. Agin, such views arc amibuted ro somearly mutahallims such as d-Naz.zim (see al-Ash.ari, Riner ed. [1963]). In fact irseems that in dl rhrce ca"cs (narures wirhout subsuarum, rcduction of bodies toaccidenc, and denial of accidenr) Jibir may well bc referring ro the debatcs intle .early halim cosmology. A reading of the Maqdlnt tendr rJruppon rhis view.I(alim cosmolory has been discussed by vaiFss,-op. cir.136 McVaugh [1967); 11969); [1975].t37 Skabelund and Thomas ttg69).138 Natural philosophers at the beginning of the l4th century A.D. supposedthat an object's speed was arirhmedcally related ro its morive force andresistcnce, v a F/R. Bradwardine prop-osed a law ofproponionaliry arguing that"the propnion ofvelociries in motion follows the proponion of thi p""*.r if th.motor ro the power of the thing moved" (qu. McVaugh,[1g67), p.56). Hiselaboration makes ir clear rhar he is suggesting the followlg relationsirip:

V = loga (F/R), whcre a = Ft/Rt. (Sec n. 143 below).139 Ir was Marshall clagert who first suspected a connecrion berweenBradwardine's law and r}'e systcm devised by Kindi io

-*or. the qualitative

intensiry of compound medicincs (Clagett [1959] chap.7). This question wastaken up br Y&Elr in his [1967], [1969] and ll975i,and by Skaberund andTh6mas 11969)' These researches have confirmed Clagetr's suspicions.Mcvaugh in his [1967] suggesred the following filiatioi: KindiLnild-Bradwardinc, to which skabelund and rhomas adJed \Taltcr of odingron asthe link berween Amald and Bradwardine. siggel has studied a 1759 A.D.-Arabicversion of Kindi's work (Siggel tl953l).

11o.q"at: ryrjg has been discussed in deail by Mcvaugh in his [1975]. ButSkabelund and Thomas [1969] also provide a good ,o-*-"r1,. arrrjd', work isthe subjcct of Mcvaugh' s [1967), tlt694 arrd, [lgzs), whereas rhe laaer aurhorshave presented a comprehensive account of 'ttr7altcr's lcoccdron.

THE DOCTRINAL CONTEXT

l4l See below.142 Skabelund and Thomas, o?. cit., patt;m. McVaugh [1967], passim; Ilg75J,pasim; U969J, p. 405.143 According ro Kindi, thc dcgree of inrensiry (I) of a compound drug can bedetermined by adding up 'parts' of hor and of cold conraincd in rhJ simpleconstituents (each of known degrec) and determining thcir rario.

Since H/C - )t, I = log" (H/C), where a = 2.Thc sysrem of both Arndd and Wdter are modally idcndcd to rhis, and

Bradwardine seems simply to have imponed ir into narurd philosophy.l& ttrtrdter of Odington does refer ro Geber (sce Skabelund and Thomas [lg6g],P.334).r45 Sce Schdncr tl964l p. 86 ffra6 Mcvaugh [t969), p.399.147 The subject is covered in Galen's De simpliciam mcdicamentotttm, Bk 3; thescalc of four dcgrees is introduced in Chap. 13 (See Ktihn ed. [l12l-33]).

llt laUi. develops rhis point in rhe Bahth, MS Jarullah l72l (see quorations inKraus |942-3) passin)-149 See quorations from thc BahthinKnus, ibid.,Il, p. l9l, nn.2-3.t5o Bahth MS Jerutlah 1721, f.l26a See Arabic text in the addenda below. Forthe identificadon of the Arabic names of drugs see cspecially Meyerhof andSobhy [1932-40]; Siggel [1950].r51 5..4 of Pharbitis (Siggel I I 950], p. 28).r52 Bahth,f. loob.r53 Bahth, f. 99a See Arabic text in the addenda below.r5a Mcvaryh [t969], p.28.I:5

5aty AU-Uas, whose d1e-s are only vaguely known, was a personal physicianto the Buyid Am! 'Adud al-Dawla (338-372t949-82) in Baghdad. Ir'is io thisparron that he dedicared his Liber rcgius. (See Plessner tl974l)-.156 Mcvaugh [1969], p.402.r57 Bahth,f 99a (qu. Kraus[1942-l], II, p. l9l, n. 3).158 It is. interesting rhat.waltcr of odingron also talks about degrees andminutes (Skabelund and Thomas [1969] p.349.159 For eirample wc read in the al-Khaudss al-IGbir: 'Thcse seven subdivisionsue caJled nartabo furaja, fuqiqo, tha";yo,'thal;tha, ribi,a, and tt a*;,o.; (Kraused. [935],237:ll-12).

77

;t+

Jt.

ie

,'d;

:!

'ii

.i,iri

78 CHAPTER 2

160 "Each of these [seven] subdivisions recur four times,o (al-Khauds.s al-Ihbir,ibid.,237:12) ". . . arrd whcn 28 [= 7 x 4) is multiplied by 4, it becomes 112"(Baltth, f. l25a). See Arabic text in the addcnda below.16l Edited Text, l:10-3:7.162 16s2$ al-Khamsin, MS Shahid Ali Pasha 1277 , f. 13 I a, qu. Kraus [1942-3],I I , p. 188, n.3.163 fuxus has provided us a meticulous generd survcy of Jibir's Mizalt, ;b;d.,pp. r87-303.le Apiar, MS Paris 5099, f.6oe2o.165 Babth,f. tf,b.ru6 Ahiar, f.5ga7-f.8.167 Edircd T o<t, 35:15-36:1.t68ln the Alyiar,Jibir equates dl-Mrznn"wirh al-hadd (defrnition) and then says:"Definition is the Supreme Principle." (MS Paris 5099, f.60a).169 Here one might recdl fundd of Villanova's declaradon that "excdlence ofaction in dl things comes only with their propcr and harmonious ProPortion.'(McVaugh |96n, p.6l).170 "pitr, you should know," writcs Jibir in rhe lkhraj, "that a thing is character-itndby one nature or another (hi ub'im ma) T"his nature is significd by a qudity(hotftyo). If you augm€nt e contrary qudiry in this body, it will undergotransmutation and will take up another form.' (trGaus ed. 119351,92:5-8),l71 11tir is Jibir's Science ofAnificial Gcneration Qahwtn) which is dweloped inthe Tajmt.

ADDENDA TO NOTES

,,i Js t* 4b ,,,,; ,F ot ,.d # ,S ,lill ts *d Jfl .JrtiJl /J+l ( 0 ' )

. e?b qJ! 'f:,f e dq tjll'..e l-..,Jb- dJ! d.B lJ

. J$l fi t*. a.iJl t-t y't Jl U, ig t . .ejll ... ,r+l (0 \ )

THE DOCTRINAL CONTEXT 79

;,i + .ib: g,t;;lu"-iJldr siir li.U ,.1,l t .f Ul J!r;-)t. to{Jlraj

,(!l t, ,oj6l ,s"Jifu.tilB glr.r" .lr!lJl ,l$)l la.r-i; 9.,!i d,id"

. rtlb otrrtlj gl,oll €,,r' l i i)tr.l lols3r.;ll jL i &l

rfJb 4Jl JJ4l c,ilf Jlj ,.r'l-r../ rfJl, ,)Al b!e:V)' t/tid JUr (1\ )

i!,iJLst(lJp I

tr. l;i .:;tf li! . q i'll o! i+" ijb u.. oj,(1 .;i .dJi .r'r u,^t ;2i sirr-, ( lt )

... ! ' ,rll r!oF Y.4Ji.e .i.r.l3 k;utr

. .. L: r *1t:, JE L 3i ULa' t:f s 3! .iJ'b.r r ;r JK l/ di ,J.-+! ( 10 )

. r.rl+ Y.r rb, ) ,uj,$vJl\l)l iry l; V /JJ71,i.! .iL (11)

t-rb d Ll b.rrlri ri tr..-ru ri taut, UlJl il! *le ulb-i ;aJf, (lv)

. ;t<JL JuJt,-"t ,i llr.tst

. o.ro, L.l r,;.. j;L liJ.rclr ,1J.J.r.., u. li! Yr.-11.r'io*.r-t, tvr t

J*, qjJL, Jii ,'o2j-.Li r;1r..r;;,i ,r,-s d .+ .,/ ! L 1.r.1 tfri J:i, trff l

. olgllgr#lrrr..tr.Jr 6tr1t Jli .* r Lr,1+io4 J*,Jl Urr L

, QrFl v tt-*t;rptf olgll tLJl,,stJJl Y olsy'll [rr] Jrit J;r, l l ( I Y )

... ,r|l:.l l lt.WU )VJg s|JJl., : jrfl l )tJl5 v-iJs,

, t/tt, U b rU | 4 t 4- ntt L,*],tt LHI i r;tr i2l;J,l 4 ot#l t [g!]

' ,'rslls

6t 4fi .r.r +V -*-ilt d d.pt brr\ f. Ul sfu gi **ll rr.1 ( \ \ A)

LJ)l v r+ t .!.*-r ,l)l,rL,oJ,l tri tt LlJl i,!j ,l.it+ t 3 c"r.KJ6

. igi :e) l u+i

;f-: 64!'54,l,yl . b ri,i.!U iJJ \J.- a-&;,i i,ooll .r.., ( I \ t)

'.i lJti

,1-r1'J,J ;.ti: ,1;l3ri L'rotlrLltltitt )lti)l,,'JJ 3i.;.i,.rtt,,lr oyl.-c.1 *i3 ( \ Y . )

. Jl}nll sJl ti .Jl l*l *t ,r,V ,ki t{1, il+ gri . tp'tt Jri ( o Y )

. 4 ,r s.i,l/tJ s-rtjl,4Lill .r-r gjll l1'llJdtldu,l./ UbJl 'dlt i,! ( o1)

S 4:i.r* ,F..tfuJl91dliJli, ']Jl',]l *,tIJl,glut, '1r4t t,'u {or)

Jpt t.l u t v /. r .:lf o!, ,.,,; Jt ,F 4b {a.r} ,f ,as .,}

80 CHAPTER 2

fl;. .r.! 0j; Y; ... b.r Y.l a:.-l ,y La-" li! Uicn'.t l!, .dJj cr .! l1j;-r

" '?u'&-/irLll L irl-Jll,i,/tiJFl g-J 5)t vt ilt irpt ;tiit:*d,j u.U ( \ o . )

, t-*il i,,/l iJLll Yr lla:tt p e ,/l' -;! rs .rrleJl gJ,ul olu al.Jlt t i,rr)-, y of.rj!l-, gltl a! .,tJj: ... ( \ o f )

t+fit, gt ,rlt LL .i*Ji:,y, yr rljr cU.i e o&)r.r.rUtr yb)b 2Vl1 .uel,v:Jl-;+ d!,Jz.rllcUif L :.,-Jt tdU p,LJt t i, .cffi JU.ij 4?U:;1 r-n-

i.Ji u fr^! y;t . ro.!tJtpi Jr.; u g)t,/, ,.-, ,r U.i [Lr .dlj #t

. ojn u;rl, 1u,.i.S .Vis\aius\+jJt5

... ett g"i ,rS-- s!,F a! ( t .r. t

, J.Lt,l9ltijL dlJj !+.1r i.,-1i € U*t'$.J -1t,,z,,Cr. O1{ alJj-r

CHAPTER 3

NAMES, NATURES AND THINGS:

A PREFATORY NOTE ON THE CENTRAL

THEME OF THE KITAB AL-AH]AR

Jabir's Science of Balance was ar once a meraphysical doctrine and amethodologicd thesis. Viewed as rnemphysical doctrine, ir embodied auniversal principle which governed not only the sublunar world ofge1e4 i9n and corruprion, but also that which lay beyond rhc Sphere(zl-Fahh) in thc inrangible (ghoy malmisa) realm of the hypostases.Thus we read in rhe Alrjar that there is a characteristic Balance of thestars, their distances, and thei.r.movements; and there is a Balance bymqurs of which the Sphere manifests itself to man. But over and abovethese, there are Bdances even of the Soul and the Intelligence,l "beyondnlhich there is no end" (k nihay bad dhalih).2

-

. A ? methodological thesis, Jibir's Balance was the 'way' (u*q)3through which one understood, made sense of,, and, above dl,'measuiedand manipulated the objeca and rhe processes of the universe. And sincethe universe was diverse, so were the Bdances. These Balances alsoformed a hierarchy: while all of them were usefirl (mufd), and all ofthem served the aim of attaining scientific knowledge, the best of allBalances was the Balance of Leners (MizAn al-buraf)z

-

The Balances are divided according to the diversity ofnarural objecr. There are Balancesofthe Intelligence, of the soul, of Narure, Form, and the Spheie of thc sars; therc areBalances of the four natures, animals, planm, and minerals-these are all uscful Balances.But, finally, there is rhe Balance of kmers: and this is the most perfect of allla

This 'most perfect Balance' which is dso called the Balance ofArticulation (Mzan al-H4a1s and the Balance of Utterance (M*anLofrt),u is funher characterized elsewhere:

A-gfgup of people sa1's rhat rhe knowledge of maners rclating to rle four nawtes (ahatalal.uba'i), as well as an understanding of th. qualitics t*"fibarl,7 may bc anainj Ly amorc suitable method: that is, by mcans of thc namcs (aii;) of foods, drugs, orsans ofanimals, and parrs of animals and plants. lze have called this method tt J ilir.e

"rLertcrs. In it lies a meticulous science (,ilm daqtq)8 through which one reaches anundcrstanding ofthe real characterisdcs ofnarural obpcs (ltaqi"q abuat at-naujalat)2

8l

82 CHAPTER 3

Indeed, Jabir does raise his Balance of Letters doctrine to a highly

sophisticated level, defending and justifying it on powerful, and often

cogent, logical and metaphysical grounds. And in the Process we find

him aniculating a comprehensive theory of knowledge, language, and

music. Thus, under one centrd principle, namely MIzan aLHa*f, Jabirattempts a grand philosophical synthesis in which his four natures

qystematicdly and coherendy relate to phonetics and morphology on the

one hand, and to prosody and musical harmony on the other. From all

this emerges the ontological counterpart of his reductionist thesis: we

have seen that in Jabir's physics all explanations of tle naturd world were

reduced to an explation of the four natures-now he proposes an

ontological equivalence between the natures and the alphabetical

characters, characters which portrayed the elements of articulated speech.

The Kitdb alAhjaris devoted to an elaboration of this very thesis.lo

Let us begin by isolating Jabir's claims. Just as the words of language,

he says, are composed of letters, so denominated things are composed of

natures. This was not a simple analogt; rather, it implied an effective arrd

red coordination between the letters of a word which names an object,

and the physical structure of the object itsel[ between the science of

morphology which studies the structure of words, and the science of

physics *hich studies the structure of things. "Look!" he writes in the

Kitab al-Tasnf(Book of Morphology),

how leners are copied upon the narures (wudi'at'aln al-Mba';') and how the natures arecopied upon letteis, and^how the leners and natures interchange (nnqalu\rr

The morphological analysis ofwords rnade it possible to determine the

quantitative and qualitative structure of things they designate. The order

of letters in a name was an actual representation of the order of the

natures in the object named. Similarly, the numerical values assigned to

the letters of the alphabet revealed, and were equivalent to, actual

quantities of the natures comprising the thing in whose name these

letters occurred.l2 This letter-nature corresPondence is stated

categorically and forcefully:

A single isolated letrer (barf) cannot be pronounced. 13

It is clear that we cannot speak by means of an isolated leter lharfhere mcaningphonemc] unless we aftach to it another lener [= phoneme]' Similarly, it is not possiblefor us to know thc weight ofa nature [sc. to know that it ocists in relation to us], unless itunites with another nature and thus becomes intelligible-so know this principlelrq

THE CENTRAL THEME 83

Anindividualthingcannotexistwithlessthanrwoelements[sc.natures].. . . ' I ' - l {have three elemenrs,6ur it cannot exist with a single element-this is_ impossible.'l

-..r*p"ia"gly,

*o.dr-fo, example "Muhammad" or']a'fu"-ecist_only in vimre of a

combinadon of lerters. A word may have rwo letters; it may have three lerters,.or less tfian

three. But it cannot ocist with a single isolated letter-this_is equa.lly impossible. A word

cannot De wirh less than r*o l..t"r* I leaer of anicula rion (hari" al'nu1q) and a lener of

rest (harf al-istiraha), and t-his is requireC for vocal emission''o

So .lor.qrr.otly, the combinaiion of lerters corresponds to the combination of the

narurii in all natural objects.lT

The grammarians, writes Jabir in 6: Tq':f treat the morphology of

words ind discuss the letlers of which the words are composed.

Correspondingln the philosophers have a morphology. of.their own

which ^applies" io th.

"I.-.ttlt (baia'iy = tab,a';l). of bodies' Thus'

gr"rrrln*r' and physics follow homologous. methodological pr.ocedures.

This is the reason why he .had called this work the "Book of

Morphology,"l8 for:

there can be no discourse (ialan) o<cept rhrough a composition of letters [= phonemes](u,lif al-humf), and a similar situadon nccessarily ocists in the case of the narures ' ' ' In

;;;'il -.rif,.frgy "f

the natures (antf at-uba;i.) bears a parallel in the moqpholory of

lener s ( tartf a l- h "*fl .t I

But the term " harf," we Pause here to note' seems to be appearing in

two different ,.n..i-ro-etimer meaning 'letter of the alphabet'; at

other times, 'primary phonetic unit ' or-'phoneme.' T".b: sure' a

considerable "onfutiott

would result out of this terminologicd duality,-

but there is no conceptuc ambiguiry here. For, as we shall soon see, harf

", pho rr.*. (sou nd)' end h a rf ei repres e ntati on a/phoneme

. (alphabeticd

ch*racters) were unambiguously recognized as two ontologically distinct

entities in the Jabirian *It"phyrior tli. for-.t considered to be universal

.rrd i--,rr"bie; while the laiter was a mere convention and therefore

subject to improvement and change. Yt -t told funher that perfect

,.pi.r.rrt"tio' of ,rtt.r"rrces which made up articulated speech (nu!()

constituted an ideal, existing only in Potentialiry; writing was a human

atrempt to bring this ided iirto 'acrualiry.' Thus alphabcticd characters

were no more tlan

a ponraf by means of lines (umthtl al-tehafit), and [a process ofl bringing it [sc. the

enuciared wordl from potcntidiry into acrudiq/'"

Being a matter of convention, these ponrayals, or 'signs' (ashhal)'

codd cf,ange and wolve; in fact they needed to:

i

84 CHAPTER 3

If one were to replace . . . similar signs [of the Arabic script] by dissimilar signs pcoplewould be saved frorn corruption and mistakes of languagc. This is whcre the flaw of theinventor (nazin) lies. [Such reform] is in effect possible not just in the narure of writingbut also in its power to evolve.2l

Thus, the Arabic script was corrupted by flaws and imperfections. Butif this is the case, how can something that is conventiond and imperfect(dphabeticd characters) signifr in a uinque way something that is naturaland universal (the four natures)? CleaAy, it seems that when Jnbir claimsan immutable relationship between the natures and the letters, he meansidcal letterc the 'lines' or 'signs' which constituted the actudcharacters of the Arabic script, but the ideal representations of uneranceswhich er<isted only in potentialiry. Yet, in practice, one had no choice butto operate with the actual letters of the alphabet which, thoughimperfect, were the closest approximations to the ideal. At the same time,as we just read, efforrs must be made to minimize the flaws of the Arabicscript in order that the accuracy of tlis approximation is improved.

Ir seems, then, that there are not two but three distinct senses inwhich the term 'hof is employed byJabir: (i) lener of the alphabet, (ii)primary element of speech (phoneme), and (iii) ideal representation ofthe primary elements of speech. Speaking in dreoreticd (and rigorous)Jabirian terms, there was an ontological equivalence between the naturesand the ideal representations of the primary units of speech. But as anapproximation for pract;cal purposes, the natures were assumed to beequivalent to rhe actual letters of the Arabic alphabet; and this is whatJabir is mostly concerned with, for his interests lie more in applicationsthan in theory. In order to make sense ofJabir, it is important to keep dlthis in mind; otherwise, his doctrine will appear to us-as it does totrGaus-not only internally inconsistenf2 but dso contridictory.z3 ButIet us now proceed.

THE QUANTIFICATION OF LANGUAGE

Going back to the passages just quoted, we see Jibir employing anotherterm " ta'hf which has been rendered "composition.' But this term hasstrict numericd connotations in its Jabirian usage, and is applied equdlyto music. Musical harmony, the Ahjnr tells us, is no more than anumerical composition (ta'hf 'adad), and it is the same composition thatoccurs in speech.24 Thus conforming to a fundamentd Pythagorean ideathat harmomy of numbers produces music, Jabir makes a funher claim

THE CENTRAL THEME 8'

that language roo was a harmony of numbers: language and music were

golr.rrr.i bi the same principles, they wete thus essentially relatcd. This

i..-, .o b! th. ,."ro' why, as we shdl witncss in the Ahiar, Jabit is

interested in language fundamentally flom the point of view of

phonetics, morph"ololgy, and rnetrics. All these were reducible to

quantities and their combinations.z)^

Phonetics is concerned with sounds and tfierefore its relationship with

music was easily established. In the Altjar, Jibir draws a pardlel between

the fingers of rire player of a musicd itrrtt,,*.trt on t'he one hand, and

th. to"ig,r., throat *i ,Jr. lips of a speaker on the other. In fact there was

" ,arrr.."rri correspondetr.. b.n .tr the physical orgars of speech and

the sounds which i.ri". from thern, just as there was a correspondence

berween the structure of a musicd instrument and the music that it

generates:

Thc letters [= phonemes] may derive rheir vocal-articulation from the naturcs. Therc arc

in the throat several sources oi'"o."I emission of lectcrs [= phonemcs]'26

As for the actud letters of the dphabet, and here the distinction

berween these and phonemes is categorically and unambiguously stated,

they were designated figures for rhe denotation of sounds. Thus, we read

in rhe Kitdb al-Hududthat leners

are designated figures which by gcneral €feement (bi'l'mtufrda'a) indicate articulated,ourrdr."By conirrti.n, the oidered composition of rhese figures signifies meanings(ma'ani).fr

And in this way, lefters were related to meanings. tn fact, meanings

were forms, and the object of letters was to evoke these forms:

This is the definidon of meanings: they are the forms intended by the lcaers?8

The homolory between music and meaningful utterances was evident:

just as there exiited sounds which were musical, and those which were

not, so there enisted sounds which carried meaning (bi'ma%an nhtuhu),

and tlrose which did not (bi ghayr ma'nan)?9 And just as for a sound to

be musicd it had to follow natural rules qf music, for it to be meaningful

it had to follow naturd nrles of phonetics-botfi these sets of nrles were

governed by quantities and their combinatiols. Thus, rrearing. lctters

iolely from a phonetic point of view, Jabir tells us in the Altjnr rhat the

-oir.r.r* number of moving (vocalized) and quiescent (non vocalized)

consonants that can cluster in a row is naturally fixed'3o Elsewhere,3l he

'ii l

,it

,':]:

: l

,.i,J

':.:,i

.::. ' , ;

i;,i'::

. t :

inl

i:{.i'i111

j- t

iI

86 CHAPTER 3

classifies the leners of the alphabet according o<clusively to their phoneticvalue-tlrere were some letters which w€re sonorous (majharQ, otherswhich were 'deaf' (al-summ),32 yet odrers were literaeproductionis (b"*fal-lin), and so on.33

Morphology is treated byJabir as if ftwere a branch of arithmetic-ascience of numbers and their permutations.3a Indeed, in the context ofthe Arabic language this does not seem too far-fetched. Arabgrammarians had pointed out at an early date that a vast majoriry of thewords of their langauge were traceable to a consonantal root with a fixednumber of radicals. Once these roots were discovered, almost the entireArabic vocabulary could be built up by different permutations of thevowels adjoined to these radicals, by rearranging the radicals, and byadding other letters to these radicals.35 Thus the Arabic language easilyIent itself to a quantitative treatment-a fearure firlly exploited byJabir.

In our telft Jabir gives us a whole set of rules for restituting the root ofa word (radd ild'l-asl) so that its strucrure exactly reproduced thestructure of the thing it named. The task of the expert of Balance ($alt;bal-Muan) was to reduce a word to its primitive elements by identifringand removing all the additions, and reversing all the variations it hadundergone. Once this was done, the analysis of the word wouldcorrespond to the andysis of the object of which it was tfie name. Thus,feminine designations, additions made to the radicals to denote the dualand the plural, the inflexions of the noun (i'rdb), and of tfie verb (tasif),dre anicle, and all other augmentations must be stripped ewey to extractthe primiti.re core-this is what Jabir calls in the Altjar " isqil / ittirahal-zaud'id."36 He also specifies the letters which are in general to beregarded as additions to the radicals, they were ten in number. Clearly,all this is borrowed from the Arab grammarians.3T

&"in, in agreement with the grammarians, Jabir classifies Arabic rootsaccording to the numberof radicals. In the Afiarhe distinguishes threetypes of roots: triliteral (thulatht), quadriliteral (ruba'l), andquinqueliteral (hhumdsl).sa He then gives different permutations of thevowels modifying the structure of a root, yielding 12 pttdigms (awzdn)of triliterd roots, 5 of quadriliteral, and 4 of quinqueliterd roots.39 Butthis was a mathematical exercise constrained by semantic and phoneticconventions, for many more paradigms are possible if one treated theradicals, as well as tfie adjoining vowels and the suhil.n, o as qfmbols of aformal arithmetic system. Indeed, this is precisely what Jabir does in hisKhab al-Hasil.

THE C E NTRAL THE ME 87

In the Hasilwe find our dchemist taking a specid delight in churning

out virtudly endless lists of roots that can arise out of all possible

Dermutatio; and combinations of the 28 letters of the Arabic alphabet.

thi, produced a large number of unknown and novel words'

Conventionally, these words had no meaning, ll l it was quite

conceivable, labit f.lt, that in times to come they would be incorporated

into the arabi" vocabulary. Thus, to construct biliteral roots, Jabircombines to the first letter of the alphabet, al$ each of the 28 lefters one

at a time-this yielded 28 lener pairs. The sarne treatment is given to the

second Ltt r, bAr. In consrructing the triliterd roots, he gives all the

possible arrangements of the threeradicals, 6 in total (= 3 x 2 x 1),to

m"nuf"ctu.e "-r

.ror-ous body of words with three consonants.4l 'We

are told that quadriliteral roots admitted of 24 different combinations(= 4x3 *2r i ) ,and quinquel i teral roots of I20 (= 5 x 4r3 *2x l ) '42

All this is aimed at illustrating the same fundamental idea: namely that

language, like music, *", gorr.ttt.d by the laws of quantities and their

combinations.Equally, Jibir exploirs rhe quantitativc nature of t}e dready familiar

fuabic met;ics. Thi phonetic iharacteristics of the Arabic language, as

well as the superficii features of its script, had contributed to an eatly

rise in Islam of a science of prosody ('ilrn al-'arld) based solely on

quantitative considerations.43 Classical Arabic verse is a 'quantitative'.r,,ers., in that its rhythm is attained by regularly recurring sequences of

short and long syliables, forming metrical 'feet' which last the same

length of ti-e1" qualiry it shares with ancient Greek poerry. a The

fo.ind., of the Aiabic'science of merrics, al-Khalil ibn Ahmad(d. c.1751791), did not seem to poss€ss the the concept of syllable, but

h. ** nevertheless able to identify what we call short and long ryllable:he achieved this through an ingenious use of the peculiarities of the

Arabic script in which tf,. f".. oFeach word was a guide to the quantity

of its syliable. One individual 'moving' consonant (mutahanih)

"orr.rpond.d to what we call a short syllable; and rwo consonants, of

whiclr the first is moving and the second is 'quiescent' (sdhin)

corresponded to what *. cdf" long ryllable.atThis whole theory of Arabic metrics is not only known to Jabir, he

reproduces it systematically and -rigorously in the

-Altjar, -!.n{!5 fet*o,h.t support for his Balance of ktters doctrine. Like al-Khalil, Jabiridentifies

'g'rhythmic feet-significatly, he calls them "parrs of the

numerical composition " (oirii' al'ta' lif al''adadt)-whose recurrence in

1i

. l

1I

I

iJ,l

*.1

,1:1

88 CHAPTER 3

definite distribution and sequence gave rise to dl meters. Two of themwerc quinary feet (hhumisiyya),

"ttd the remaining six were seprenary

(suba'iyya). These feet, Jabir adds, are rnodified by additions ("bad")and separations (nugsdn) to produce an unlimited number of rneters.46

Jabir feels thar music and metrics were evidently cognates. Smdlwonder, then, that in the Ahiarhe spcala of both of them in the samebreath-in t'he same passage and in rhe sarne senrence, employing forboth the same terminolory. In fact, music proper was the highest stage oflearning, preceded only by metrics and morphology:

It is not posible for anyoue to learn music without first mastering the sciencc of meuicsand morphologr, the scienceof melody and harmony, the science of versification, and theart ofcomposingpocry. . . .

Just as there were eight rhythmic feet in metrics, there were, we readin our text, eight rhphmic modes in music too.48 And just as additionsand separations (of syllables) gave rise ro ever new merers, variations inth-e primary modes gave rise to novel modes. Clearly, ir was the orderingof numbers and their combinations which created music, and the samewas, indeed, true of metrics as well as of morphology. A rather strongly-worded orpression to this effect is to be found in the al-Sin al-Mahnfinwhere Jabir declares thar it is simply wrong (khalAr) to say that onlymusic is a harmony of numbers-in facr much else, in particular metrics,was a manifesrarion of numbers and their harmony. Harmony ofnumbers, he wrires, was ro be viewed as a genus (jins): "like 'animd,' towhich a number of things belong."49

Amongthe members of this genus were the 'wonders" (raja'ib) of themotions of celestial bodies-these modons followed

" t ,t*.iic"l sysrem

(al-niznm al-ta'lif): "and by this I mean a musical slrsrem.'5O Buimorethan that, the individual soul too was a harmony of numbers. In the al-Sin al-MahninJabh defines the soul:

Harmony of numbers is not rhc name of the soul, rather it is the definition of the soul.Definition is a prcdicare of a given subject.5l

And on the same subject he invokes the authority of Plato:

Plato belicved that thc soul is rarional subssnce \jauhar ,aqlt) whose essendd motion is

governed by rhe harmony of numbers.52

In fact, prosody, and the an of melody and rhythm were idendcalwith the soul:

THE CENTRAL THEME 89

Prosody and the an of melody and rhythm arc the soul. This is so becausc thcse arrs ariseonly our ofthe soul, and are possessed only by those who possess the soul.53

Indeed, these are thi consideradons

which yielded our staternents concerning the harmony of numbcrs, considerations whichled to our doctrine that the ranues and the degrecs [of their intcnsity] are harmony ofnumbers.54

THE METAPHYSICAL SYNTHESIS

The reader stands in awe of Jabir's commanding expertise in so manyclassicd disciplines. And yet, what is equally striking, our author makeshardly any original contributions to the body of knowledge that hadexisted in the Arabic tradition from the earliest times. Despite his vastknowlegde, his elucidation of phonetics, morphology and syntax addsbarely anything new to what the Arab grammarians had been srying, andhis exposition of metrics and musical modes appear no more than afaithful reproducdon ofsrandrad raditional accounts; he breala no novelgrounds in these individual areas. Indeed, in each case he frequentlyinvokes the authority of experrs (nahwilyun, ashab al,-'aru{ erc.)55 *4does not conceal the fact thar he is drawing upon the discoveries ofothers.

Evidently, Jabir's origindiry does not lie in these fields considered inisoladon. It lies, rather, in the remarkable and daring synthesis which hewas able to forge, and in which all these componenrs cohered to form anall-embracing philosophical system. To be sure, ii is a philosophicalgrstem because, as we shall see, it is founded upon cerrain well-definedmetaphysical principles. It is this foundation to which his entire thesisowed its meaning and jusdficadon. 'Some people consider me a fool,"wrote Jabir in the TajmI,,'for proposing a relationship beween t}eletters and the natures." But they are, he declares, ignorant: for thisrelationship is founded upon sometling that is as fum and as indubiableas rhe foundation of mathematics.56

He proceeds to prove his proposition in two steps. First, he constructsa logical argument to demonstrare thar ianguage arose nor out ofconvention or blind chance, but out of 'the natural intention of the soul.'Ner<t, he presents his grand ontologicd thesis: language, he rells us, is anembodiment of what is represenred in the intellect, and that which isrepresented in the intellect is the substance, essence and realiry ofbeing.

90 CHAPTER 3

Thus, language signified being, and since-!)"ittue of Jabir's physical

thesis-alin"i"t"l'iy existing o1;..rr were reducible to the four natures,

language signified th. fo,rr-n"tures. But language, like, physical bodies,

*"r""lfi-"[ly reducible to primary elementi-ihese elements were the

primary units of speech represented by letters. Therefore, at the primitive

i*.1, (id."l) letteis signifild the natures. The ontological equivalence of

letters and natures was thereby established.This is how Jabir presents his logical argument:

I sav: in a discourse fuistotlc had said that in tfie world of generation and corruption man

alone is endowed with the faculry of aniculated speech (nu!q)'>/--

er,i*t",.a speech consists in [the abiliry ofl'discrimination and judgment (ynYa),

and discourse (ftalAn) consists in the ordering ofl..,.tt th"r6f= phonemes]. It is through

this ordering that a given language is arrived at'.-

B";i; 1."1*. l-i'-g.1 di. ,i .orr".tttion (btilah), occuring. by. c1,ancs ('ala nn jd'a

ua inafaaa\;-or is it-d,rJto the narural intention of thc soul (qasd nbt'i nafani\

I *t',h. affirmation that ir [sc' language] is a coinagc (u14.'.\, a convention' or an

*"id,r;r-G;;"4 is a mistake, foti-g*;. is-asubstance Voyt'ol by nature' and did not

;J;;. of .o',".r,.ion (bi,l-wa4,). i"dld, it is due to the intention of the soul, and all

acts of the soul are substantial .'. . so letters [= phonemes], which are the prime maner

(hayak) ofdiscourse, are an invcndon ofthe soul')u

In a more structured form, the argument can be Put *lus:

I (a) Man done is endowed with the faculty of speech

ib) M* "lorr. Porr.rr., ,o,rl (,tot tt"ttd bttt tttt"ittly presupposed)

Inftrred hypothesis: Speech is an act of the soul

THE CE.NTRAL THEME 9I

Likewise, it is undeniable that discourse (halZn), and the composition of l*ters (u'lif

al-httruf) and the design of their shtpes ('amal ashhaluha) are among the works of man

(min ta'hf al-insdn)---acept that these corne to pass by nature.

It is thus indubitable that discourse and the ordering of leners [= phonemes] are Partof man's naturd disposition (lzha ub'um tna). This is so because every naturdly oristing

thing possesscs a naual disposition (nbi'a), and man o<ists narurally')v

This completes the first step. Jabir's ontologicd doctrine,- his second

step, which also carries a familiar psychological theory of Lrnowledge,runs roughly as follows:. First,ihir. i, being ('the thing'). Being has three aspects--substance

(uld, essence (dhat), and realiry Qaqtqa).. Seiond in the ontologicd hierarchy is the le?resentationof being in tlle

intellect (tasaututar bi'l-aql).The intellect performs a judgment on the

representation. This judgment consists in the determination, inter

aiia, as to whetler the object represented is real or not, and whether it

is necessary or impossible, true or false.. The third place is occupied by enunciation (al-nulq),-that is, vocal

articulation of the repreientation. This is carried out by means of a

knowledge of phonetic mles.. And fitrJly, there is the wrinen word (al-hatb).This is the portrayd of

the object'by means of lines, and a pr-ocess of bringing the enunciated

word from potentialiry into actualiry.60In Jibir's own words:

you ought to know that gcometry, logic, music, arithmctic, the An [= alchemy], the

,cier,.. if l"nificiall generalion 1of liui"g bgingsl, and the science of all higtrer and lower

bodies are not -.r.1| -ottin

gs (ma,ani),61 Rrth.t, they are meanings subsisting in the

soul, and meanings th", "r"

ciunciated. This we have already orplained in the book of

logic called Pcri Iiermcneias(Ba*r Mnyas).62All things are considered under four aspects. First, their substances (alan), essences

(dhuai, an? realities (boSa'q). For o<ample, [the narure] hot in its cssence, or [the

nature] cold in its cssence, independent of their er<istence in reladon to us.

Then, the represenration of thingr in the intcllect, an{ lthe judgment]_as to whether

they are ,ol o, ,rot-.r.ch as affirmation or negation [of the ocistencc of the object in

question], and the declaration true or false''

Not, their enunciati on (al-nutq bihA), and thc knowledge of . . . (?)63 the quiescent

lerters, hamabearing lctters, mobili letters, linking leners, and othcrs'

Finally, puning tl.- in wrinng(al-hatb biba)-.This is a ponrayal by means.of lines

(tamtbil'at-phutAi), and {a procJss ofl bringing it [sc. the enunciatcd word] from

potentialiry into acnrdity.ba

There is no disagreement between philosophcrs, says Liibir, that each

existing thing reflects rhe nature of a higher thing from which it

:. i

I

I.J

iIt,lII

IIJ

I

II

lIi

. l

lII (a) AII acts ofthe soul are substantial

(b) Speech is an act ofthe soul

Conclusion: Speech is substantid

The same rype of argument' similar both in substance and form'

appears in the al-Sin al-Mahnun:

To cvcry naturally ocisting thing belongs somc characteristic act' Then let it be known

il,-;il't" plJ""i*"ua""ig -o.t"of

the_acts,_and the.greatest of them ' ' ' Thus

"."".*rify, -ai d.",eloped anJ discot'ered the science of logic, grainmar, geometry'

-.ii"ir. -a "r*orro-y. And e'cn though in matt€rs of specific details much in these

sciences is false, 'rct,

ukcn as a whole, these sciences are true'

92 CHAPTER 3

derives.65 And this was true also of the ontological chain:being (sabstancc, cssence, reality) -> rcPrescflta.tion in the intellect +cnanciation 1 utincn uord. The idea finds a lucid expression in theKitdb al-I(hamsln:

What is in writing signifies that which is in cnunciation (fulh'ala *f4-lzft), and thatwhich is in enunciation significs what is in thc intcllcct (ryf'l-ftl, and what is in theintdlect signifies the quiddiry of rhngs (*hrat al-ailrya).bo

APPLICATION OF THE BALANCE OF LETTERS

Jabir is interested in philosophical issues only insofu as they serve hispractical ends. His metaphysicd excursions must now yield concreteresulrs. Thus, after constructing a speculative framework, he proceeds toapply theory to pracdce. But this process of the application of Mizanal-Humfwould give rise to its own tensions and challenges, bringing intofocus the gaps and weaknesses of his system. He is going to tackle themwith a great deal of ingenuity, but often by means of ad-hoc suategems.Yet, at the same time, we shall see him making some powerful and richtheoretical generalizations which are suggested soley by practicalconsiderations.

To measure the quantities of the four natures in a given substance,one needed to analyze moqphologicdly the name of the substance. As wehave seen, while Jabir had accepted Galen's classification of each qualiryin a body into four degrees of intensiry, he had subdivided each degreeinto 7 subdivisions.6T This gave a roral of 7 x 4 = 28 positions: it sohappens that the letters of the Arabic alphabet are also 28 in number!Thus in the Ahjar he consrrucrs a table in which the letters are arrangedaccording to the ABJAD scheme68 with each letter representing one ofthe four nasuls5-for example, aW= heat, ba' = cold, jim = dry, dil=moist; hAt - heat , u.td.ut = cold, zt'= dry, hA'= moist, etc. Similarly, rhetable specifies the subdivision of the degree to which each lemercorresponds.

Finally, the table-which, c,uriously, our aurhor atrributes to$sqlasgs-assigns to each letter four different weighrs, according towhether the letter represents the first degree of intensiry, the seconddegree, the third, or the founh. This was ro be determined by the placeof the lerter in the name being analyzed: if a letter, say alif, is the firstradical (such as in usrub), it signified the firsr degree of intensity; if it is

THE CENTRAL THEME 93

the second radical (such as in hafir), it signified the second degree; and

so on. Since each lener was to be reckoned in four different ways, thc

table yielded a grand rctd of 28 x 4 = ll2 positions. But what is most

imporant, thisicheme of numericd classification of letters followed the

proponion | :3 :5: 8-indced' as we rcad in our text, cverything in the

o,orid or", governed by the nurnber t7 (= | + 3 + 5 + 8):69

Ist IInd IIIrd IVth Hot Cold Dry MoistD.g. D"g. D.g. Deg'

1*: 3 : 5 : 8

DegreeGradeMinuteSecondThirdFounhFifth

hn.

2l97Y264Y23lY2

din.

35r5l2Yzl07r552Y2

dal

bo'lam'arnri'

hha,ghqn

JtmzA)hafsinq4Itha,

?4'

din.

562420t6t284

dzn.

732W2tr5I,5

alif ba'ha' ud.w

!a' !a'mim nfin

.ft' tadshin ta)dhal dad

The Ahiaris fi.rll of o<amples worked out duough the usc of this table-Thus, to reveal the quantitative and qualiative structure of,, say, lead, oneproceeded in the following way: The word that named lead was-USRUB-tIns

was free of any additions or variations, and already enistedin its primary form, therfore no 'stripping away' (;ttirah) was needed.Now, this name had four consonanal glsrnsnts- alif,, sin, ra', and bi',inthat order. The first letr;er alif sienified a nature in the first degree ofintensiry: from the table, one discovered that this nature was hot and itsweight was 7 danaqi [dan.); by the same rule, r-he second letter sinsignfied dry in the second degree whose weight in the table was given as6 dan. Likewise, rd> corresponded to moist in third degree with a weightof 7r/z din.; and, finally, ba'was cold in the fourth degree, weighing56 dan. kad therefore was constituted out of 7 dan. of hot, 6 dnn. ofdty,7r| ddn. of moist, and 56 dan. of cold.

But immediately, Jabir recognizes a fatal flaw in his system: thcnatures of lead as revealed by the the analysis of its name arc not arrangedin the propoftion I t 3 : 5 : 8-this was a cardinal violation of the'supreme Principle" of Bdance and threatened his whole philosophicaledifice.7o There were other problems too, though of a relatively minor

94 cHAprER 3

magnitude-for example, the question of homonyms and synonyms hadbe addressed, a method had to be developed for the aniysis of thosenarnes which did not have exactly four ionsonantal radicals; and, ofcourse, there was this nagging question of the plurdity of languages!

. To cope with the most serious problem, Jibir proposesin the Ahiarwhat clearly secms to be an ad-hoc hypothesis. The analysis of names

Vija') only reveded the external or manifest (fah;r) narure of a thing.But there was in dl things also a complementary inner or latent (batin)nxnrls-and this was a mamer of intuition (ho^). This meant that tofind out the quditative/quantitative structure of a given body, oneneeded to take three steps: the first step was to reduce-the name'of thebody to its primitive elements; the rules for carrying this out were alreadygiven. The second step involved the use of the 'socratic' table throughwhich one discovered the natures contained in the body and theirweights-now the externd narure of the bodywas firlly determined.

Finally, the third stcp consisted in the uncovering of the latentcomplement of the externd nature of the body-this was an intuitiveexercise whose aim was to make the natures of the body conform to theproportion 7 :3 z 5 : 8, represented by the number 17. In our text, Jabircalls this third step "completion to 17"7r In more specific terms, if thesecond step yielded a result that fell short of 17, one made additions(tUada); but if thc result happened to be in er(cess of 17 or its multiple,one supressed the o<cess (ittirah).

\trZe find a large number of concrete examples worked out by theauthor to illustrate this 3-step method. For instance, he takes silver(fiddo) and shows how one determines its complete nature (manifest +larcnt):72. The primitive elements of the name fddawere F D(the second Dwas

a repetition and was therefore to be 'tfuown ewey'; the td marbfitawasfeminine designation and was likewise to be discarded).

. F was thc first letter and therefore represented the first degree ofintensity. From the table one discovered that it corresponds to thenature hot with the weight of trh ddn. D was lrh dnn. in the seconddegree ofcold.

. Findly, noting that the weights fell shon of 17, one determined thecomplements to discover the complete qualitative/quantitativestructure of silvcr, and the result was the following:

THE CENTRAL THEME

Nature Ana.lysis(Manifesd

Intuition Totd(Latent)

Hot F= lt/z dan. 5Vz dan. 7 dnn.Cold D = lry'z din. 3Vt dirbams 3Vz din (= 3x7= 2l dan.)Moist 5t/e dir. 5t/e dir. (= 5r7= 35 hn.)Dry 9% dir. 9% dir. (= 8x7= 56 hn.)

Now, as we note, the four naturcs are in the proportion 7 :3 : 5 :8,and the find result does, indeed, conform to the number 17, for 7 + 2l +35 + 56 = 119 = 77 x T.Having saved his theory, Jdbir repeatedlyemphasizes the irnportance of this number, not only in the Altjdr, butthroughout the Boohs of Bahncei. Thus, for example, the number 17 isequated to form (sura): "the form of all things is 17."73 Similarly, it isaffirmed that all minerals (objar) had 17 powers.74 In fact, the entiremethod of Balance was an attempt to discover how the number 17determines the qualitative and quantitative structure of all things.

But if the structure of dl things was governed by the same number,dren, ultimately, all things were structurdly identical. Indeed, this is aconsequence which is not only recognized by Jabir, he develops into auniversal law of nature. AII bodies which exist in their normal state, hewrites in the A(tjir, are in the state of equilibrium, and they are inequilibrium because their constituent natures exist according to thenumber 17. If &e equilibrium of a body is lost (or, in other words, itsnatures do not conform to l7), it will explode, losing the structure thatmakes it what it is. Stones whose natures reach beyond 17 , or fall short ofit, do not retain their natural state-they disintegrate and pulverize (lahharaja mutafanitan). And this is the universal Canon of Equilibrium(Qanun li,l-tv;da4.ts

A drastic corollary of this doctrine of structural identity of naturalobjects is that it abrogates the traditiond hierarchy of bodies: gold is nomore in equilibrium (a'dal) than, say, copper; the fruit of a tree is nomore in equilibrium than its leaf; the body of animals is just as much inequilibrium as that of man. In our tor Jabir forcefirlly declares that "eachbody belonging to the three kingdoms of nature as long as it remains inits normd state is in equilibrium. This is also true of its parts: the pans ofan animal body, for example, have their o*n ptop.r constitutionpossessing their own equilibrium. Once the fundamenul equilibrium ofa body is established, there is no reason to attribute to one body moreequilibrium tfian another. GoA is no morc in equilibium than any other

95

96 CHAPTER 3

metal and it is distinguishcd only fu, its utility."76 This is a daring srarementon t}le part of an alchemist.

The idea of the latent and manifest nature of things, which is

luggested solely by practical considerations, is now developed into afrrlly-blown alchemical theory. 'V7'e are told that all bodies in the worldhave an inner nature and an outer nature, and when these are combinedone finds out that dre four natures in wery natural objecr are governedby the number 17. Every mctal, writes Jabir in the' Sab,in, iontainswithin iself another metd of opposite constitution. For cxample,

lead is cold a"d dty "vrernally. . . but hot and moisr inrernally . . . A"d as for gold, it ishot aod moist cxtcrnally, but intcrnally it is cold

"od dry.n

Ag"ir, this had some far-reaching consequences, for, by virtue of whatwe just read, the meral we cdl lead was only manifesdy lead: latent in itwas the precious metal gold. Indeed, this utas so_

lead is latendy gold, and tin (qah,)'ts latendy silver.78

Similarln in the Abiar our aurhor says that lead only manifesr itself tous as a base metal. In it lies gold which is hidden from people. But ifwhat is hidden is extracted out, lead will turn into gold.79 Indeed, thetask of the alchemist in,carryint our rransmurad;n is nothing butmaking manifest what is latenr. In keeping with his view that thi fournatures were real material constituenr of natural objects, Jibir evenspecifies rhe location of the rwo complcmenrary sets of natures inphysical objecrs-thus, in the Tajmi' hi tells .tr ih"t exrernal naruresercisted at the periphery (muhit) of t}'e body, and internal narures werelocared in the inside (batin), that is, at the center.8o

The classical idea of 'red' and 'white' metals is also 5111eethly andingeniously incorporred into this alchemical theory. Thus, gold, dn andcopper were red metals in whose external nature hot and dry werepreponderant; in contrast, the metals iron, silver and lead were whitewith an o(rernal preponderance of cold and moist.Sl

so we see that in the process of tackling a dangerous problem with hissystem' Jibir adds several interesting and rich ld."r m his theoredcalrepertoire. As for the minor problem of the analysis of those nameswhich do ,ot have precisely four letrers in rheir primitive form, hismethod of intuirion has already solved it partially. If the number ofletters in a primitive name was less tfian f"ui (fdda-+ FD was a case inpoint), the gap was ro be filled by finding-complements through

THE CENTRAL THEME 97

intuition. But if the number of lemers occeeded four, thcn, we zue taught,these letters must be divided into four groups. Our text carries

" ,r,rrn--b.,

of o<amples to illustrate this mcthod.82

- The questio-n of homonyms and synonyms is addressed by Jabir on

the grounds of rhe narural origin of language. In the Ahiarie declaresthat nvo different names nwer designare the sarne thing, nor do nyodifferent things have the same name or rhe same definition.83 In someueatises we see him painstakingly involvcd in etymologies in order toj:*fr his views.sa Our text carries a discussion on what is regarded asdifferent-appellations applied to the same metal, tin: qahri, ,^-ar, d**and mushtai. The author, invoking the authoriry of Sbcrates, decides infavor of fruns as being the correcr name of the substance in question.s5The others were not synonyms, but names of other rhings.

-Jabir feels that

--y.oiloquial forms have obscured"the original core

9f*9*,and language needs to be purified. 'We see his Balinis-saying int\e Altjar that one ought to consider not colloquial names (z;ndal-mudhakarQ but names which are established from the point of view ofthe application of Balance (rind al-ramaf , thar is, narnes pureed ofcorruprions.86 And although thjs sage is quoted in the rext

"r r'"yirig th"t

the practi'ioner of Balance need consider no language o(cepr 4o"5;.]az ;r,gen^eral Jibir seems to hold the opinion that

"ny language when

sufficiently purified will yield the same results as rhe dari'of"his ownlanguage. Perhaps this.is.why_the quesrion of pluraliry of languagesdoes not seem ro trouble him. In fact, his Balinis *.n ,"lLr

"bo",.rt Ir.

possibiliry of dweloping an unambiguous arrificial language!88

' t' i

, t, l

' l;il

;l.t]

. i i l

I1|irj1.i.l. i

I

';:1

I.*f

;iiiJit,t l,;l.. 1.trJ:ii;,j

i'l:ij,tl,i.!lll7,iil,iii:l'Tilitrlt,t.j

j:]

:::r$i1.d

';i;*q:t\

rlji

jr*'r.!

4i{iil'ilt:1I;il

i}dltJ$;dfllil

lf,:J

98 CHAPTER 3

NOTES

I In the Kitab al-Khamsin (Fifty Books, k 1825-1874) Jabir compares hisBalance with the First Cause: "Physical objects are governed by the Balancc,spirirual objects by the First Cause" (MS Shahid cAli Pesha 7277, f,137b, qu.Kraus [1942-3 , II, p. 187, n,4). Sec Arabic rexr in the addenda below.2 Edited Text, 36:l (see dso 35:15-36:2).3 Thit t.r- occurs throughout rhe Kanb al-Mawdzin.4 Kbansin, f. l3la, in lGaus, op. cit., p. t 88, n. 3. See Arabic text in the addendabelow.5 In the Kitab al-Tajmi. (Book of Concenrration, Kr398), MS l*iden 1265,f. l67a-b,qu. Kraus, op. cit.,p.244.6 In the al-Sirr al-Mahnfin,MS Paris 5099, f.55a.7 On.. again, we note, Jabir distinguishes betwcen tab, (nzrure) and hayJfua(qualiry).

8 Early halim wrirers siem to use the term daqiq (pl. daqa'iq), or latif (pl.lola"fl to characterize cosmological questions, as opposed to questions of apurcly rheological nature. Thus, the ma,tazili .Abd al-Jabbar (d. 41511025)writes in a cosmological conter(t that his predecessor d-Nazzim used to discussedthe daqiq of hakmwith Hisham ibn al-Hakam (see Qidi.Abd al-Jabbar's Fadldl-I$zal, Sayyid ed. Q9741, p.254). The term htifoccurs in d-Khayyit's Kitabal-Intisir (Nader ed,. |9571, p. 14-15).9 nal1th, MS Jarullah 1721, f.l l0a, qu. Kraus, op. cit., p. 223, n. 7. See Arabictel(t in the addenda below.l0 Th" account which follows integrates material from a large number ofJabirian treatises other rhan the Ahjdr itself, Howwer, this is not so much of astatement of virtue as ir is one of neccssiry, for the Ahjar seems to have been thesubject of a ruthless application ofJibir's Principle of tabdid al-,ilm. Thus, it ispractically impossible to make scnse of this tcr<t as it stands: like so many othertreatiscs of the corpus, it remains a 'fragmentary' work in which the rruth wasonly pardally revealed (for a discussion of thc Principle see Chapter I above). Tounderstand the Ahjar one has to do what the 8th/l4rh century alchcmistal-Jildald did, that is, to gather all the 'fragmcnts' in ordcr to complcte thepicturc-Jildaki sap in his Kitab al-Misbah f

,Ilm aLMifab that in thirst ofknowlcdge hc travelled far and wide, visiting Byzanrium, North Africa, Erypt,Iraq and Syria to collect more than one drousand books by Jabir (MS Paris2165, f. l44a qta,. Kraus [1942-3], I, p.)OCI, n. 6).

THE CENTRAL THEME 99

I I MS Paris 5099, f. 144a. See Arabic ter<t in the addenda below.It is interesdng to note here a significant difference between thc views ofJabir

and those of the-Ikhwin ,l-$"fi'. Thus, in the very beginning of their R&sa'il,

the Ikhwan express the Pythagorean lore: one srudies the propcrdes of existing

things rhrough thc study of the individud nambers corresp_onding -to

these

thinls. The very first Riiah of the Brethren is "on Numbers" reflecting thcir

rt"tJ b"[.f that arithmetic was the first stage on the way to wisdom; in their

preface they say that "the forms of numbcrs in individual souls corresponds to

th. fot-t of existing things in prime matter (halala)" (ZiriUi ed. U928], I,

p. l)-in other words, existing things are in accordance with the nature of

numbers.But Jdbir accords no such status to numbers. In 6ct, as we shall see, numbers

do not cven figure in his ontology. On the other hand, and in contrast, he

believes that thi structure of hnguge corresponds to the structure of cxistingthings. And while language did follow the rules of numbers, it was not

ontologically idendcal with numbers.

12 Th. relationship beween things and names which designate thesc things isone of the earliest and most highly dweloped questions discussed and debated

by Muslim thinkcrs. al-Suyoti in his al-Muzbir giyes an extensive account of

thcse discussions in some of the disciplines which had been cultivatcd prior to

the full scale reception in Islam of Greek philosophy and lo,gic, rymeff the

disciplines of halam, the principles of jurisprudence (usal al-fiq\, andphilology(t"Sb") (see al-Mawla ed,.11949),I, p.7 tr.). An enamination of the relationship

beitccn utterance (laft) nd the objects of the world had led the early thinkersto an inquiry into the relation berween narure and convention or law. "This

inquiry," to quote Mahdi, "occupies the center.of stage- in the discussions of

language in ciassical Islamic thought as it had done earllel in classical Greek

tho-ughi" (Mahdi, "language and Logic in Classicd Islam" in von Grunebaum

ed. ItglOl, p. 52). As wl shall Presently see, Jabir too is led to the same inquiry,

and, in "rg,ring

for his views, hc leans heavily on the question as to whether

language is natural or convendonal.t3 Ta:rif, Kraus ed. 119351,392:9. See Arabic tott in thc addenda below'

14 Hatil, MS Paris 5099, f.96a. See Arabic text in the adden& below.

15 But if this is the case, how can Jabir justify his daim that individud natures

can be isokted through dchemicd procedurcs? Funhcr: how can hc, without

contradicting himsel{, hold that each nature, as well as substance, has a wcighr?(For these views of Jabir see chapter 2 above). But it seems that one can in

principle cr(onerate him of holding conradictory views.'

In the narurd world, Jabir had aught us, the four nentres do not ocist freely

in isolation from onc another: the adept could isolate thcm, but he could not

weigh an isolated nature. Nowhere, in describing thc characteristics of an

IOO CHAPTER 3

dchcmically extracted nature, does Jibir say anything about its wcight' Thepoint is that while both subsrancc and individud natures do posscss weighrs,drcsc wcighrs cannot be known to us unlcss they appcar in combination. Ofcourse, here we havc a theory that cannot be refuted.16 Ar"b grammarians dcsignatc vowels by the tcrm baahat (modons), whcnce aconsonat that is followcd by a vowcl is said to be mutal.tanih (moving, = Jabir'sLtarf al-nat), and that which has no following vowel is called siikin (guier,crlnt, orat rest, = Jab;r's harf al-i*ah). Hence the symbol which denores vowellessness,jazm, is called shin. Our author makes his second elcmcnt 'at rest' to indicatethe apocopate form. (See lTright [1862],lI, p. 255).17 Hail" f,95 b. Sec Arabic ter<t in rhc addcnda below.18 lkaus ed,. 11935),393:L6. Sec Arabic tort in thc addenda below.19 lb;d,393:13-15. Sce Arabic tort in rhe addenda below.

Thc use of thc tcrm " tasnf in a physical sensc is dso found in Shahrastini'sMihI Expounding the cosmologicd doctrines of che Sdbians, he writes that theyconsidered spirirual substances (al-ntbaniylat) ro be those which had thc power(quurua) to 'transform bodies and transmutc physical masses' (tanf al-ajfim wauqlib al-ajram) (Badrin ed. [1955], I1,703:17-18). Also, spiritud substanceswere to the Sabians those which "act freely upon bodies, tranforming thcm andtransmuting them" (*tas.anifaf'l-ajsan tarifan ua tu4lrban) (Ibid.,703z5-6).20 fotif US Paris 5099, f. 140b. See Arabic text amached co n. 64 below.2r lhhrai,IGaus ed. U935),9:5-8. See Arabic tent in rhe addenda below.22 IG"* [1942-3],11, p.256, n.5.23 S.. tr. 58 below.24 Edited Tqt,9:7.25 Thir is not to say that Jibir has no interesr in grammar. As a matter of 6ct, heis cven aware of thc dassical disagreements berween the radidonal grammarians(abl al-lugha) and the champions of what was rhe new Greek logic, adisagreement thar found in later centuries its mosr instructive expression in thecelebrated dcbate between the philologist nd matahallim al-Siriff, and aprotrgonist of the ncw philosophic school Mani ibn Ytnus. (fhis debare, whichtook placc in 3201932, has been analyzed, by Mahdi, o?. cit. Mahdi's accounr isbascd on thc report of AbO Hayyin al-Tawhidi whose aLlmtd'wa'l-Ma>inasapreserves the text of the debate). Significandy, Jibir does not use the laterappellation mantiqiyyfin for the members of rhe new school. He calls thcm"people of subsmndd discourse" (ahl al-halan al-jauthar).

According to the grammarians, writes Jibir in the lhhrdj,'ordered lemcrs(al-hurif al-manzima) denotc ism (noun), f'l (verb) and harf (partide). Incontrast, the people of substantial discourse . . . believe that by convention

THE CENTRAL THEME IOI

(;stilab) ordered letters denote three categories: either an ism (Gr. onoma) or ahalima (verb, Gr. rhtma), or a qaul (statcmen/proposition, Gr. 69or)" (Iftaused. [1935], 9:10-13). As for his own views, Jibir is a supportcr of the lamer. Anoun and a vcrb, or rwo nouns, hc says, are sufiicient to form a true or a falseproposition: "The gaul is formed eithcr out of a panicipadon of a noun with averb, or of a noun with a nouno (ibid", 10:9-10). The panicle u,as no! an intcgralpart of a qawl--the conjunction (ribat) Er,J<s onc noun with another, and thcpreposition (sih) determincs the rclationship berwccn a noun and averb (ibid.,9:14-17).26 al-Sirr al-Maknfrn, MS Paris 5099, f.54a- See Arabic to<t in the addendabelow.27 lkrus ed,. U9351, 109:4-5. Sec Arabic text in the addcnda bclow. Here onceagain Jnbir seems to differ fundamentally from the Ikhwdn al-Safa'. Herepeatedly expresscs his belief that the 28 leners of the Arabic dphabet, or the'28 signs drat designate the sounds,' are a mamer of convention and do not havethe force of natural law. Thus, likeAb[ Bala ibn Z*arirye al-Rezi inhis Hiui(see lGaus fi942-31, II, p245, n. 3) and Bir0ni in his Kitab al-Saydala (SeeMeycrhof [1932), p. l4), Jibir criticizes dre Arabic script for irs ambiguities andsugtests radical reforms.

In contrasr, the Ikhwin teach thar the codification of the Arabic scripr isdefinitivc (RatA';l, ZiriUi ed. [1928], III, p. 151ff.), and its invcnror (utadi,)was divinely inspired (Ib;d., Ifi, p.357, where one reads the phrase hihmatal-Ba*'). The Arabic alphabet, drey belicve, can be reduced to eternal geomeuicfigures (Ibid,I, p. 28).28 Hadud lGaus cd. [1935),109:6. See Arabic text in the addenda below.29 lhbraj, ibid., l5:5.In the same work Jibir rells us that hc has wrirten a specialEpisthin which he has derscribed hundreds of animal sounds (ibid, 14:15).Thiswork is lost.30 Edited Tqr,9:7-Ll.3r lhhraj,liraus cd. $935), ll:14 13:9 ff.32 This tcrm is used by rhe grammarians to designate trilireral verbs withidentical second and third radical ucrb*m mediac geminatae.33 See Bravm znn U934).34 Not the cmphasis here. Jibir does nor say thar morphology lr a branch ofatithmedc, nor drat it can be reduced to numbers (cf n. I I above).35 Thir was already accomplished in the 2ndl8th cenrury by Khalil ibn Ahmadinhis Kitntb al-,A1n.36 Edited Tut, passim.

::, ,1

d:.;!

ri)

l )l:i:rl:

lli'.':firl]t:tl

ilili

]t:

1,l,:1i{ilii.1:

' i{i

.'*;'{l.i,,i'li!lsl

.il.g

ij'4tt.r;i:

.iii

,rl.l

*

qlt

.:ili

,d

. i i -

ry'41

4I'flt

1.e-dc

d.{

i;l

''11,liiriiinl

"{f,;flj'ii

IO2 CHAPTER 3

37 See de Sacy [183]).38 He rccosnizes biliteral (thand'i) roots too, of which he gives in the Bahth

6 paradigmi (Ms Jarutleh 1721, f. l30b)'

39 Edited t''tT$-8:3. This account is in frrll agreement with the grammarians

(sec, for orample, al-Suytti, op. cit',I[, parsim)'

4o S". tt. 16 above.41 Kra,rs in his [1942-3], II, pp. 248-9 has rcproduced many of these lisa'

42 Bahth, f. l3la.,qu. Kraus, ibid, p.247, n. l; p' 248' n' l'

43 In the ortended sense ' 'artid' embraces not only the science of meter' but

also the scicnce of rhyme' Mo" t""lly' how€ver' the term is reatcd in dre

;;-.;t:;"tc of the former which is what it denotes here'

aa UnliLe the Germanic languages, the quandry of w-ery syllable in wery word

in ancient Greck is absoluily"fixed. Thus, in the foimer, the characteristic

means of distinguishing i.?til" tyU"Ules from their neighbours is stress' rather

than their fixed quantitY.

45v"il s.a.'t4rad'[EIl], I, p.667; Freytag [830]; Jdhiz, Baydn Cairo cd'

Ir932l.46 Edited Tqt,9zl2'17.a7 lhhrailGaus ed. ll935l,l4:10. See Arabic tent in the addenda below'

48 Edited Tort, 10:8-10.

49 MS Paris 5099, f.54b' See fuabic terrt in the addenda below'

t0 Bahth,MS Jarulleh, f.l45b.see Arabic tert in the addenda below'

5l Ms Pa,is 5099, f.55b. Sce Arabic terrt in the addenda below.

52Has; l ,MSParis5099,f . l l5b'Thiscomesverbat imfromps-Plutarch's

P I;i" ;b;;;"pi;;;(i;;* cd' I I e80]' Arabic rort' 50: I 0- I 1 )'

J3 al-Sirr al-Maknfrn, MS Paris 5099, f.55e See fuabic tort in thc addenda

below.54 Loc. cit,see Arabic text in the addenda bclow'

55 R.peatedly througout the Boohs of Bahnccs'

56 MS Lid"n 1265, f.l06b, qu. IGaus [1942- 3), p' 252' n' 4' Sce Arabic tqt in

the addenda below.

57 Gr. hgos ftom which the word 'logic'" naniq derivcs'

18 Khamsin, Ms shehid lqli Pashe 1277, f',132!1 l"'.IGau; IlgO-31' ll'

o,256,n. 4' See Aobi" .ot in the addenda below' IGaus (o2' cit'' p' 256' n' 5)

ffi;Hil;;i;;;;&;i;s Hmself in the ltcbraiwhere he 'avs'

"mcaning

THE CENTRAL THEME IO3

(ma,nQ can be considered as if it were substancc (ha'l-jatuha), disco.urse (hahm)

as ifit were accident (ha,l-,arat)" (Kraus ed. 11935),8:10). But, cvidendy, Jibir

i. no, ,"ying that language r an accident' Hc is prcsenting to the reader an

analog;it."*pl"rr"tioi oF the relation berween meanings and words which

designate these meanings.

59 MS Prris 5099, f.54a. See Arabic ter<t in the addenda below'

60 In their general outline, Jebir's.ideas conccrning the perception. o_f externd

ob;..t, bc"r"a striking similariry with those of Avicenna in his Kitdb al-Nafi

aili;"" ed. [1959]),ind of Avl*oes in his compendium of Aristotle's,De scnstt

ct rensdto (Blumberg ed. 11972)). Evidendy Jabir's sourcc is, likewise, the Parua

Nanralia of Arirtoi.. \7" ,rot" that in the Bahth the author does refer both to

i" ol, anima (Fi al-Naf; MS Jar.uleh 1721, f.l04a, qu.-Kraus [1942-3]' Il,

p.1il, n. Z), *d rc thi Dr rr*o et sc,,sato (Fi'l'Hiss an'l'Mahsis; ;bid' f' 3lb'

qu. Kraus, p.323, n. 5).61 The translation of una,ini" as 'meanings' is rathcr loose. I(raus equates this

term with Greek pragmata (ibid., p.258, ;. 5), and it occurs both in Aviccnna's

Ni1 ^"aAln

rro.i' ITiss ura'l-Mah-* wherc it seems to signify representations in

*J-1"a, or represenations in the sensc. "The object of sense p.erception," writes

Avicenna, "is form, and that of imagination (wahm) is mt'nii" (oP' &, l' 167)'

Averroes-says, "The ma<nd in memory is not the ma'niiin imaginadon

(tahhayyt|" Qp. cit. P.38).' Ir 'tf,. thiiai, uwe saw, Jibir o<plains ]ysl na'na .by s9ti19 its relationship

*i.h dir"our, "(pota*)

(r". n. 5g abovd. Cf. Far6bi, Ihsd' al-'Ulam, Palencia ed.

[1932], p.22.62 Indeed, there is in the Jabirian corpus a text with this tide, lk 2583. However

this work seems no longer ortant.

63 The word could not be deciphered in the manuscript'

64 foff,US Paris 5099, f. 140b. SeeArabic to<t in the addenda below.

65 al-Sin al-M dhnin, triS Paris 5099, f . J4a, qt. lkavs $942-31, p. 257, n- 3.

66 Khamsin, MS Shahid .Ali Pasha, f. 134a. See Arabic text in the addenda

below.-- It is interesting td note the following passage in the first Risnkof the lkhwin:

"s"r;"i"ii"is iignifr mcanings, m.""ittgt are, the things namcd' and

enunciarions "r"

tti-.t." (Zir*Ji ed. [1928], l,p'24)'

67 Sec Chaprer 2 above.6e 4g;4p is thc first of thc eight mncmotechnical terms into which the 28

t..rorif A. er"Uic alphabet areiraditiondly divided, and each gf ,h9T givcn an

il;;J ";;"iJ "4"..

In the Islamic East, these numerical values followed thc

s.rii I to 9, l0 to 90, 100 to 900, and 1000' Significandn Jabir does not assign

,i;

lrI:,$liir:

i

"Y:..dii'

iiii:

*

,1i.,1,ir,1,

t.i$l

'!#.,r:l!

104 cHAPTER 3

to dre leners rhese numerical values as, for ecrample, the Ikhwin do (see Zirikli

ed. [928],l,pp.2348).69 ln esuict scnse, thc able that follows is an a&ptation of-Jibir's table (sec

g4i,.Ji*,, 18-19). This is so because: (i) Jabir does not use Indian numerals'

all his oumbers arc GxPresscd in words; (ii) he cxprcs:"t !i: wcights in tfuce

dif.;;;;,t- qirat, dlnq, and dithlnln our tablc dl weigha are specificd in

,ft" t"-"""i, G.'" tli" qo,"i, of units bclow); and (iii) sincc each lencr was to be

reckoned four times, jabir divida his table into four seParate scctions' This

-"Jod is somewhat

"l-"-ty and has not bccn reproduced in our ablc'

--- al .fr. weights i" .tril table arc

"*pr.rr.i in dinaqs according to the

following qrstcm used bYJabir:I habba = lYt'ashin5iashin = lqirdt2qirdr = ldnuq|funaqs = ldirham

g,,fr.Jii" noted rhat the rcladve values of differcnt unics of wcigha have

oot ,"m"irred uniform in thc Arabic tradition. An instructive manifesation of

;i; o;;ti"* is to bc found in rhc diffcrcnces that exist between thc conversion

.ti.l s,".,,ui modern scholars-thus, for er<amplc, Siggel's *,"".:t:it: able in

fri, lig'tgt, p.'223,docs not agrcc with chat of Lory in the laner's [1983], P. 86.)

70 The quesdon as ro why this proponion and the surn of i,s clements 17 is so

fundamintally i-porr"rri to Ja'bir'has ymailed a ma$er of speculation and

;;;"h *t""d -oi"rn

scholars' For a detailed discussion see Commentary in

Chapter 5 bclow.

71 MS Patir 5099,f.59a.72 EAiredTqt, 6:2-4. (The actual cdculation is ro be found on f' 78a of MS

Paris 5099).73 Edited Texr, l3:3.

7a Edircd Tqt,20:34.75 Edited Tcnt, 38: I I . A similar idca of equilibrium is found in other Jabiriantcxrs too (sce, for example, al'Mawizin il'Saghlr, Berthclot cd' [1893]' I['

fi5:2-4.76 This is Kraus' paraphrase of rhe scction of the Ahjar d*lts d*-*e conccPt

of equilibrium (IGaus-[1942-3], II, p. 233, n.2). Cf Editcd Tst'22:8'23:3'

77 Ln( Boolcs,IGaus ed. Ug35l,4Oz4-5;468:15. See Arabic tort in the addcnda

below.78 Tojmi,, Benhelot ed. [1893], III, 16l:15. Sec Arabic to(t in thc addenda

bclow.7e Edited Tqt, 35l.12-14.

THE CENTRAL THEME IO5

80 Toj*r, Benhcloted. [1893],III, 13-16.

8 I F.dited T elrt, 20:4'8.; 2l :13-l 5.

82 This division of the lerters of a name into four SrouPs does not, pima facic,follow any sysrcm. Howwer, Kraus suspccted that Jabir's scheme is govemcd'by

musical "otttid"otiotts

(sec Kraus [1942'3)' p' 256' n' 2)'

83 MS P"ris 5099, f. 59b; scc dso Edited Tent, 24: l0-l l.

84 In th. I)A( Boohs (MS Jirullah 1554, f.2llb), for cxarnple, J{r.r gives the

crymolosy of rhc words hibrit (sulphtr), zibaq (mercury) and.zlnihh.(arsenic)'

iri i, filatl nc has a list of the narn"s of rnCtals in scveral different languages

including breek and Persian (Kraus ed. [1935], 535tll-537t15)'

85 Edircd Text, 25;13-2627. Far a discussion of zauas see Commentary and

Textud Notes in ChaPter 5 below.

86 Edited Texr,5:6-7.87 Edited Tqr,4:7'8' Sec Commentary in Chaptcr 5 below'

88 Editcd Tqt,5:7-10.

ADDENDA TO NOTES

. Jrlt ,*.lt .d 4oj)lt JWI t; i.,*LJl . tJ'll ( \ )

i) l t i '*)lt '&!,Fl d*;ti aJJij olt j, ' . ; l l ft ;: l '#'u 1-i:; gd$b 111

6lia, ni2.r+, 6ljr, aL\ '>Q)12 ti,Jrl:t ltgr'Ut, =J|.JJltc|Jj!1,

. . . , ) : ) l

u ?ti ,rh P-os{ i .. . c,t+i5jl dl.ti2 (wt Jrri a! cJti, iiru t L ( 1)

,g!l J,"Hl2 i)V[b oQ)l ,lyi2 ;21,]l .L:*i; i,-rr!t, t i;'yt ' l-l g" Jr

. olr.e.jl J|ri ;u' dl2t! u)! 4 J.a*,r.r) * .*it Jt!;l ;lbo"Q

"tjt * 'bit,iS et Al Jbit#l,,& rr^bt,i5 'i)j I J!Pt, t t t t

.it*Jl Jt-+!,.)')t Jt gvst F.Ur. .'. ,h I .r'lrJl .irf l gli ( \ f )

* ;r, trt 1 us ,it ":.r J!.i*; ti.i^ rrfu 3i1i; t vi g>: rtr ( \ t)

.J-!l urcru ,4.ii * JluLrltr 1!r.1,

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106 CHAPTER 3

oli .r,l.r * o-&-L ,:,)L' ,i ta:' a.,-;n w ,yi * 11ft!L'b 1+.1 o't, t tvt

#l*U &4 I . .. rfr2 rj ( r.', | ,P L'rJtt lJr oi J:i, .&q ri,

oF' ) i-r;,i 11 ,rui ,i oi u -5i ri r*i w-r u i.lf oF $3 ,,..t3;J1

6bJl "?

, #', ,y Ui i.lJ oF 1 .! tati Ct Un isl ,.w1, ur u

gt*tt vJ.rS .i:jl *S; o-&-;:i y'.-r ,rii .cS-Jl s,b;iit Ll;-)l .re1

. ol4a1J1.,3L oi

tt.Jl U i..:ll lj,,s .1;'to; t;.r*2;tyt,r;l-rrr'l ,-:or'g V e.!1.4,i ir! ( \A)

. r,-'' -air ,p,yt;(JlflA.1d Oi.;o,- f .T-t.t iL)tiJl dJ-{

o'fv oi Ji-i,dtJi J'1, gUllt,,r & Ji c,, ! o('1 /.itlt",i.Jt { J! t)tt 1 ( \ t)

. .j.rf l,;'t a:S (Wl &t ai

.i+.At cr, ,rUl ,J,.1 {U.U Jtltt ; Jr.r ,t;tf d,b gt *11 Jt ati Ji ,1, tt t t

. L'r;tt, i'+Ul ;t & lt ,.-bV JaJ Lr l.!j .-LliJL fy<Jl

o3dl g2tlut ... oAll kr.rU- iV vy-S" $ '.. .tt}l;,ii '- trrt

. ,Pt Ct- :s

sE"rr J+ 1,.ri; i"kr t olra)l * ;-;l,l1iJul JtgJl gi ; +t L 3! ( rv)

. r t oh ;i!lrlt, ;L.ll,rt"

. .r/t{ r, ;ll ,rLtl gi;t'llL,i!i (YA)

gq?b f,.|l rt', ' L- ltt ,-e:y'tp * 1! ,ts ll /+ oi Li oft ,,.J ( tv)

. pJt f+t

.,F oi5.i!, FI.rJl ;'tl* l$g! il' ri .roJ'b ii'-!'ti,! Jq g'ilt Ju' i,! t ert

.lJ'tr UU ,,!l':,-it ... ir:S .Vi ut o!4 ;r6jllr.lly'lv U;.1U t;!

. 6) ;u *1.;-i '-:tt gill ,.Pty'trt+ a ,-i\ 'b|t*,i

r.rc.ei

Ji"i0" Jr,rll#hr, lJl,(JlJui tr t.' ,i rriJloi;o- t-l u$ ts $r ( o ')

. #t+'Jl+r gjll ir+"i,lpth:Jl,r...i ,#itJlf tldU t{tKJ' i,t.-ti,

. J"Ul ,rb Jr...'*tr, t{J L r:lJ ,u.ilJ 1-l ,*oJ uc Ji .i*J'b ( o \ )

THE CENTRAL THEME IO7

Uf irtr.all ,i, i,i € clljf .3: ,r*i:Jl or aElt-r .ir^ttt r-l;-: 'ts:-l

| ;l ( o l)

. .F:Jl.93.rtt U .|J :r !,JJl V 6g

. rrr 3! +f'U f+i it}J|, \r'Ul,/ LJeis , rJr ri .r",'b Ui eli t'jll Ui'( o t)

;tt,et -fu;i,i rt"i u ci-, r*r k, ';rSt,* irrrrJl u'rJ € tfi l! ( ol)

d-P 4l L-, u f cr Jurt a!3 o! ,irli: gt*tt .J" 'rjrll Jo yt *

L..+ urUf, i,r.*i irb/.rol dJ3 gr d,, lr'U .fP* it "'Ltt t^i'ir'

1i,b;l ,tJ *,41i gir ,,i :si ; t.'U ... ,rtJi jt tt;;-'t ';r\4;''-

.05{ I .il; f i!1-r'l.e 4lLr., C+'..r I A,,(,.

,-i ) rLiJl-e gfJly'trJl d,vs r:bE lOUllAi J-.ri fY i,1J;'L to'\t

,'r-r$l.cJ4 6 ijJ r-J t,61 $, dl J)}l P f't5Jl,r'"1 '2Al gp:Jl u:":

,i ,r*.rtji Jor t,jt.ij s* 4 ri s6titt 't? t, * C)'L'll't ctJi J'r

ofl PrJtr I CU! l* t\ ,!o; 'pp2

glbl5g--, t+t{ J;lt ' J;'U r1r'1

f)KflJ-,lf C,?l'i+U ... t{J5 L}.,-'';t '!tJt-ilt3) lt"i; 'r'aia

.;r;y'*rt

Julr gi :zB ot-2u gi d,Jj 6 1t i,1r.1, .,i,Fli *g s,;tf i! (or)

r'e.l, #t:Ll*Jb FJL ,r!u,ll ,b +t;,al:^L, ai ir1'z rl'); 'bfi,

.4Jit fyfll Ji il- -*t '? dJi S.+ i,!i

y!t.1 V- -$ 7*tg6 irlr

gi ;i! ,rl: rJj ... e|J! ,:,ir ri t+i !! JtJ?|.+J't c,' t4l*i J$t ir)l

. t1'.l, Urr ti i++! ,) ,*y.36 i! t1 eb 'J Jt)lpr t>t<tt

f Pt olt)y'lei'' -tlr gtJb ,;n-'llt,tLrlL i-qJlSip.," i'i u:+' (11)

.W ,.,u-glrr1'JJl./ UU 0t , U! 'tJ,ii i6 + ot oLrlJlj oU; t|

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CHAPTER 4

PRELIMINA.RY O B SERVATI ONS

lhe Altian whose firll title is Kitab at-Ahiar ,ala Ray Bahnas (Book ofl,:::. Accordi'g to the .Opinion of Balinis, I<r 307-il0). belongs to theJabirian collection entitled Kunb al-Mawdzin (Books of Biances,l<r 303-446). It is one ofthe-larger texts of this group of treatises, havingbeen divided by $e lgJt"t into &ur pa.rts of ,io..'o, l.r, .q,rj l."gtl;(al-Juz'alAuutal / al-Than / al-Thaliih / at-Rabi).As for the collecti"onitself, IGaus was able to restitute 79 of its titles, out of which 44 areextant (see lGaus [1942-3], r, pp.75-99). Ibn al-Nadim mentions onlyfour tides of this collection.

MAN USCRI PTS

(l) MS Paris, Bibliothtque Nationale, Arabe 5099, f. 56b - f.62b;f.72b - f. 86b.

copied in a clear nashh style (s9e Illustration I below), the manucriptis dated 1023 Hijra = 1614 A.D. The date appears on f. 62b.

- JGaus points out that soine three folios of this manusc ript. (f. g7b -

f. 89a) containing a small fragment of al-Juz, al-Rabi, (The Fourth pan)are reproduced on pp. 188-190 of the cairo al-Khinji codex where itappelrs under tlre erroneous tide al-Sin al-Mahnun'(Kraus, op, cit.,P. 80).(2) MS Teheran, Danishgah 491, f. 85b - f.lllb. According to Sezgin

![GAS]I IY,_p.253), this is an ttthltTth cenruqy manicript (i.eIllustration II below).

ry"rr.:?rSri had rEo.rted (hc. cie) tbat another indzpcndctzt manuscript of(e Aljar cxists in Teheran,

"lrytllMS Mltih 6206. But th, m;crofiim if

this docurncnt rcceiacd from Malih rcaeahd tbat it is identiczl .irt us?A";!!g4 491. Tltc tuto manuscipts difcr onl infoliaion uhich bas beeninscribcd by a modertt band in both catr).(3) MS Cairo, Tal.at Ki-yi' 218, f. la - f.25b.

Does not contain aUuz, al-Autual (The First part) of the tort.

,l

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l l2 CHApTER 4

. .Judged by the sryle of the scribe's harrd (diwanivariation of nasta,bq),this manucript seems also to belong to the llthlrTth

".ttt,rry (*.

Illustration III below).

STUDIES/EDITIONS

As a treatise in its own right, the Alrjar has never been srudied before. Infact, stricdy speaking, there is no- critical edition of this rext either.Indeed, in his Amiliar selection ofJabirian treadses, trGaus had included

1.11F. pan of the Alljar (kaus_ed. [1935], pp. t26-205), but in no waydid he intend, or pretend, to offer a ctiticat edition of this work. RatheiKraus' primary aim was to collect a large number of to<ts in a shorrvolume so that the reader has access to a sample of the enormously widerange ofJabirian ideas. Thus, in most cases, Kraus' re,(ts are based on asingle man'scripr and they appear with minimal cridcal appararus.Moreover, when it comes to making choices from within a givenireatise,IGaus sometimes seerns to operarc without a clear principle-of selection.But givcn his limited aim, this is understandable.

In the case of rhe A.liar, Knus had based his text solery on MS paris5099. He included in his volume the entire al-Juz, al-Aututal and al-Jrs,al-Thani (The Second Parr), and a selection irom al-Juz, al-Rabi,. Thetext's al-Juz' al-Thnlith.(The Third Pan) was excluded tomlly (inciden-tally, it is this part in which I discovered a hitherto unknown iranslationof the eiglrth discourse of Arisrotle's caagoiae). Thus, to be sure, IGaushas provided us a subsrantial selection of-th, Ahiar, but whar h. jid ,rotB,rve us is a critical edition. Also, somewhat suiprisingly, his rext repro-duces somJ of the obvious corrupriotts of the p"tir

-itr*cript: thus, for

er<ample, certain errors of numerical calculation, errors toa "i"ll

difficultto carch, have gone unnoticed by him (see Edited Text, l5:g; 15:14; seedso the corresponding translation and commentary below).

THE PRESENT EDITION

The criticd edition of the Ktdb al-Ahiiirwhich follows is based on all9q" manuscripts of this treatise. Indeed, it is to be ruefully acknowl-cdged-that this edition tooconains only a serection of the Aijar, ratherrhan the entire to<t. But this is a suict tLmadc selcction

"rrdlrr.iudcs ":onsidcrable ponion of the work nonetheless. Thus, only those pass4gesrf the texr have been excluded ivhich consist in (a) dtasti. aig'r.;riJr.

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS I13

from the rnain theme of the work, (b) repetitions, (c) illustrativeexamples or applications of the principles already discussed, or (d)rhetorical flourishes. To minimize the loss of substance, a summary ofthe orcluded sections is given in the appendices below.

It is imponant to note also that the present edition, besides being thefirst critical edition of a substanti.l p* of the Ahiar, contains much teirtthat is-not included in lGaus'volume. Thus, the reader will here findmany sizable sections of the Ahiarwhich have hithcno lain dormant inmanuscripts, having received no textual treatment of any kind in thehistory of modern scholarship.

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A CRITICAL EDITION OF SELECT TEXT

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.rtJ ,i."rJ i:Al ,)!!;)|tt o.,Jl orti L, J.L :J.L:J ,r..rJ'l aU o.Jti

giirtJl 6r1'J,:5 t .tlJ eo,zri ,.p*',?:.ri .1.r'!$-SXfJl

.d dir,ilrr .iJi dt i 6; ri ir:r ,s.lJ.rr ;ri c-.t li 11 .Ltu L;

. pJ n* i1r-:.-aetl uJ rtJl J,ll ,ra,.iJL,:LJlor

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u riltll.n li# ;ti ,,#t .% ii 1,fi t, rt'y ,i.l(,ll A e o-&

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CRITICAL EDITION

L ,r'l.,r Ju t4rdjrr .iJ(Jl 4 u #i(l-i tv t$rL V-'t d ,b

. 5[-iog u"r1st;.r.r(2 ai iV by' J Vti d ,b l3!j 't''i

'ttJb db t/lt,.ltflJb ii.{Jl lpss t},s f+i .r;t ; ,f F ti ,frt

it, 1,u4l;.t\.,-blr. Jl;J'rr 'tt/l Je ci6 tl: "kJL UJf tr q.JL Orltr

. t{-lt elrt s:Jli!.)l # Jli:;it l;+:>lPlfll

ntu.rl j\ ,i:4j i,'Xt ryfll Jyii!.!1,.:-11'J,.t y.ltu, ,Jri':'i

,iLr;-...r i* W,li:".-1. ,l'3l Jlt-a ip {ri)l.l,l Cb \fu;t

f:.. i tr * L3 ,F- l )-qn t>,21..u! <!l> irj l Jt4 * * | olu

.etJ! a1fi

ub: np, ,'n nFr,,Jo, o #, JLl,tr' r$' J:i i't'u!t t..'u

uP3 rg-1n rt; r$, j:'2 t'$r -F r,Fr,rb) q;tD F t,#u

ube tgalr -r.; ,8, ,tl;t ( *o ,-*' ,,13, ub5 aull ya r,fn'

f.'f, .;)Urr vi S.r.-lc c{r - "&, ,n ",F, u}t: "iS, -rn ,8,

I..gjll . r'JU .r.!-rr olt;o ;t ti.t: tlu ,n#r,# 1r-1, ' Q .9jJl Ji:ll

. n4, 'st ';r,i,51 0io*

r-i .JiL3, ub: nu\u ,; (!I,J , q1rzJbi:-.i di ,SVl Ui:

. o.ti, r-i (Jfu , uln: "7*-r r;,r$;, *t "i),

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+ lU-t : : \ r T;dr i , h#

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*t o,b.fr, J*; ($LiE *;t&zl:.i',u.'i * i,# qr."tJl t L

,-; <nutll; t ..J-c,s... pLj) *$1i.3, ,*: oJ#n ;tui ou!f.i,

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t+..4 flJb .,,.Yl L+ o.J-;btfXJl, dl Ui .J.i 0. t U/i '!

Pl d

d,, gtS t, #; ..;ta Lj r.le.rll13 r 1)iJlp-e c r."rJlr qri !',Jr'U Lr, .-i,!l

' rriJl <;2t> +J!rt lt J+l .it<lt, .iJ'f t ,l^, pIJl .rl1'1 .u-r+l J.:',{ ' t-!l

CU JuJL i*jtiJlfyJl!9 rsjJlp ,11-4ip:tJl rl;1 ;.: lL.,)2i y'.r -t-Jl

, $J, d ttl trF 4t t i .JLiJl /r ixll i,'tu,i!r iJ.u oFi g:iJt t#

4i *t iu',/ *rr f! ,l'riJll U t U.4Ji #tr t -r ,=:

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.,ti Ub .g}*i Lre "itirr

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iJfjr Jt'jll ut ttil; e ,?l '),jl ,lLrS ,uf.iJl ,*6 r-' e* U, ,,*f tt

. l*')f ,f \rJ-i ri, Jult ; i1-i < t> . t*! | ./ i;ulj ri .. t*lt ;

. JL, rlJl 'tl g! ,r.(-1 ,,?,y *rGj Jt ill urit'i;t

d t!'; )lt)6 .J; *t r'v-)i-, 4s p-l pt u',!-'t, 4 il;: .\)12

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fl t:*!iU, ./ )lt,L{li .}*i 95 rJ..sW t tpt 7l *: u'926' rei

U,y *f.('f, O;uyU .iiilJ ts tt'i.lt ,is tlJ;lit'*::

- [s8t21- 59a11]-

iS-,-., o-&u! .l+J'ul alJi ,rK ,i :'rgt.u tJir ii L galtil uu tili

otr,ll v J-5* u -SL; Lti'-! ti rxJ I Ui ts1 'fub

c$'ttt ';sfut

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tr4li.-ylj ,.-iJ!L.UL ,Ql ut:tllil4Ul 't:t € 1!tt+-'J t:cU't

JlJFJL,tL,Jlj t!4t, {Ul *i1,fi u!.eu'Jl,.i*J'bJlJU U-r

t 'U .+* L:;.,QG r t: ' 3lJl ,i;L.:JlgurJl'iiJir'l '1;2i il'a

;/..., *#t;',, -3i7,]o' rlir-lr r''r, oofuu-, ol-#ordr" o[-t'rt

,y tJ*- i .ril-&r, nsJ!';',r1 *sbti;'r5 (tWD ogh"uu

L,j r4e.rJ i?t+ u J!;r-&6i rtS; u> 6t-ailllirLJ! 'l;ioir

. dt ljr 6t;i ,.9r.r" .31 ,gUr}t \v

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P,T rt^(t Irgs ,\1 P,T UU tUl :v Ti. ' iU [uju 'o P'T rl;1 trly

t27

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g:!l: ,\:)3i r.r,Jl ,11 1 fq)lo,d ;ti ,t;-';i .,;,)!eu, .t:

o9! ,y)l *d! .gr3 v :i ,tt v :i .v g.:j :i p:j gi ;t*- si ,-1 t;Stl

g:J l+!j iJU J:. g:!l g-$t ,sl;il4u3vlJ*, g-:!t-t ,,:lFi.t J-UlJl,

vb"A Vlltir; u. L., J.t-i tisl gtj t-L ,qr'11, i*,J!b L-Jl

L tl: i.Jl,r.jii)I-llli,, .r'lrJU gJl 5i t L ,rgrall ljt rgia U1i-G

g4l ;)-&;iol, s,l)l gti uS-; gdl :; ui2 11u,l.,a,t* U.t i' ;-rl-r

. rlr"ll ,,1e 6lra. ,s* .slt lrt'r3[3, i-;) L''?. 4 t-ll:4V

.ts ,AS f)KJl U, i+J &J,i''.i*Jl ,f ,jt) g,"i rJS dJ't g,c i'.zi

v bts # t t, ;.ti .e:ltr J-)tt Fgpu' Jrll ,F ii.J, Jrill

sini;r c/El ,!d .i+,6r {'ll J+ii !i+i; :ur-r ijtj o.2t-.a.i ti".i; oj,

I rjr .,il; gg:,j gt-!l oi iJ rjr r,, r'b Jfl J* f .e:ll,i}tt Je)l

;plf rir i/ sr-..r;;t5 3! ,qul-;JltJuJl.,,tlll $t,ilJ.ilitCrLr!|

Jrlt .;il z\)W ,el"z,,;.2 irsl- \L!,l*ri LJ o.rr Ll e!p305L ert-!t{

tit ;,i )Jr-,,l| J.rlt.1o., 'Ftu.Jr':t.gr-, rr,JlJ.rlt J4,ur dJ,.Lll

or.(1:--ri,/ UU t)rl I (i,.*r iA L+* i;lt U2j ,12j.*uJr.-*tl to

. dt lio s*' 1i..ioJ'b 6* g4l'CU ,OJ ql,'$rr.lt:tt

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P,T !t+Jl [;[oil 't . T iJs [!.J.e ,r T -- [r.r,Jl*rj,r

K .r : . ! l t rL-" i l : \v p,T.9! [ -e! : \1

CRITICAL EDITION

.rJ ots oial.;Jll dt Jl ,t ei J.U ,ol;f l r.'? ,;it an; oi ,;a

,r"l-,:Jlt.:.ri,b ;" ill e[tSt ,fuJl U 4 {t g.Vll V'n V4ty'

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i!art lr,1+ p -trsol;Jl-*p- * qlc,- U" 3! 'Jri; tlp

..dJf JriJlrt1 ,trLo',>;Sl ,y;l|l P ei,dJl UD ';-- *&JJtt

fr r;t...Jl.dJ .Ll:;.;,;- Ol;Jl:r.L- c;l;.t$s: n* ;ti 3r.21 13! dJil

- JL!' ,,1f f

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afp rUitt v -'p JF g,. .Ll:ill ,4Ji s, t {&i

pb, 6; J!\tv'a-L t:>*!6,J Jts-i'll ir+ .J. tl;., .1-,:-u

,.*,), ,q.t1etjr,{ t r L*LlU,uJta V,fi g,.iluJJ.*t,l:l.fllri+r

J** ).* Jt.rr"yt o. b& 1,l{t{i *,j ,OuJl t4j *./l ,i-L-lrJl;.t1.tll

bj: J&:,stJl v'+ dl,t-aJ, JrnLl!..4J J,oi ,oyri t*=i;lJJl

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u ol;Jl ,J i . ,,/ # ,$ "a-

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;t-J l3 t*t U1r2s31r[ir g. LEi & s'. t- ,y"t/ ,c* ,i-S "Si

,t .o2r t 6;;1 lF-, rr+ ',** 'aV

ei .-ri i51".- ,j! *l rj ,oUt(4Jl

4i(#Jl )bir At*J,t-r;r Lg; ;:&:b.r- i-a!V .l'a rt iZi isyt

h.r- f r r , ' - , : \ l P,Tt ! ; . r t .LLr" t :1 K -- IV. t : r rJr i t i r i : t

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dJi l +Ktllr I ,rr!t o;'r2;tt ldi<JtdJ-lc/ ,-Jl e i .1ot,

. 'Ul i r { : , - i r . Ul g U* i , i Sl , t . t - rgjJ l ,0l.i ' ;rl r..i qr:Jli:(lt v gj r+jfl t+j vr)l itfllrf .r[.U ;2$l g]l f.4 ,Pl LrrJl,i. Y! O,r* 1 dlJir ,i.a,iJlurU:;L r.rjJl,,:a jd $Sr.-Lt- .;:-i .fu;.e 1i;t, r c ot oi,* J,l.llr \,b)\ r t,r, .rJl irt4Jl sjrcU

;f.riltu,. g Jri ,i -;/:i sili;t, I -i.zi1slll,V *t _.riJtJti:lt.u-ii

,r5Sbt,r{i r./Ji -roU -

tt* JSS * Ulrp i! Ja,JlJr)L l;.! oul''>:.a Vr'r-;rzn"iri,)[i3 i-*+ JS .r*.4lgr,ii-)tiJ I nJs otai g,

.'rJatr'n;5,st a Ip.UL,s"l,nJlr'.+tJb. u,t-.iJL .,.rjJ, .1, orll :,

. r1 C-,r; bi,b' i;q Jl J-rJ ,.).le)l-r r.eirlr i-hlilr o"l,r,;Jl2 ,sala)l-.-ziJlJ,o.l4)lr

J! .4jitr , rrU)b u"b,:JU ,-b,il| ri q.Lls.ll ,,tr-l b i,iJlr._riJl r,r9 L... .:r*i .i5 ri :;X ityj ri ,inril ,i.:fl e:., bb ,1s.l51slri- *.

frr* li! t+ilt Jt,Q: Ugo, 'ois',-S ;1!,91.f .o";,4J tk s

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I'g>.; n gtl + ,v glt/g.-,.t tg)t ,v R r trL{ tr.,L-.r ,R r U*- Lt,..,r ,vP,T o"4 lu-nir:A BT'JI tUtl :v p,T ral; + t,,fii ,r p,T g.t-

Kp, TiLU iJrt tH J):t i ; i ,rr :r-p,T i lr t tH Jri: \o p,T I tr, , :r

CRITICAL EDITION

gt il o;-i it', tl ,).rt ,,l t-:j llf* O; d, .LV rl; u;>i4ryl I clJ

. ,*Vl: el;lreJt":16 itltr,itjJb

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'd:ir,riri l).1

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t.Ifri ftlU ,lf '- .lr.rJl)B $ qr:Jl*:"ii.itJtgt+Jl6 .l.2.tJl qp y.ill .|l

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lJr 1J" J *;;b ,1o;1.rl-. ,riL.at ,sj)tJl .*l| .9-)t e)t.!l,-*

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,*.t-e ,y $r\4i c! utt r.t vi, ,.r-LJ|t J!-t)t v v4,ab rj?t

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.kfu.rpL+ltJ,,"r.dJ;J! t 4t- \ t

+ [.,.[ ' o [r rp, T Jt+rll crjL. t.rh.!| 1.rl5 :C t r t,,L+t, ... ;bJl ,]l , t

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r crjl./l

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d ,eL, i;,t J\t.JJl t:L" Ji y.ytl,,-,&b..JJi! ,rlli; F Ui,

, t-:j.tilr'U,:-r .d c,ul./J t t d .l{3, U brl-i.y t{jrj U bu-bi

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lJ ir,t-i c* ]J & rr J[.:J y{, t{l'. r o'-!1.;eu,1u JSJ rrtill,'y'

,,..-iJ.riulrg.i .rS.- rit { tV i!..u tJ&,4Jj ;t-1rr'1:.'

iG irt- 1;,,,;'tl:&aL'lt..t P ,qJ-Jl +n, .r-,,-..J".IJl ,k-r ,i&vl

. 1-"tJ /-, q*Ut ,Ji u)t:,clJ3 gr $L:-i t Y.-,{

d ufllorir ,Jt4'!l cilvii*d i,t',Ut l'b t'qUt J+ U fs s,

AJ * ,p,,5 ta.a 6l2.lrtc.illr.rt+-!l J)eiirr- U, UiUt

Jrit,rioi .utJril ,41t;5Jl d ls' $ .r!j, LIL:.1tf il t'a-:.s 'q-tsi'lrl

... ,{rj .qltiJl.,

;tle ti ,.,rei2\e ari ai r,!rtit I Ji--f!l t+ or(1 s:Jl ' trni'rl

;tl.* :i ,1s1241 ,a- 2i ,oQ1 -*u ri ,oVt i*:i 't i i oU ,i ,tp"u

,.-J?t U33l yoS; gt J*u.siJl .Jt(lllorLa .r-i-i - rre2 oQl

J! +t*)t .*P t-{-l*i ,.r.,,lrr *t ta-aq gt5;! ' d- t.3- 'ule.[5f '+-o

. l, Alr .Lrb-l r try LiJJ r6rr irr:..U rf 11 i.,1flJJ e lr Ai lir.i ,Jl..Jl

,JJ5, .i*,rilJUl 3l.wii-,ri ,* ;t&-6i 0., -S;lt '{Al si tl4l

C,P,T ;siS-2 tn OF' tC,P,T ,,li,1 tH el'i.i :\\ c Cril.r [17t;f :\

T bl-*.t .,a>1 l;s\p1 ta- 5i :v o$3 7, 2i + [gt+l .lar.ei' \ T

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tJ,4i;ll3,.rl-rl rr* ji ,6;l2tr.j;41.,1t 't*t' ti ,t) t)pl-rl L)tj

... tlri u.lu.lt

V:: +,tlju ,C;.&JL L+Jl.t t{r.-.r bro1.u .r,; y't *rt"- J! ,-oU

J! -L

d *6 tb,.!+lr, i..j1 Lyr -:,e i-,*i 1;1 ,:;tS gt -

t.J'U - Pl u rr.fl.rJi s/ L r..-' * &it -Siti+:Jl*p Lprl.,rc;t5o! tajll,6t -":J*r-i ta-.+ € ;,';l:+)b

cr,1 , -ui Uul iJJt ,S V)e c;,Lt ;)b,Jll+:rll v'-.dw JtiJl

gb ,ijJtjJl i;Jlc,, i.-,9 ,.rJul i/'Jl ; Vtt-e gKolr ,iJul ip:Jl

. i+Ul i4l 0, i-t;.i't-l"11)l \)ld l+JLr .:;tt

iJt Jl i-.r . ui..a.;.e.p b Ut-rJl +J I gts, JoQ J3l I i1"-rl | u,'l*,'lLl1

t, !,hr,lf LrrAl 't"i!l d \i"b U, .;;ljr ir,-,;i 'tr,.Ul o-,t,ui.a,;j u1.!b

. irlrll;rL;q Q'*J" r/ \i"b,lOK \r

u;-rl,'ll,,j 6JlJ-r -o:3rJl,l

fgu i:3roJl .r.,;; r-.3Jl0l5Jl 1,,'U

Jl )u;.$! .dJir ... '-,-''.J-lt LHI +.5 r..rJl gtf .l! ,rJjfr ,'le- Vb5

su 1i tr;2l v ti C t)l;l v ,#-i .r,j siJl ,. sJl ulJi I U -Si

,i...,lgl-.rr+''yl .4b I ti$ll u+ v- .o, .l,;i ,L*)l gt si i,,:ootl

-;U +.ri.r,JJS '.trsli ,tls' + ir.Jg l'f Y! ,\r- g,,rrl"I d! klt tJ

CRITICAL EDITION

. Li i;rtqJl v.,/,4J1 L-l1'Yl d *-.lrgsl r--.),y"l.r't{ t'

gi i)rri ;!.e u..; Lr-,i g! , 4 cri: bi ;:l* cr. ,.'..f)l 36 i,l L'U

I .-lS ,i! ,L1b L,i UuJt i*,rYl .r.i 0/ aL" ,.d J!',/ v r.,l;:

,l f+, I r., |,l I c,. .;.; t5 Olr r,] | I Qjlei, Jr': t,*; g t,y Bb Jrf t ; g t

dJftJl -Ul

,fr.:.;6,i!-r rro.1r u,i'.a; t+ito,-r ,ilpl *l)l V i+b cjt5

eibJ I p U I v ciLS t b r;j ! t i-; Ldto-:' 4Jlj'l'.l l'nl,Jl ;tt'u'''l ;

... ldJi /'rU - r4ijl4 c4.4r tFIt r .<ElrJl r*Ul Ui.,.tl,.l>

stJlcr ,u; iJCJ!Jt- yeti {r. r ' : r . i ,Pl,r--{|36g!

gf rjf aU31 , Lr.r'i i,. iJU bi-.1 rt .i*,J'll &. q, !.$!l L'zai',2;A ,0.v1

r,lrJlCr, c.;t5 0!.r :ui..aje.ijb kil+r ,Jr':t*;gt ir. ijJLrj Jj!l d,' ..!t5

rl U I Cr. .L; 5 JL rd.a';1 6ilir gri t+;!,r, il$t -

U I cr. i-Jt:j si bJ I

r.,U I i,. ijJt:j erbr, I r., U I c,. eiLS ;rb :cJl;l I r,., H I c," :-:J tjj c^JLiJl

i'{Uf +Jl,J, i:JttJl ps ,g.tsp.,rr i:JUJlUrll cr'iJt:Jl C+.r - Ulil

. 4-tJr

-182a7 - 85a21-

...c"il,t :o T,,;tJl ti l$l:1 CragiJl tJ.'tlr:Jl :r i,JSe UlU t'd.;iz 'r

. T llrz,P rl; [.r,;:o P,T!t5 [c;t5 :r c -- t;ly'l

t47

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r48 CHAPTER 5

,r-iJ J,lJq q.:" Jlp'Yb .Julgrv ,r:.ci+Stl ,,/l u Jt ;-ti"fll

t,'jJbf l=JlJ ,JlrTli-,n t{i. J.iJq sJlJlpyb r1..lL. aK l3l ill ro.c

.Jtr7t' ,u-.friJ! irjr..;tl Jlr''f t d,, . t*!l c,, .413 rpi Ur,"^bilt J4Ll)

. ..!riJtr f;*3,!1t22s glS l't! jt?]U+Jb L'r:.Jg ,JttTtzgqtt

.4Jj5r .J,iJ! c,V *,iy'tt cl$ Ol*f l l!j) ,ltt ,+l ,116;r!! t+-.r

. LC 1.::1, OS". p til i-qJl . t-il51 , (gulr tt,;Jt ,jlUt.b?! J.Ff l

J 3l.f l,i! e*- rJlt,FJ urit 91&*i v ,rr:)l u* di t !i.rrlt *;lt,

d ,Ji *; ,-L.a ,;2'-l| Jt;: tJ.r;13 d lfri;l Vb ,ul,'l J,i- Oi ati

. i)r+-t 6ti,2i C,+,;i ,9i ;.,*iil,r ilra-.6l;i 3ia

ul ,J;l.r.r Q.urJl ut ;^,i.i..! it(, t JUI 'l.,|lst+5Jb

L,i, .n1t .-t * ti-,-l i J ri nlio-., Lt u'";-t;, Fl

. ,il ,+lt q r) .pt ti v ,,i Ulj ,.s.LJl k,isi ri; Jt Jt e+ll

fi lbt.ulji r+i t, ei t trr,*. til lj-, (ili:,l iJ. - c,-.r. .91i Jt'

. h d5. fr*lol otoi.J t{J Jt! Ji\n".,/l g JttTt;, -lt

e- L * v ortJt gjlt5 JlrJt iU- gt+Jt-ri v,ill st ;p*_ $:

L r, tl tH Jldl ir,)J- |c,T -- tJt ,!t 6 :T ia!12. p J,+JL tH JhjLL 3r

'i"& t.i"Lz ,r. c,T$l.ro* trltt.qrJ rP rg!,l52trg,tJl1 'v c,e,"f Jlt7l

l;,at' 7t ttt r1!.o'rf! :\ r T ,Jpt.i5,J .P ,iptt/J5-- ,C,-bg

il{- :\o P,T:Li+ll i . tirill ir...r :\f T r.;u [1.r-;.., :p :i.a7i,c,T

r JlrTti---JU ,:-,/lr/Jlr7 | itt . rc,T Jt-rjti-,r-lU u4t2 + fJlr;lt

CRITICAL EDITION

,y wiu.d) u! ,J!l; JursL.i lit qri Jl}l tti ,v 'Cil ul ';z;tlt

4J.i{.j.ai Ji.i Vt} t\,il;S "} vls 'uy"i,,41t'n'-L:1i2. ;t'lrr,!r; rir;t, cttij. t{J ojt.(Jl

Jrrr.;1cU!3 ,e!!$.i clJ; rpi t -r 't':''jIL;"..ti&lL i-iJt;tb JilJb

.,i erri cL r;i ,u:st e J* s tJu :'oJ,l ;J t l ' ̂ rrt.l u[SJ

h og,- $ LfiJi !i--lb4'tilL.j,'t*Jb Jrili.:JL 'u;-;' 5i P

,:r<r ai ,s-i $L..rlJlr L{-:- bSJ I ii 64r'c'l--i$lcr Lr-i

sjg U qJj ,cr.rlj U $.I;-r'-e t'fu gt @ 6l2i c',t$ U 6t<:'

O.i;t ,'ht,! ibi;,;,/J .'zt . ,$'-l itr;' 'JL .51t-:Jl u!'c i'etz2t 612l

. .dJj .r);

I t-!y': ojr d rl/'[ q'tJl2 .;i st2r->iai3lJ oF aitl'l:

,,itJl,/ t !,:elrr!t5.Pr*,j r'b rglrlLJt(.llt5'rrulJ'rt u -'l l

,f UbtJ++b /,Jtt,Jj,Jl d t-1, t t)12 j6 uJl € Ub rlrLlJ u

Uls tll:l; t !e rlU l-!, ,.irdr., l-1, J"ilt* ['! J4> :anlrr)iJls '{Al

. il,l, L! rilcU

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!P, T k:. !r,! :,C t-+i. i,r! f tH kj. i,rt'J I :Cl - l:lttf '; i 'v c'p' f

Lr.r f l €t t : r_J| lseJl f : \ r gr io iJSl t : r i isu : \ \ C'T,92i1,57i

gP,Tr.r t iJ lJ tn-; t f l6: \1 P,T )S t l , l 'C )1,, j

150 CHAPTER 5

J! t"!.JJ.it ,* / s, rJ&Jto, JrbJ! ,.,/t v ijvt:,;Jt+Jto. J"kJL. ulll Jq r ei ,hi u ub,-.J"iltr L4SJI

..,{lS r;i t : , rb-Jl.r ,-pl-*)lr ,}lr Jr-Jg i'rU., t-g.i ;,ii;Sll,

,.'!tJ.r.oJ i,S.l-e . g-y! ,.fuilr,j$l-r JsL.l6 tal obt . v1-alieU$lf.r

. .41\bCJ'JJ ).9rr*lJ ),, l fa,.i U l-r. 'J.bJiryJ YJ o

jl- ear oJ ,r t.b .dJ3r ..i.J la-i n.t"a i.U .ig o ,r '-.r I r-i 1tf lJ!

I li.rtts, ,,f.i u+t, ,JS J-,iit, ,;t ra J.r,lt .4,j Jt!. _.r)rif l v

u:. tlo"i l, .;ta.lt L Jtllt*,; ,..(Jt I :fitrJto)r,ilt u .r,iq ;=tr

. ,-iisJl ); t+! <.o.i Y1> 1

l$ tr rsq ,;ori lir ot, Jr+ $ dli ,,Jjtr.;lq JLI $.u La,ii-.i-Sr,

-/ 65J .rl.Ji JE{ t{Jf; ,*,! r ljr uL"el.ti tin ,r!U.i JLa, ,,.a*i \ \

,y -$i'i--, ,tJl.tt u -Ft;Jl.rr Jti ti :*tJ" d'"t-! $ d.U .LrJlfi

€ dS:, lr{J tJ -Si'*. h{J Jt4 ,! ,.,tJi Jq f e1 ;irr; e, t-;^- \r

.!U .r.t"r -"i il ot i,JSl ojr g.. oL1-ll trii .olBtjLr lljJL iJtrJl

*it ttt.ir Jr"i |if ,ij)tJt i,.. &i t.ir gi Je r- r.;! ,gr ;Jt, i)t.;lt \ o

. iL-)triJt&Jtl

u.F.:"lcf i,.U,gl ;:t;, ;:!lJlti W u n- y1*.1 u;,

0)+r t-:J1 .Ci,Jl * ,,/l 4 V u..-> g/l: CnlrrJl I u/t ig

u6; -Si et 11 ,dLi, 0" Lr!- -Si u.,-rJ.! ,!L.irJb;rUJl

CRITICAL EDITION

. .at Jb olr-r.rtt d)Su ,;ir' t6 c.Ldl tt:tr Jt4 crt:lttgl .cp,

L"r,roL ,oL.,JL.rl.,;-e.il| a!.t!o ,z',t' rS.CEll ttrlr J+ l--j Jtn-.,*iL

.r' dr .t4 rJ t, *Ui Y.e r.ril ctJi u'. t'i: Sii i.Ju.-tll rl,b .p

.dl qtr J+i LJ<j il-+tJ .qL.a,.rJ, L-r.r-i r- Jt!,,*.J ^i!j

r-1,

. Sta'LJl Y-e irLJlJ& ,J."U ,Jolz )e l-{+ J4 I u ti,g;1L;J!

,6t ,,r)llirLJle,t-.51 .J rtl it uilrllf ,i6 t-oi;frtr,JiitJt4 ub

. Ja,t J*l=1 rl12 gi.! rft €,-t'113Jl,ll: ti LgjJl,rzt:lS

Lir,i,(.2 )rlU,., { *t.=t L+iJAgiLr.r.; t.1J.i1r...+i-ilJL

1! d.!ll U+ L.J .'J dl U, J,fi I ^;i

Ul Jtu,.45 *.d lr{t q...i

.1,.-r ir' ltp .r.i,l c.ull I

uti $ t.i' i!.jUJl u1-S utt rtteiisJlJl fxJti r-oi u!&" ali

,1.i ,.tJ)l .jr,r.t +i o!Jri'; ul.i ,pJ'- ,*#loll, qpi r-,

-t

tt

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v',,*.1-rr ,.r,lr aK a! d! dJi JLI ,t"rJ J"i dp Jti,- o.,ot t+L-:;+

o:ti g+S lir g;-l gi fr,a-tli ,,nzJ ,z; Jti{ r r.*t lalj ,'# &i

gil c--Jj . *. * 3*;Jl Jt : o i,d-.Jl / djJ I qrltJl fl J.-*'-i,i .,!+

. 4ilr., ttq: * s4 it',i,,(2 Ai k dt,gUl'll o.;rL-t*l

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152 CHAPTER 5

./t+! qir r*.rLa.'llvt:fc,, et)t .*l

.fu s-'.,,- u+*,.Jr'Lr,4uJ L., Jt.ult .g)t e)t l,t,*,

-'biJl lir c,, i:JUJI: UIJL;itf Ut ot cUJ3 U1;ti 6V 0,,.,1.-+i

u!s, ,gl5r\l 6-,v .s-,i 1.1 ,gl5r'tl y3le ilyll rj, C ry gi U.ro, t;i"to

U, Jl ot, .Utr.ttiltlt{r/ t + rt ""'y Jr*t h"! Lt $ q/JtJr(,j,ltJj"$t l:tert r'. 0-r-,rrlr to-t ,i) U r-iiJ ,eai; l, +J d tt2Jl rj.*g . jl

U, eLf. dJ3 grsar,e. nijrJL J#;ll:i.rr{ clJj A:Jt- ,g.l.er<tt; pl a1,

. gull "-dJt c! iT j,g ,1rt3Jl t

e(..t1, i.y--ltt o)t + v I JUJ|lrj f t-.+yJ eiJU- gtulto! ,J-r;.:;

,.. - 1t-+! | ;;lts t+rui i,r<.- $ L+,ti ri t .o.+ gb.,lt l.u .dJ3 *: I .

,4.-+ CLrlf Ji i! .r{-Jl r/ 1t.+iK 6t rf t aF- rrr .dJi 6i1 t'' u+t

!)L- */ gttt\l ;z-+;p *ij .t+,L-r+ .9. r.j,-e ,p1..4!ldt r :lJul c;1 t y

pt-.+!trgtl!l.rJr t. : U! rgbll Jz-,..;-olo,,li_+':t,:-,, ,rL,.-ll

.jr5; ).r .fr) Cil c,- Y!oF ) ir'- ltJirl*; 6i ,; l:.- U te.,*i.ijr rr

. b,,i rr.y : el ,r"t4!l:jXJlo/)!

CRITICAL EDITION

/j7a1 ';sL>',r r.;t 1r.:e.r.i .;t-..n.1 it6-tt.b a? F 13! dlj llJFrl u'u

t .- ,J*i i.rt+ll d Jeu .k+i l. iL ljai , oul dJi$ . . . 6L-a ,-zri1

J- 4 & / "t..tlJj5

+ JrUl ;tSrt i t.i ..i.? ) br, q.,:, )\ I'

(u tbL.ai-rl-t fil .rLa.,- Li ..r.ct " at:i1ur -' Ll :rl+i

t 'U rrJKr. {:3|f- - q-i ta,i

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91 2ls # - q-t ,;llUUl lj'l r-;--r .r."+, Jt,lrtl t b ,c'l,j'rrUl

. f.+j ,. f, Ot5.f!: , j-p -* LJ: ,C:t-rLJlCr. JljJl t ij ..rlf -*

,'.:r,i.ru! Uti rir ... iJ,Jl,-/ l.{5it*Jl ,ri ,+t|--& t, C,r" Ui

... r;J'-c "FL

ijUl) ir, sJ.tfllrfl5, j

o!r* ,Xlr Uo ;j iJi ,i ta- 6rri t !:Jt' JJ iJl- cr rt-+'yt;;i; l-ij

L t*-.r ,1t-ty W JS .,i JtatJ i! ,uiri' I tU: *\4)S 3l ,2tb1

oltb -.,. r-16r)l(Jl lj,r

'sr,r. iJtiJl*$U €s ,lsb-blq lr: \4t cl9

6i f5F tpJ* -rt.iii:,-r.3 *$Lr ,1'.., u"llJ tja;, 91 ,ii- ualel

' srtr.t ;tbQl2 AlHlrL' '4Jitrrt+|,

"JFJI yV J*:,f t4Yl .iL ttlA:.rLJlll;,,r.rlJi

"rLc-r.gt+Jl obi gLLJI Uo frl* U* tJ ,.41,i,1 q U-p isl;,.: , t{lilr t{Lrjr

,-p AjUl ,it Fi C!! -r*lll?l5r; r,.rpr.llp iJ:.'ll t;'.US i; 0,,r

... .ttJiJ i!,C -- tft! ... .4Jj5 3l :\\ CiJl. tlt ,-- :o C -- [,.4-j ,e

.fL.e!t :\o Tr)S.JlU.bs,furfli lU{j.J.fur tf)l3lUr 'ser

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C, P, T ;9! t3rK,- ' r . C lU.")l tf t-")lJ ,1 c, T t*g

:\ l C,P,f Ar! tgr( ; :C QJp t t{ j tJ: \y CRT

: r r C, p, T tt."!l 6bl tpLalL gtrrlf ,rro L I I ,p

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154 CHAPTER '

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- [88a8 - 89a13] -

l*il frJ*, :-rr e/ ?!,;z|- t-, ,e,.,- l.'J'; oirr J-,n Lp irtatt v\ri f oi ua

o+. lJv,s .olAl ,t!'l' ,4Ji JS, -,-{i4 U: o*- U, ,|h. U, J,l U)

qr,t1 e J-tJlr i r-1"# l:oir.- .l .ri-e .Jr l.S V Vt f .ro, ,,f eblrU

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- [91b - 95a]-

CHAPTER 6

TRANSLATION, COMMENTARY

AND TEXTUAL NOTES

TRANSLATIO N

The First Part of the Book of StonesAccording to the Opinion of Balinis

t l l

In the name of God, the Cornpassionate, the Mercifal-Praise be to God for perpetudly bestowing upon us His gifts andfrvors, and for His benevolence. After this follow our prayers forour lord M'rhammad and his family. Peace be upon them!

In several books belonging to rhe Boohs of Bakortt, we hadpromised you an account of the views of Balinis, panicularly withregard to the Science of Bdance. Accordingly, we now proceed atonce with an exposition of those asp€cts of his doctrine which arcin agreement [with our views] and those which are not.

12)

Balinis sdid: "To expound the wisdom which was dispensed tome after my enit from the cave and taking hold of the Book anddre Thblet,l I declare:2 That which belongs in common to allthings is the natures. These natures are simple not comPound. Andif something is common to all things, it would be absurd tosuppose that it does not possess quantigi'-we have already eluci-dated [all] this in a number of books on this fut.3

He went on to say: "The weights which are common to dlanimals, plants, and stones conform to the proportion of 17. And

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CHAPTER 6

as for the elixirs, they are not like this"-4 egain, this is somethingwhich we have dready orplained in several books of ours

Then Balinis derermined the quantities of these weights; [thesequantities are] in accordance with what we have dready set forrhin the Book of Morphohgt namely: 1 in the First [Degree ofintensiry], 3 in the Second, 5 in the Third, and 8 in the Founh.

131

Bdinis said: "As for rhe effective weighr [of the nailres],I Ibelieve that its lower limit is the ,ashtr, that is, t/q habba." Bv thishe means that the fifth [in the First Degree of iniensity] has thevdue of | 'ashir. Then he arrived ar t-he necessary conclusion tharthe fourth is 1 dirham [dir.], the third 60 dir., and the second3,600 [= 602) din; the minute is the product of 3,600 and 60, sothat it becomes 216,000 1= $Qtl dir.

The grade is the product of 216,000 and 60, thus it is12,960,000 [= 604] dir.; and, [findly], the degree is the product of12,960,000 and 60, so rhat the degree in the First Degred [ofintensiryl of arry narure is777,600,000 [= 605] dir.

Likewise, [the degree in] the Second Degree [of intensiry] is2,332,800,000 [= 3 ,505] dir., rhe grade in the Second Degiee is38,880,000 [= 3 "

604] dir., the minure in rhe Second Degree is648,000 f= 3 , 6011 dir., the second in the Second Degree is10,800 [= 3 , 602] dir., r]re rhird in rhe Second Degree is 180I= 350) dir., the founh in the Second Degree is 5 din, and[finally], the fifth in the Second Degree is2'tz habbas, that is,3f= 3/s x 3l 'ashirs .

To continue: the fifth in the Third Degree is, according to thedocuine of Balinas, EA [= 5 x /e) habbat o, 5 ,athin; the fdurth inthis Degree is 5 [= 5 x l] dir., tlte third 300 f= 5 , 60) dir.,the second 18,000 [= 5 * 602) dir., and the minute 1,080,000[= 5 ." 6gt] dir. The grade in this [Degree] is 64,800,000[= 5 t 604f , and, follorving this pattern . . .-, rhe degree in thirdDegree is 3,888,000,000 [= t "

6gs] dir.Similarly, the fifth in the Fourth Degree is 8 ,ashlrs or 6

[= 8 r %) Sabbas, the fourth 8 [= 8 ,11 d;r., the third 4g0[= 8 x 60] dir., and the second 28,800 [= 8 t 602] dir.The minute

3:10

TRANSLATION 165

in tlre Founh Degree ls 1,728,000 [= 8.x 603] dir.; the grade inthis Degree is 103,680,000 [= 6 x 604] din, and [finally], thedegree in the Fourth Degree is 6,220,800,000 [= t t 6gsl dir.

So, God protect you, certain ideas of Balinis have been suffi-ciendy elucidated. Iet us now work out horil, according to hisviews, these weights are applied to all things.

14)

Balinns claimed that animds, plants and stones each possess acharacteristic Bdance which was created in the Fint Generadon byGod, may He be glorified and exdted. Further, he said that ani-mals have a Balance besides the First, and likewise [plants] andsrones; and that the generation ofthis Second Balance depends onus. So know that!

He also claimed that the Supreme Elixir in particular has aBalance of iu own. . . . And as for theurgicd worls, he believedthat they possess different Balances according to their characteris-tic diversity. Then, in broad oudine, Bdinis specified each of theseBalances which we shdl thoroughly erplicate in the course of thesefour books as we have repeatedly promised elsewhere. Also, weshall establish our objectives concerning those Balances which wehave ourselves discovered.

You ought to know that anyone who has not read our priorwritings on the subject of Bdances will derive from the presentfour books no benefit at all, for all these are intimately interdepen-dent. However, we now proceed with our ocplication as we h"t'epromised you, God the Most High willing!

6l

Know, may God protect you, that after atuibuting a Balance toall things we have enumerated, and after having spoken of thequandtative values which we have mentioned, Balinas also made apronouc€ment on the letters which is in conformity with what wehave [ourselves] taught you in rhe Book ofthe Resub.

Next, he said: ''S7hen two lemers of identical appearance follow

3: l 4tl

5:6

5: l I

5:18

6:2

i l. "1. ' l. i l

, lr l.,J, ,1'4.1

: i/{i.f3it;ln,,,13

:,:J,:ii,1r{iij

:liifjsi$tr{iii:j:!l

rdi

trii

e,,;j!,ti

- f l

,14

"rt;rlJ

, ; l

_t:i

,.:nt,,:"{, t'"{'' rli

;;ijr.

,',{'.i{,;iil

: r*....{i,iS-,6',Y.rqi'm

-sr.irl

::{,;{nffi

,,ffiiw{s

r66

427

4: l l

4:13

4:16

4tl8

CHAPTER 6

each other in one word, only the first is taken into account consid-ering its type and the value characteristic of its Degree. To thesecond is ascribed a minimal value which does not enter into thecomputation made with the letters of the alphabet. An €xamPle is

" ' o or " b b ". By God the Great, this I have alrady taught you

in the Booh oftheArena of the Innlha.After that, he said: "lrt us consider the Arabic language in

particular. For it is obvious that the practitioner of Bdance needuke into account no other language." Then Balinis said, 'as forthe First Balance of animds [etc., etc.]"-here I need not rePeat

[his words], for what he said is in accordance \^rith, and nodringother than, what I have myselfset forth inthe Booh ofMorphohgltrThe same applies to [his asseftions concerning the First Balanceofl plants and stones. So we are done with it, and there is noobscurity nor doubt in it, nor do we present to you e confusedaccount. And [yed, as always, we deliberately abrogate in one boolcwhat we say in another. The purpose is to baffle and lead into erroreveryone o(cept those whom God loves and provides for!

\7ith regard to [the weigha govemed by] the Second Balance ofanimals, plants and stones, they range-as we have said in thebeginning of this book-from [the maximum to the minimum,that is from] 1'ashirin the fifth [in the First Degree], and this isthe minimum vdue, to the [degree in the] Founh Degree which isof the value 6,220,800,000 dir., [this being the maximum]. . . .2

t6l

The reason why we are furnishing an account of stones in these

[four] boola, sctting these bools apart from all other writings, isthat Balinis said, and it is the truth, that among the letters whichoccur in drugs and in other things belonging to the three kingdomsof nature, there are those which signifr the internal [natures], butnot the ones which are external; those which do the opposite, inthat they signify the orternal [natures], but not the internd; thosein which dl of them [sc. internal as well as enternal] are found;and those which signify [not only] all that is in the tling, [butalso] the €t(cesses which need to be discarded and thrown

^wey-just as one needs to augment and complete what is deficient. . . .l

TRANSLATION 167

Further, Balinis believed that the name of gold truly conforms

to the Balance, for it signifies two natures. Nay, the correct judg-

ment in this case is th-at the name of the gold is that which is

necessitated by all [four ofl its naturet. : . .'Balinas continu;d: "I only say that all things ought to be named

according to the realiry of iheir Balance, Yd " view to Practical

applicati6ns, not verbal usage. And, may God P.ro.Tct you, it be-

htt r.r you to know that niho*.t in this world discovers a new

l"ne.r"sl, he is a great man!"-what Balinas is here referring to is

thiriiging fon( of another language of which mankind in gen-

eral does noi know, for precise application of names is not a matter

of common knowlege. Such knowledge is found but only in ex-

ceedingly rare cases.In JJ.r to discover the natures by means of leners, you ought

to follow what we taught you in the Book of the Elitc, so that we

lead you at the initid Jt"g.r rot into the p_recise determination of

things, but into their natirre. And this is also what we taught you

in tie Book of the Result, a(cePt that, for tle purposes "!l:Tilg'

the Resultisbetter than rhe Elite. This is so because the Eliteislike

the aroma which emanates from things, whereas the Rcsuh is like

their essence: the absence ofthe latter is the absence ofthe source.3

Thus, these accounts make it known that the extraction of the

mere e:fternal nature of an object is of no use-if we do this, we

have practically let the thing slip away from our hands' Rather, you

*.rr,, -"y

God protect you, weigh everything,*i"lt weighl fou-desire ani attain it, away from everphing else,4 in the interior of

the thing, and in its exterior.As foi the different ways of the removd of excesses, you need at

this point what is set foi*r in the Booh of Morpholog and else-

*h.r. in these [four] books, namely that you must necessarily

remove from all things whose weight you desire what is added to

their primitive srructure, and what has entered into this structure

d,re to reasons other than additions.5 It is knorn that the [wordwhich denotes the] name ofgold; (al-) D|"WB, exists in its primi-

tive form, since ir is free frJm additions; and the spelling of the

[word which names] silver, fdda, becomes FD, since the ha'enters

in it for the sake of feminine designation, and it does not admit of

masculine gender. Thus, after rJmoving the additions from the

name of silier, you ought to augment it according to the need'

5: l

6:3

168 CHAPTER 6

s:5 So know, O brother, thar when you obtain only one lemer, Iike* , o o, " b " or whatever else you o-btain, yoa, -t'rr,

make the totalconform rc 17 .. .., .but with-one proviso: you ought ro sepatarethe result obtained through the andysis of r..r.rr"from thit ob-

i:7 tained by means of inruition. you uy ro work our the laner inrelation to the form,6 so that the r*o fis"; at-

"". ""iq*figure. Br *y Masrer! I have already explaTned to you that whichyou need nor aug.ment, in it there ii

" third thing_but I am not

happl with it unless you make in one day orre rh"ousand animals,:10 one th_ousandplana, and one thousand srones.T God is our Guide,

may His blessings be upon you. Indeed, He is Generous and Kind.

17l

tAl

My brother!yol oyghl to-know that additions to the primitiveroot ofa word m-ay be in the form ofprefixes, suffixes or inixes. yougugJrlto know, further, that some of-these additions are represenredby inflexions, and should therefore be discarded and disreearded:for example, ZyU", ZyU" and ZyD", [which are rh; in:ne;;fcirms of the prirpitive noun zyDl in the'nominative, accusativeand-genedve cases [respectively]1; and. ZyU" arrd, ZoiD,t"in thedual and the plural Qrms. So, my brorher, pay no artention to rhis,and restore rhe word ro its singular primirive core, such as ZoyDfrom zyDq", and ruMoRfroi ,L/i[oW",and so on.

tBl

It behooves you to know that some letters are such that if thevappear at thc.beginning of word, tley are additions to the pri*i'-tive root, while these same letters function as radicals *h.i rh*occur in the middle of the word or at irs end. on ,h. .orr.r"ry,Jlfinal lemer of a word may be an addition ro ttre roor, *rt.t*1',rri,same lener, when it is medial or initial in a word, may be;;dt*I"

I ** an essential.part of the primitive core. SimilLly,

";;Jiailemer may be a radical, while as an initiar or final letrer it mayeither be an adjunct or a radical.

.;l,.,|r . lf l, l.''''rrL. : I

r t ,

llf,:tl: . Ir lI,.+l

t , lJI.id

ril

$till' lr.i',;l,j;:i

, I,r.J

1..,d.r l

,,,x1'iU.::;i',t,t.tlri.:li{

.i,l,,i.il: rq*.i

,,.r,!T: ! |,4l

:iI

-ri

il

'?1

,..f,:i

aaa*

' l f,i'jr',;;-r{

':,:,li

3#1U;'ltt,s,;iiaa

,,11i,1,!

i.tk*.tl&

7:3

TRANSLATION 169

You ought to know that there are ten letters which function asadjuncts and these arez hamza, hm, yd', utiiu, mim, td), niln, sin,alif, end ha'. But, then, these lemers keep changing their places ofoccurence and their positions in words, whence we need to estab-lish morphological paradigms which govern these changes.

tcl

So, seeking assistance from God, may He be exalted and glori-fied, we proceed: The basic units of speech consist in three struc-tures, namely: uilirerai, quadriliteral, and quinqueliteral. As for theuiliteral, they are divided into twelve paradigms. Out of these, tenare in use; while one is the basis only for one word; and one o<istsonly in theory nothing is ever built on it, and it is practically non-enistent.

Concerning these paradigms, one of them is FA'L, exemplifiedin fahd, and [nine others are these]: FI'L, such as ltinh FUUL,such as dubur; FU'L, such as 'unq; FA'AL, such as rann; FI'IL,such as ibil; FU'AI, such as surad; FI'AL, such as qima'; FA,IL,such as habid; and FA'UL, such as sabu'. So these are ten para-digms into which dre uiliterd suucture multiplies. As for theparadigm which generates only a unique example, it is FU'IL: rheinsea duuaybba is called "du'il.' Finally, the structure on whichnothing could possibly be based is FI'UL.

As for the quadriliteral suucture, it has five morpological para-digms, namely: H'IAL, such as 'aqrab; FU'LUL, such as burqar;

such as zibij; FI'IAL, such as hijra,; and. FI,ALL, such asqtman

The quinqelireral is divided into four paradigms, t}rey exist inaccordance with: FA,ALIAL, such as safarjal; FA,IALIL, such asjaltmaish; FIJ'ALL.IIL, [such as . . . ] and FI,ItlLLl, such asjirdahl.

tDl

AII else is nothing but adjuncts to the primary core. As for therecognidon of these additions so that everphing is restored ro itstrue structur€, there are, as we have rnentioned above, ten fietterswhich function as] adjunca. Among these, mim and, hm are

l l

7:10

7:14

7:16

t5

8: l

17r

o.7

9:10

9:16

l0: l

] : I

.rr i

l1 i;

.,,:Fs.,i*i

.JlSl

lili."r1 1lirtriLi

, i']l.,',ii, .x;!tf

ffn&.

,.$l,')'1

ffi,ifii

.,rs't[t'l{*,:&;s

+i:ir$t,tttffr i#

'l'xsli,,,rt1.

,l!r$

,,iff

:f4

-:b!. .. .ri}

"].,*'r1i6,,1.i{

-.4'*8, -^-

"'si. r.i.i

t70

8: l I

8: l3

8: l4

8: l6

8:17

CHAPTER 6

specific to nouns: hm is accompanied by o16 and [the additionofl these two are meant for definition, as in Al-'abd, Al-ghahm,AL-dawd', and the like. And all nouns admit of a gender. Theletter lam is added also bemreen alifand kafin order to specify thegrammaticel third person alluded to,l although it is more appro-priate with the hamu.2 Similarly, [a third] km is added benveenthe second lam and dhal in alhdhi.3 This is done in order that it[sc. the third lnm] c n carry the a-vowel, and that a distance isintroduced benveen the vowelessness of the [second] hm and. iltei-vowel of the dhaL As for mim, it is added in [such nouns as]nahrum and rnrctadrab, and in others like these. This letter is notendowed to verbs except very finely, such as [its occurence in] theverb makhraqa.

'!7ith regard to hamza, wdw, yd>, ti), ntZn, sin, alif, end hd>,hamza is added in Ahmad, and in Afdal, [these rwo] being nouns;and in altsana, and in akrama, and these two are verbs. To be sure,our purpose is not to teach you grammar. In fact, we are showingyou dl this only because in [the appellations applied to] stones,plants and animals, [some have the form of a primitive noun],others have the form of a verbal noun. Thus, we show you thoseleners which occur [a] as additions to [the primitive root] of verbs,as well as to [the primitive core] of nouns; or [b] as additions tonouns, but as radicds of verbs; or [c] as primary elements ofnouns, but as additions to verbs. \7e do so in order that you applyfiese rules to all things in general, God willing!

The letter yd' is added in the word 7a'malu, and this is a noun;and in ydiba, and this is a verb. V'dtuis.added in jawhaf', andthis is a noun; and in hawgah, and this is a verb. The lener d'isadded in the word unduba, this being a noun, and in tadibuwhich is a verb. [Similarly], niln is added in narjis"', and this is anoun; and in nadibuwhich is a verb.

The letter sin is added in rnuudrab"" which is a noun; and inisud.mba, and this is a verb. The letter alifis added in mudiib""which is a noun; and in t{re word darabawhich is a verb. [Finally],ha'is edded in gPimatu", and this is for feminine designation-thus, [in the apocopate form], the word is [pronounced] qd'ima.Hd'is added also in irtnih, and. this is for [phonetic] pause. Soknow [these rules], and apply them in deding rvith all such Para-digms you come across. . . .

TRANSLATI ON

t8l

tffhen we say that rhythm is defined as a numericd composi-

tion, then [we explain itiy saying thad this compo-sition o<ists.by

vinue of [s.querr.., of] motion "ttd

tett' And as for the moving

arrd q,li.r..rri [leners] when they are composed in speech or in

,hyrh-, the maximum number of moving leners that can cluster

in'a row is four-metricians exemplifr it by the paradigm'

FA,AL4TIIN; and the maximum number of quiscent letters that

can cluster in a row is [rwo], represented by their paradigm

FATIIAN-here the le*er alif and the letter niln ere quiescent.

This laner] would have beerimpossible were it not for the soft-

l.r.r, *hi.h L itt ,/r/S,r.h clustering of quiescent letters is inadmis-

sible er<ctpt in the-case of soft letters, and these are three: w6w' 1td)'and alif So know thatll

Sinie, in speech and hearing, numerical composition

t= *nt -]

is based solely on motion and rest, the total number of

-.,ri."I feet is eighc two of them are qui!Y:-*t :tf:ilg-:.7

septenary. As for ire quinary, they are FI'OLUN 2l ry'gy-y:a"a

"r'for the six

-septenary ones, they are MAFA'ILUN'

FA,ILATUN, MUJ;TAF,ILT]N, MUTAFA,ILUN,

MUFA,ALAT(TN, and MAF,OLATUN. ThCN, fTOM thCSC,

pr"..i."lly unlimited number of feet are generated through addi-

iion, -i

subtractions. So it is their docrine concerning- the

J.n"irion of rhythm, namely that it is governed by numbers'

which has yielded all these elaborations'

tel

Here we need something else, for rhythm, when viewed in

terms of numbers, may eithe"r be odd or even' Now' even and odd

,rt.r-b.r, "re

of different tyPes: even-even' even-odd' odd-odd' or

oJd-*.n. Odd number, "ti

I and its sisters;l even numbers are 2

*d i$ sisters.2 The even-even number is like 8: it arises out of the

odri"* "f

A, of 4, and of 2.3 Asfor the even-odd numbers' frqf *:

ffi;J.;;mbersl like 6 which is contained in [an odd t"-9:t];;;l th.,irt.r, oi6, liL. [the even number] 4 contained in [the

"iJ""-Uot 5, and so on.4As for the odd-odd, it is the number I

9;12

9:14

o.t

9:3

l0:5

172 CHAPTER 6

contained in 3, 5,7, 9, and in nurnbers like these.jThe odd_evennumbers are the opposite of dre even.odd: they are [the odd num-bers contained in evln numbers], such as th. rnmb.t, 7, 5,3, andI which are contained in the even number g.6

TRANSLATION 173

ll:l practitioner of Balance. [You will find thad this expert has thecapabiliry of deteimiming for you precisely how much of glass rhemixture contains, and how much of mercury. The same is true ofmixtures of silver and goid, or of copper and silver, or mixrures ofthree, four, ten, or even a thousand bodies if such a thing is inpractice possible.

tr:4 - So we say: The deterrnination of the quantiative composirion

of mixed bodies is [carried out by means ofl a technique whichclosely_approxirnates the Balance, and it is a splendid technique!Nay, if you were to say that it serves as a demonstration of thefauldessness of this Science, I mean the Science of Bdances, you

ll:6 would be speaking the uuth, for indeed such is ttre case. Now, ifyou wish to know this technique and become an experr of Balanceyourself so thar when you are given a mixture of bodies and other[solid] substances, you are able to say what substances in whatquantities rhis mixture conrains, then in the name of God-

tBl

ll:8 Make use of a balance consrructed in the manner of the dia-grams..This balance- is set up by rneans of three suings goingupwards [to the steel beam]: anach two scales ro these ,ui"g, i"the usud manner of balance consfiuction, I rnean by ryinf the

l l:10 strings and doing whatever else is needed. Ensure that thi -]ddl.steel carriage which contains the tonguel is located with urmosr

precision at the cenrre of rhe beam, so thar prior to the tvine of ther."irgr the tongge lowers-in neither direction .u.r, by a"single

u:ll labba. similarly, ensure that the weighm of the two scales areequal, that rhey have equd capaciry, and that the quantities of theIiquids they hold are likewise equal.

ll:r3 Qnce you have accomplished all this according ro the specifiedconditions, not much remains to be done. susp-end this'balancelike ordinary bdances. Next, uke rwo vessels witl a sman depth ofthe order of a single hand-measure, or less, or more, or hoiever

I l: 15 Such .yo11 -wish. Now fill these vessels with water which has arready

been distilled for several days so that all its impurities and din havebeen removed, the [container] in which tJris water is kept shourdhave been washed as thoroughly as one washes drinking cups.2

lt:16 Having done this, get hold of an ingot of pure, clean, fi-ne gold

0: l I

0:13

l l0 l

From all this arise the four musical modes,l being the finalresulr of dl the above numericd considerations, nimely: rh.[rhphmic] modes called the "first heavy,',2 the .secona nJ"*:lthe ramal,4 and the hazaj.s Then, from'each of ,lr.r., fou, ti'"lr,modes. are generared,

-giving altogether eight [rhphmic] mod?.These latrer are: the "fiist light h.i"y,"e_thJ "r.iorrd righi beevy:tthe .rapid 1amal,8 and the Apid, bizzi2 Finally,

" ,.fi,ior,rhii'i,

established ben,'reen each orii of these and [Jre melodic -r'd;cdled] rhe asdbi,.ro The variations in these [melodic] ,""d.;,

which are produced by fingers, bear a parallel in the variationsproduced. {in speech] by thi throar, .orrgu., and lips: for jusr asthese asabirgsve rise to motion and rest, wl obtain *irio"

"iJr.r,in leners too.ll so they call [rhese combined modes]r ,r,.;nrrihe,ay1 !99d,"12 the "first heavy tightened,',13 th. "firri il;middle,"l4 and the "first heavy ."rri".d"t: (while this ;."rri.J;'i,also called "resfficred," perhaps the naio [are not quite the samebud separated by a shorpercussion). In rhis *"x .".h of rhe eieht[rhythmic modes] is combined with each of the four [meroZicmodes], and this makes a total of 32 modes.

Al.l rhis is yielded by their doctrine-that [music is] governed bynumbers, that is, it is a composition of numl.rr. . . .

I IU

Concerning the Bahnces ofthose bodies which are mixed togaher:

tAl

for.example, glassl mixed with mercury in some propor-uon ot weight known to nobody except yo.r, *d you give ii to tt.

, t i r

..:i;:

titi

if;;

.:;:

',,

.,. .6t$r':j':'il

.,:1,

'_:e

, i.ilia

t,: lri

rri:i

,ltu-

iii.,1

,:.jf,'.x,.tS.. ;{s

.....iiii

,;'i9

,l:.w

.'l'*di

1r.#.rffi,i{b

.{fr{t

): l6

l :17

t74

l2zl

CHAPTER 6

weighing' I dirham, and an ingot of whire, unadulterated, puresilver weighing also I dirham so that both ingots are equd inweight. Place the gold in one of the scales of the balance, and thesilver in the other. Nort, immerse the scales in the above-men-tioned water until t{rey are totally dipped and submerged.

r2:3 Now, note the balance you will find that the scale carrying thegold has lowered as compared to the one carrying the silver, andthis is due to the smdlness of the volume of gold and the largenessof that of silver. This [relative heaviness of gold] results fromnothing but the nanrre dry which it contains. Findly, using coun-terpoise find out the difference ofweight berween them, and work

r2:5 out that itis lr/z dinaqs. Note that when 1ou mix to this weight ofpure gold roughly I qirdtor I dnnaq of silver the former will dropin weight in the ratio of habbas to qiritt, since there are 12 ltabbasto each qirAt.3

r2:7 So know this, for it is, by my Master, a fountainhead of theknowledge of philosophers! It is in this manner that you determineeach one of any two mixed substances, or of any three, four, orfive, or howevei manyyou will.

12:10 For instance, pu familiarize yourself with the ratio that exitsbetween gold and copper, silver and copper, gold and lead, silverand lead, and copper, silver, gold and lead. Likewise, you find outthe ratio which enists between gold, silver and copper when theyare mixed together or benveen silver, copper and lead. But you cando this by taking one body at a time, or rwo bodies at a dme, or*rree, or however many you will. . . .

lr2l

t2:t4 'We have pointed out to you in several books, if you have readthem at all, *rat if a letter is duplicated in a word, one of t-hem is tobe dropped. [Thus], if in some drug a degree of one of the naturesis found-be this degree in the First [Degree of intensity], in theSecond, in the Third, or in the Founh-there are in this drug nodegrees other than this. And if this degree is in the First [Degree of

12:17 intensityl, then it is the First; if it is in thc Second, then it is theSecond; if it is in the Third, then it is the Third; if it is in the

r3:r Founh, then it is the Founh. In orider that you learn all this, I shall

TRANSLATION I75

give you several examples of drugs so that you see it for yourself,But such a thing is not admissible in the case of unirs lower thanthe degree, I mean grades, minures, seconds, thirds, fourths andfifths. .. .

t l3l

The form in everything is [the number] 17.Ifyou find in any animal, plant or stone only 5 [p"nr], you are leftwith 12. Now, in the [deficiend drug there will always be only onenature, two natures, or three, or [all] four. There is no other[possible outcome of the analysis of leners]. Now, if the drug hasonly one nature, you disuibute the 12 [p"ttr] among the remain-ing duee; and if it [is one of drose drugs whichJ possess rwonatures, distribute the 12 [p"rtr] among the other nvo. But if hasthree natures, comp€nsate for the 12 [missing parts] by means ofthe one remaining nature, after having deduced that it seryes tosupply the defecienry of dre other natures of the drug.

So know that! . . .

,::

-"^ lL

' .1:i l

. :.i,tl

. l i:::lriil

''.,,*

, ..:1i

, nr;i

l3:3

13:5

177t76

l4: l

CHAPTER 6

The Second Pat ofthe Book ofStonesAccording to the Opinion of Balinis

Ir4)

In the name of God, the Compassionate, the MercifulPraise be ro God tUTho chose Jyf"trammad as Prophet and selectedL{li as his Trustee. God's blessings be upon those whom he haschosen, and upon their families. May God grant them salvation!

t l5l

Nowwe turn to our main point.Prior to this book of ours we have written numerous others on thesubject ofthe Science ofBalance, and in each one ofthese bookswe have provided a lucid and rigorous explication of the variousaspects of this Science. Now, since Bdinas disagreed with us insome fundamental principles as well as in some man€rs opd6teil, itwould be wrong not to speci$ these disagreements.

[Among] the maner[s] in which he disagreed witlr us is thequestion of the effective weights [of the natures]. \?'e mentionedthese weights in the first part of this book. Ve also promised inseveral books that we shall presenr an accounr of stones, and of *reforms which the narures take in the Balance, so rhat nothingconcerning these matters remains hidden from the earnestseeker. . . .

'We have r:horoughly explicated ro you those lerters on which

blg""g: entirely depends, specifying instances, from degrees rofifths, when these letters are excessivi or deficient.I Likeiise, wehave given you an accounr of the [effective] weights of all lemersas we have them and as Balinis has them. In addition, we havementioned to you that in the exact sciences, and in dealing withsubtle natural processes, we stand in grave need of [a knowledgeo{J effective Balances as ir is orpoundEd by Balinds, and thar oirneed for this lcind of knowledge is not so great when we deal withIocomodon of bodies and their decomposiiions.2

TRANSLATION

tlsl

As for us, we say: Animals have a Balance to which we assign aweight of l0 dirharns in the First Degree [of intensiryJ. For thehigher Degrees we increase this vdue, just as for the subdivisionsof a Degree we decrease it. Next, we assign to plants a weighr of 7dirhams [in the corresponding Degree], and, again, increase it forthe higher Degrees and give smaller vdues to dre subdivisions.

" [Findly], to stones we assign a [corresponding] weight of 5dirhams, increasing it for the higher Degrees and decreasing it forthe subdivisions according to the need. This is our view and beliefconcerning rhe manifest aspects of the Art. It does not violate theprinciples of true judgment, like the work of Balinis.

As for Bdinis, he made the governing rules identicd for allthree kingdoms of nature and invoked the authority of Socrates insupporr, saying, "if all three kingdoms of nature arise out of thenarures, then it is clear that, consequendy, rhere is no differenceberwen them with respect to Balance-these are the words ofSocrates." So Balinis assigned a weight of 777,600,000 dirharn]to [the degree in] the First Degree [of intensiry]. And since thisman, I mean Balinis, needed the fifth as the [smallest] subdivision

[of a Degree], he assigned to it a weight of | 'ashlr.2 He thenincreased this weight lfor the] higher [subdivisions] dll it reachedwhere it reached. These quantities have been specified in ouraccounr of Balinas in the first part of this book. . . .

IrTl

Now listen to what Socrates had to sal . . .He said: ''We make [the degree in] the First Degree [of intensity]I dirham and I dinaq, [in] the Second Degree 3t/z dirhams, [in)the Third 5 dirhams arrd 5 &naqs,r and [in] the Founh 9 dirharnsand2 di.naqs.'We make the grade in the First Degree [ofintensity]t/z dirham, in the Second Degree lth dirhams, in the Third215 dirhams, and in the Fourth 4 dirhams.

*We make the minute in the First Degree [of intensiry]2li dinagl in the Second Degree lVr dirhams, in the Third

. ' :

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l4:13

179778 CHAPTER 6

2 d.irhams and, 7 qirdt, and in the Founh 3% dirham"lre malce

the second in theiirst Degree 2 ddnaqs, in the Second'l dirham'

in the Third I dirham"od4 dZnoqt, and in the Fourth 2 dirhams

and4 dnna4s."'W'e mJke the third in the First Degree lYz dinaqs, in th5

Second 4h danaqs, in the Thitd lVt dirharns, and in the Founh

2 dirhams. \7e make the fourth in the First Degree I ddnaq'in rhe

Second Vz dirham, in the Third 5 danaqs, and in the Founh

I dirham and 2 dinaqs. Finally, we make the fifth in the First

b.*r.. I qlrdt, in the Secon d 1i/, dinaqs, in the Third 215 dinaqs'

"rriin the'Founh 4 danaqs."

TRANS LATI ON

t lel

IIIrd IVth HotD"g. D.g.

J:8

dan. ddn.

35 56r5 24lzVz 20l0 167Y2 12582Y2 4

Cold Dry MoistIst

Deg'

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DegreeGradeMinuteSecondThirdFounhFifth

04'

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May God Prorcct you, just look at the erudition of this man' his

,o,,rr. in science, and tlrequdiry of his judgments! Note, likewise'

that he discarded the soragesimi tp..* [adopted by Balinis]' and

the reason for this is his view that it is only a convention to say

that one degree equals 60 grades, [and one tra$e 31d.s.60 min-

utes, and o-ne minute equals 60 seconds, etc] ' And if we had

**t.d to place one or -or.

t..pt higher a9t4i"g that is.above a

eiven thing, or if we had wanted to place likewise everything that

i"t belo* ""-girr.r,

thing, then we wbuld have been in no ot1rer

;";i.i"" th"an to "d""p1

the.sexagesimal-system'l But the

lexagesimal sFstem is usid only becauie it makes cdculations easy

and ei.'es rise to fewer fractions. . . .-- V. have already presented above an illustrative model of the

weights lwhich foUo* a so<agesimal geometric progression]' .a

-J.i"."rraing to which all co=ncrete cases are *orked out. In this

book of mine, iowever, I shall set fofth the pattern of weights

iccordine to the docuine of Socrates as we have reponed i1'.flow

if *r-*i!f, to follow the doctrine of Socrates, go ahead; and if you

..rirh .o follow the ideas of Balinis, do so, for both of them are the

,"-.. B,rt if you wish to follow our opinion, then follow us' Our

opini"" is diilerent from both of them, for it is a closer approxi-

mation [of the truth].

2021

120l

At this point ive need to shol )r-!r1 by means of tables the

'"il;;;ffusible stones'l These fuiible stones which constitute

,fr. h*. and foremost need of the An are gold' silver' copper' iron'

lead, and tin. [Wc are Presenting *rese illustrations] so thlt -you

il;;;Jiry of the lltters [oclurring ll *t names] of all these

t alt.-i"-*"lought to knowfirst *"iatt of these stones have 17

powers. Now, these *oio ""

either red or white' If they are white'

",h";; it;; il the First Degree [of intensiryl' Ther eosses.s-f

Ji*'.r", i"ch cold, 5 times as-much dry and 8 times as much

moist.2'^'. k it the opposite if they are red' possessing cold in fit-t::tJ

D.gt* t"ii"iJntityl, with 3 tirnes as much hoL 8 times as much

dryl""d 5 times as much moist'

T2L)

The quantitatiuc magniwdes obtdincd (in thc Present contq' 1!e1;;;;;;;;;;;;;;h;: i;; thuc whhh *ih' uP the totat of 17):

20;4

17:6

17z8

I8O CHAPTER 6

2ozr0 In the First Degree [of intensity] exists ei*rer hot or cold (andthese rwo are [signified by] the le*ers alif or ba,) weighing Idirham and I dinaq, as we have dready said at the very outser.Now, 3 times the vdue of the First Degree (and here we reach theSecond Degree which is likewise signified by alif or ba) is 3Yz

2t:t dirharns. [This can be viewed] either as 3 times the value of theFirst Degree or as the vdue of the Second Degree in its own right.Thus, the totd weight of the two active narures is IU dir. + 7 ddn.l+ l3l, dir. = 3 dir. + 3 dnn.l=l 4 dirhans and 4 d.anaqs.

2r:4 The eight-times weight of dry or moisr [in the Founh Degree],being [signified by] trc leners jlrn or dil respectively, is 9 dirhamsand 2 danaqs. [This can be viewed] either as 8 times the vdue ofthe First Degree or as an independent value of the Fourth Degreeiaelf As for the five-times weight of dry or moist [in rhe ThirdDegree], and these are likewise [signified by] rhe leners jlm or dilrespectively, it is 5 dirharus and 5 dAnaqs. [Again, this can beviewed] either as 5 times the vdue of rhe First Degree or as anindependenr value of the Third Degree itself . . .

2r:9 In this way, among dl objeca belonging the three kingdoms ofnature, from the smallest to the largest, when these are consideredaccording to the precise Balance, and among all the celestial bodiesand among dl the other wonders of the natural world, the totalweight of 17 in red [bodies] is [represented by] 19 dirhansand|danaqs f= 17 x 7 dan.l. This is the figure arived at according tothe precise Balance as it enists in incorporeal objects, in the mate-rid objects belonging to the three kingdoms of nature, and in thehigher bodies. Similar is rhe case with white lbodies]. It behoovesyou to know this!

2r:ti As for the difference between the white and the red, it lies in theencess of cold and shonage of hot in the white, the case of the redbeing the opposite; and in the excess of dry and shonage of moistin the red, the case of the white being the opposite. So understandthat!

2r:16 \Zhen you desire the weight of a given thing, you ought to findout, [first], what its leners necessitare; neirt, worh out what it addsup to. [Finally], adjust your result so thar it reaches a value whichis related rc 17.2

122)

22:2 'lrhen in a natural object the nature hot is on the opposite side

of moist, then we have an instance of the color red. Had this not

been the case, rhe dry due to its preponderence would have torn

the moist apart, sinci [in red bodies] the quantity of dry is enor-

mously gr.".., than thar of moist. Reverse is the case with the

white,'fo"r if [in white bodies] dry had not been on the gPPositeside of cold, the moist would have oveqpowered the dry' The

meaning of spatial opposition. benveen the natures is that they

erist in inutui proximiry; but they do not stand against each other

in conflict, I mean in being tace-to-face. Nor [are these natures

separated from each other] by distance such as that which exists

b.r,reen the ciicumference of a circle and its center. To be sure,

had spatial opposition not ei<isred berween the natures (and, con-

,.q.t.tt,ly, the-hot in the red had ovelpowered [the cold], as is

inevitable, and similarly th. dty had overpowered [the moist]),

then the body in question would have exploded. The same is true

of dl things which are artificially produced'

123)

z2:9 'When a thing in equilibrium orists in an integral state, just as

when it is not a [n"*i"g] liquid, then among dl things ir necessar-

ily occupies the medid position. An example of this among stones

is the case of the three bodies, gold, silver, and copper, when

viewed in terms of the quantities of their softness and hardness. As

for the things other than stones, they are in some manner placed in

equilibrium likewise. But this maner warrants further examinationand research.

22:12 This is so because, [for example], the parts of all animals enist in

an integral solid state, in which case being in -equilibrium

would

mean being in an integral solid state. But if all of these parts

happened to b. fu.ibl., th.n being in equilibrium-would have

-."ttt being fusible; and if thry happened to be soft, the character-

izadon of e{uilibrium would have changed likewise. Indeed, if [the

TRAN SLATION l8 l

t82 CHAPTER 6

parts of animals] happened to have attributes other than these,theywould have beene considered to be in equilibrium in a similarmanner. . . . Since all pans of animds have dieir own proPer con-stitution, in themselvei they are all equally in equilibrium.

It is now abundandy clear that gold is not the most equilibratedmetal: if the practitioners of the Art make it such, it is onlybecause they derive worldly benefits out of it. 'Were they in aposition to derive a similar benefit out of copper or lead, thrywould have made these latter the most equilibrated ones, and tothese they would have directed their operations. So one reaches theinescapable conclusion that gold is distinguished only &om thepoint of view of its utiliry.

You ought to follow what we are saying, for you might need totransform an equilibrated object into one which is [dlegedly]unequilibrated. This situation can arise if we were uttedy to runoot of .opper, while facing a glut of silver and gold, and a need forcopper. If gold were to be in equilibrium and coPPer were,to be, incomparison, unstable, dren we would need to transmform theequilibrated gold into the unequilibrated copper, for this would bedemanded by necessiry.

But here we likewise say: The fruit of a tree is no more inequilibrium than its leaves even though the fruit yields more ben-efit than the leaves. Nay, one ought to give all things their dueweight, for they interchange,t God willing! . . .

TRA NS LATr o N lg3

17, namely] 79 dirhams and 5 da'naqs' Indeed, dl our examples

rig"ify the'number 17 [even] if [in practice] we arrive at a number

*[i.i is higher or lower. ThLs, it bihoo,res you to know that in all

of them ls.litt "lt natural objects] the governing principle is.l7' for

the nature hot remains hot no mafter where it happens to be' and

the natut'e cold, wherever it exists, remains cold, and the same

applies to moist and dry.

I25l

This is so because the appellation applied to one nature is not

applied to any other. For example, the ippellation"alif"is applied

.i'rro o.h.r letter, be it ba', ilm, or d'al'similerly, the appellationo ba" is applied to none of the dre other ttuee letters, 4tf, itry' "'it;

^odti'e appellati on' jim"is applied to none of the letters from

"*orr" olif, ia", artd dali arrd finalr the appellation " dil" is like-

*ise af,plied to no other letter from lTolg al$ ba',*d ity'---If vol intend to make a given "alif degenerate into a' ba>'" or

into '^ " ii*" or a " dil,n [pu can achieve this] provided you derive

rlr.r. le'tters from the Second Elements, namely, Fire, Air''W'-ater'

*d E*t,tt.t Upon my life! some of these compounds yTdtTotransmutation.'All this we have meticulously explicated in

-th.eBooh of Morpholog; thus, the method has already been clarifed:

Pursue it! God theMost High willing!

;lii. l. I

,i, ]

23:1

11.1 1

24:l

24t5

t24l

23:t4 kt us now consider those niatters which concern the Balance

of lrners in the elixir, just as we did in the Book of the Arrya ofthe Intellea, God willing! So we proceed, seeking suPPort fromGod.

Z3zri Some of our earlier discourses have already rendered it unneces-

sary to define the elixir, for it is now known that the fundamentalgoverning principle of the elixir is 17 and, that it is divided intoi"o ki"dit ied and white. If the elixir is red, it has a preponderanceof hot and dryt if it is white, it has a preponderance of cold andmoist. And, according to the opinion that is sound and free from

corruption, the total iffective weight of the elixir is [a multiple of

126)

tAl

kt us now return to what we began.to say concerning.the

Balance of metals. So we say, our success depending on God: You

""*ft, .o know, may God piotect you, t!r1t- metals differ from one

il3.il ir; ;;.#te all of them would have been one and the

o*. tt ins. Indeed, it seems ProPer [that they are diverse]' And

among thJse metals there are those which [in their Bdancel er<-

*.JiZ, t,ft.tt *tti.tt fall short of it, yet others [whose Bdance]

equds 17.

I84 CHAPTER 6

24:12 If, when analyzingl firg, you find thar ir equals l/, don,t addanything, and dont subrracianfthing. Howevea this is an e:<ceed_ingly rare case..If you find a thing *f,or. [Baiance] i, g;t., rh*I 7, subtract it in .proporrion tilr it-reaches i z. n-pouolrrarized andregularized, ir will correspond ro that thing whicl i, ,o ,rr. a, tobe pracdcally non-existent. so know thai *d pro*J

"..ora-ingly!25:t If on the other hand, you find a thing which in i,, Balance fails

short of 17, complete ii so thar it bec-omes like that rare thingwhich is, as we said, pracdcally non_existent. proceed in rhis man_ner, for this is the way! God willing. . . .

25:4 .-_1", 99.d prorect^I-"-u, lin praiiceJ everything either orceedsU7l or falls short [of id-this is inevitable. thur,lr,. oU.Jrr, .lr.result that gold is among the eircessive ones. Indeed, it behoovesyou ro know rhe meaning-of excessive and deficient, even thoughwe have so 6r spoken of that which [is neither'.*..rri.,r. ,ro,deficient, namely that which] precisely corrform, ," i7i""l, C.aprorecr you, such can only be the case of the elixir. . . .

tBl

So when a seeker_desires to transform gold into elixir, he re_1T-,.: t*:

weight ofl each of irs narures ii such "

*"y .i". ,t i,gold rs left only wirh 17, whence the toral weighr of rire narures?:--:,79 dirbams and 5 dnna7s [= t7 ,7"d,nn.]; rh. ;r;;;cuscarded-

Similarly, if rhe seeker desires to uansform gold so rhat ir ac_quires dre propenies of copper, he finds our, fi#, ,n. ,oJ_.inior lrhe narures rnJ copper; then, he finds our rhe weighr [of lhe:-t1l.r

inl. gold. N.jjl Jr. comp:ues the nvo weighti to'k ro*

:T.^1r"-". rs grear:r., If [rhe weigh.t obrained from] glld rurns our.o,o.

T: gr.eatel of th_e rwo, the adept reduces it till Ir drops to thevarue lobtarned from] copper. I[ on the other hand, .opp., o_

l*t:ldll.,"ugl":"p. [the weights of th. n"ru..rt i" ejft iifii,contorms ro rhe definition of copper. However, gold riecessarilv

f:Td' copper . . . I.wish I.F.y'hl* you *iu ;;;_-}Iil;ill

rr you :ue nor familiar wirl the Hudud, and if you h"rr. ,ro.pondered over it! . . .

I27l

25:14 P19ple are serio-usly divided over the quesdon of dre weighr oftin. Thus, some.of thcm say,. "w9 determine its weighr accordilg toits.name'al-qahri '." But the Stoics say, ,,no, its name is, ratier,'al-rasiis' since its sibling is called 'al-usrab'." '.No,,, say the follow-e.rs of Egegdocles, "weierermine its weight, rather, a,:cordjng tothe appellati on'zatuus' for its narure is mo-st equilibrate d, and that

-is what the word means." But the folowers ofpyth"go^ say, ',irsname is, in fact, 'al-muslttari,'l for it has rhe narure oFthi, ceiesdalbody. \7e determine its weight in accordance with no appelladonexcepr'al-mushtari,'for it is al-mushtariwhich governs it, iuid.s it,and brings^it forth. Nay, this is its only name.'te" at soJrates, hej.gdged in favor of 'zAutus,'and he is close to the uuth. Balinas said,:P "l-:

is'qasdir' in which lies its weighc it has no other name.,,The Peripatetics say, "we derermine its- weight according to ourdescription 'hot and moist,' for it has ,o ,ir. signiryir; i* ,r"-rure.

26:4 From among these differing rnodels, none merits our choice theway'zautur' does; and if we were ro substitute for it, we would optfor the descripdon 'hot and moisr.' Thus, thar which we

-have

illustrated in *re.figurd is worked our according to the name'?*^: for.'al-qakri ' signifies something other thi the name [ofrhe rneral in quesdon]. Indeed, the name ,qasdlr'is also an accu_

rate one, and this is so because all [correcd names, while beingdifferent in different languages, ,."k ,o ex(press a unique lan-gu]ge-for what is [ultimarelyj sought is only the

-rnoiriof rhr*

differing naines.

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TRANSLATI ON 185

1<.1

25:10

186

1' f .1

CHAPTER 6

The Third Part of the Book of Stones

According to the OPinion of Bdinis

TRANSLATION 187

that alifisfor hot, ba'is for co!d, itm is for d-ry' and di'li's for

ffit;"ffi; tf.t"ttt, Jre possibiliry remains for alifto exist in

four differen, poritio"'-i"

"ht

1tt#t of;l coml:::*1.1;r?

ti;.;.-D.grie, lof intensiryJ are four'The same appltes ro 04"

iimand, dnt. And* *J;;;i;l; th; beginning' the weights of-these fou, positions of o\;f h^u' correspondineF fout different

values, namely: I di;;";"t;i'i iiq'-t=.7 izn'l' 3'th'dirhams

l= 2l din-), 5 di'hani'f,idi au'oqt l= ii da"'l' or 7 dirhams and'

2 dnnaqsl= 56 dan'l' ' ' '

tBl

So turn to the stone you wish to oPe^rate upon' and [whose

naturesl vou want .o ;;;;t Ly it-t oran appropriate T:ll?-1il;;". You find ottiitt weight' If it hap,pens to be an elDilr' rts

;."h;;til b. io"..lyl 19 dirh1ms and 5 dnnaqs != !7, " 7 dan'l'

;;;"tf;;;t;.i.hi"g other than elixir' it will weigh either more or

less, depending opo" the quantiry of the natures in the stone

,rni.. .ftttiderition' So know that!-".Ar'r*i.noaion,

I mean ceration' is carried out in the same man-

".lttfr;i':;;;1. Th"', if .he stone Po^ssesses hot in the First

Desree, add a fifth il'il ri* n"gtttiif it pottttses hot tn f"-

;..t";fit-';;;ft " nrtn i" the seJond D"sree; if it possesses hot

in theThird Degre., JJ-" nft' in theThir;D^e-gree; [finally]' if it

;;';; i;t ir,- th' ro"*h -9:g'."' ."dd-: fifth in the Founh

il;.:"iil*oigh. ;iA' firu'"i" the First P's": .is.\^QirayL-?i-irj, i^*Js.."na Degree |vz ddnaqs' in the Third Degree

)V, do*it, urd in the Fourth Degree 4 diinaqs'

So in the.*. of thit!'""-pt"tta of stonistnly' this t:-Y-li:j'

n...o* for carrying otit ttotiott by means of hot-augmentatron'"ffrl;;;;..'J;"r. of cold_augmentadon, the nrles fo.r tfis;ye

eiractlv the same * th;;;il"'*fii"n we have just described' The

ffi?r"fr;.' ,o,h.;;;;J; of the augmentation of moist and

dty. . . . In other wotit' ytrr h"a oul whiih from among hot' cold'

&'-a moist is p"po"dtt*t in the thing you **: t-: ':P-tf::

il;Til;;";;dia fifth to the most dominant nature rn these

stones. As we have said, a thing is not cerated.excgPt b)t 1At

""ii;;;g"t.t;;rt.t ofl its charaleristically predominant nanue' 5o

know this pro..drrr.j ;Jf"Ut" it in the operations you need to

;.til orid*g, made out of stones onlY'

, il

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t28l

27:2 In the name of God, the Compassionate' thc MercifuI

Praise the CrJ";-;J tht Fi"i"' of the Dead'- the one lVho

subjects to Hi,'i"" *h"i*tt fft chooses' He \X/ho is Powerfirl

over everything, ;J is the Subjugator of dl suUjSqatl;'-ll; one

\ilfho .a,rr.s th-. "ttt

of dl things' without a pardlel and,wlthout a

teacher; He acts not out of passion' nor under comPulslon: nay'

He acts ",

H" *ititiHe is Magnanimous' Kind' Mighty' \flise!

So praise be to God, the Best of Creators!

27:5 God's blessing' bt t'po" Mutrayr.rad' the lord of all messengers'

the Imdmof th."5'-rr.'or,;;i the last ones. All_pray.ers be for him,

;;;;; io *h"t he merits' and for his noble f"-ily'

MaY dod grant them all salvation!

I2el

27:7 Two books have preceded this one' dealingwith the understand-Lt 't

irrg-oiah. Bd*ttt' of stones' According to the commitment we

made in .fr"ra trJi-UooL- d *."r, th. frrrt book and the second

book), *. ,hdl ';;t$;til

f'9"* book' proceeding in a natural

way,thefor*r*hithstones'-plantsandanimal[substances]takeuoon combinh;;th ;;; *"tittt' Furthermore' we shall tdk about

;f"";;;;;; d, .t. ceration of these substances. So we say . . .

27:tt "'T#il;;:;;;i.h the elixir derives are [of seven possible

kindsl: til prr,."sto"tt,-iiii *i-al -[substances]

exdusively' [iiil

plants only, Itul ;,i-"l i;t;*i and plants' lvf stones and

plans, Itil ,r^" i'i*i-"t [substances]' *a p1t animal [sub-

27:13

"^l*i

i"lpl*it andstones'This makes a total of seven Patterns

occurring t" th;';ffi"**itd composidon :,f-'*

elixir' with

e"ch onJof tltem having its own governlng PrmclPles'

w27214 And if in response to an oPeration' some gf-fi:--happen to

differ from .ft.Ttftttt, [we know the reason whyl for it is known

282

28:7

28114

188

29:1

CHAPTER 6

tcl

Concerning rhe elixir made out of animal [substances] only. Ifyou wish either to cerate it, or ro transfor- ii i.* ""..,;il';ano$er, you add a founh ro that ,r"t*. *hi.h ;; lffi;",h;predominant of the four. If ,hl, ,r".ur.l, i" .h. il6;;; il;intensity], yol add a fourth in the First O*., in which case theweight of the fourth s I d,anaqif r1r. prJoirinant narure t, h ;;Second Degree, you add a founl, i" A;s;;;"d D.d;il;;;;tgut9 reaches a weight of yz dirharn [= 3 dan.l; if .lri', ";,;;l;the Third Desree.

"Jd " fourth i" .lr. f[iJDegree, the weisht of

_* to'g heie b^eing,5 du"rq;;i,h*rTy, ri"rlil ft;T:;narure is in the fourth d9gr.i, you add a'iburrh i,i.frler""i,Degree, where the fo,rr.li"ti"irr, "

.,".ill, of z dirho;;;;2 dinaqs [= 8 dnn.].So know rhat!

tDl

29:8 And if the elixir ,"ry.h you wanr ro cerare or transform . . .lappens to be made e.xcrusivery or,

"rpr*ir, y", ti"il",lir..ur.the most dominant of its foui ,r".*., and add to ir a third. If itsmost dominanr narure is in the First Degree "fi".."riry,

you add athird in *' t'-'i: ?:q"e .tt'9 *;igli

"riil,r,i'Jir, *il'J*. n.i"g2e:to lw.danaqs; if this naiure is in the"second Degree, ;;; a thirdin the Second p.S.r.:alr.re dre weight of the Zn a,irii')urrqr, rftJris nature is in rhe Third Degreelyou "dd

a third in the ThirdDegree; and, finally, if it.happeis.oi. in,fr. p;;;;;;;, yr"add a third in the Fourtrr o.gr... The -.ight "-iil;

",rr'iii i" ,r,.

fhird Degree ,is,lYq /trh"; [= iy, dan.], and in the FourrhDegree itis2 dirbams[= 12 dAn.]....

[30] [On Q""lity]

30:l Qu"liry is a certain condition of the qualified thing I mean rrecondition by vimre of which ,h. .hi;g is qualified. Amons thesecondidons are tiose which r,i" i" ;;;.".tir;r*c* ,ir. *ift"g "r3o:2 .AbdAlteh when he is, in fact, ;riil;:'F;;;,"r_lli ru.l,

ItI{

. l

I4: i

iI

- l, ',;l

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.:!l

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-ii!i;.;:i)l

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30:5

TRANSLATION I89

actually existing conditions are either those which change or disap-pear quickly, for enample standing, sining, being in a state ofembarrassment or anger, and the like-such actudly existing con-ditions do not last long; or rhose which [are more snble and] donot change or disappear quickly, such as [the knowlege ofl geom-etry, medicine, or music when [such knowledge] is actually presentin an individual.

And among the condidons are those which exist in potentiality,as wdking is ro l4.bdAllih (thus, animals are plants in potentidiry,in actualiry they are not, and the same applies ro srones in relationto plants and animals). Similar is the case of the acquisition of [theknowledge] of geometrywhen it is unacquired [in actudity]. Fur-ther, potential conditions exist either [a] as a capaciry in a thing,such as our saying rhat 'AbdAllah is [in a srare of being] Fallen tothe ground when he has the capacity to do so; or [b] as a naruralaffecdon, such as our saying that a given stone is hard, meaningthar it qrnnot be divided easily, or that a given piece of wood issoft, meaning thar it can be broken apan withour difficulty.

30:ll Things are rarely said in discourse to be qualified-I meancharacterized-by those conditions which change or disappearquickly. Thus, we do not call pallid the one who rurns yellow outof fright, nor swarthy the one who rurns black due to a journey [inthe heat of the sun]. And as for the conditions which last longer,things might be said to be qualified by them. Thus we call yellow(or, say, black) that which acquires this color as part of its naturalmake-up (likewise, if ir acquires some other condidon which is not

30:13 easily removed, [ir is called accondingly]). And these, I mean theconditions which do not disappear easily, are the ones which oughtnecessarily to be called qualities, since the essential nature of athing is qualified by them.

30:15 Similarly there might be in the soul eirher [a] easily disappear-ing condidons, such as sadness or happiness arising out of a certainspecific reason and passing away quickly, or [b] longer lastingconditions, such as sadness or happiness arising out of one's innatedisposition for it. Obviously the lamer is idenricd [in appearance]to the former. However, we do not characterize as sad one who issad for a short period of dme for some reason, nor happy one whois happy briefly. Rather, we do so when tJrese are part of someone'sessentid nature, whence permanenr or preponderant.

190 CHAPTER 6

3r:4 Shape, external form, straightness, curvedness, and the like arealso qudities, for each one of these is said to qualify things. Thus,we might say of a thing that it is a triangle or a square, or that it isstraight or curved. Rareness, denseness, roughness, smoothnessand the like might be thought of as qualities; fiey seem howevernot to belong to qudities. This is so because, to be precise, a thingis dense when its parts are close together; rare when they areseparated from one another; smooth because its pans lie pniformlyon a straight line-none being above or below another; and roughwhen they are otherwise.

3l:ll Qualities are possibly of other kinds too. Among these otherkinds whii:h we shall mention are [a] those which are perceived bythe eye, like shapes and colors; [b] those which are perceived bythe sense of smell, like perfumes;l [c] those which are perceived by

3r:r3 the sense of taste, Iike the savour of food; [d] those which areperceived by the sense of touch, like hot or cold; [e] those whichenist in the intellect, like knowledge and ignorance; [fl thosewhich lie in the capacity of things, like the ability or inabiliry to do

3r:14 something-and these orist either actually or potentidlF [g] thosewhich are stable; [h] those which are unstable; [i] those which areactive; *d [j] those which are passive.

3l:16 Qudified things are named after their qualiry. Thus in mostcases things are named paronymously-such x hat;b kom kitaba,tiljir from tijdra, jd'irfrom jawr, 'ilil ftom 'adl.Yet this may notbe so in all cases, either because the qualiry in question exists inpotentidiry, or due to the fact that language lacls a name for it.

32:3 There is contrariety in regard to qualification. For example,justice is conuary to injustice and whiteness to blackness, and soon. Similarly, there is contrariety in regand to qualified things. Foro<ample, just is conuary to unjust and white to black. But, [on theo*rer hand], there is no contrary to red or yellow or such colors.Likewise, there is no contrary to triangle and circle.

32:6 Further, when one of a pair of contraries is a qualification, theother too will be a qualification. This is clear if one examines theother categories. For enample, justice is contrary to injustice andjustice is a qualification, then injustice too is a qualification. Fornone of the other categories fits injustice, neither quantity, forerrample, nor relation, place, time, nor any other category excePtqudification.

TRANSLATION I9I

32:10 Qualifications admit of a more and a less; for it may be said that

this whiteness is more rhan rhat, or rhat this thing is whiter than

flx1-ns1 in dl cases though, but in most. Thus it might be

questioned whether it is permissible to call- one- justice more a

jistice than another, or one health more a health than another.

32:13 Some p.ople say that it is not permissible, yet they say that one

persoohai health less than anotJrer, jusdce less than another, and

iimilarly with writing and other conditions. So, as for things spo-

ken of in virtue of thlse, they unquestionably admit of a more and

a less, for it may well be said that this man is more eloquent than

iz:15 that, this man is more just than that, or that this man is beaer

with regard to justice and health'

32:17 However, not all things spoken of in virtue of a qualiry admit of

a more and a less. For eiample, the triangle is spoken of in vinue

of the qualiry of triangulariry and the square in vinue.of the

quatiry of tq.t"t.tt.ts: these rwo do not admit of a more and a less'

32:19 Fo, orr. triangle does not exceed another in respect-of triangulariry.

and one ,q,rrr. does not possess more squareness than another. All

triangles are equally said to be triangles, and the same applies to

circles and squares.

33:2 Things *hi.h "t.

equally said to be triangles [and thud equally

said to Fall unde. the definition [of triangulariry] are not called

more or less with resPect to that definition; the same holds for

circles and squares. conversely, when rwo things are nor-said to fall

under one defittitio.t, the definition of one is not applied to the

33:4 other. In general, all things which are equally said to fall under a

given defi"nition, as well as two things which are not said to fall

i.d., ot. definition, such things do not admit of a more and a

Iess.

33:6 one speaks of a more and a less only in cases where the [qualiryto whose] definition a thing conforms sustains increase and de-

crease; for example a whire thing which conforms ro the definition

of being white can very well be more or less with respect to

whiteness.33:8 It is in virtue of a universally defined qualiry only that things are

said to be similar or dissimilar; for a thing is not similar to another

except in virtue of its qudiry. For example, this triangle. is not

simiiar to that triangle e*..pt in virtue of the triangle which has

already been universallY defined.

r92 CHAPTER 6 TRAN S LATI ON

The Fourth Par of the Book of StonesAccording to the Opinion of Baliniis

I:T;

In the name of God, the Conpassionate, the MercifulPraise be to God, the Lord of the worlds! May Godt blessings beupon our Master Mut'ammad and dl his family.

The one who recalls what we said in rhe first, second and thirdparts of this book would know thar we have promised to orplicarein this [final] part the Bdances of spirits and of those substanceswhich funcdon as spirits. \7e shall accomplish this by means ofillustrative figures following the pattern on which we construcredin the second part the figures for bodies.l tW'e have also promisedthat in this part we shall spell out how one goes about augmentingwhat is deficient, and suppressing what is excessive.2

At this point in time we turn ar once ro operations involvingspirits. Immediately following this, we shall familiarize ourselveiwith augmentation and suppression, and this will mark the end ofthese four books.

193

33:11 It may be said that though we only proposed ro discuss qualitiesye hlve- frequently mentioned relatives since we have spoken ofJ<nowledge and the like, and knowledge exists in virrue of theknown. Indeed, the genera comprehending these things, I meanrhe universals, are spoken of in vinue of something els-e, such asknowledge which is spoken of in virtue of the knowi. But none ofthe individuals [of a given genus], that is, none of the particularcases Jof a givel universal], is spoken of in virrue of somethingelse. For example, knowledge, [a genus], is called knowledge oTsomething, but grammar, [a particular case], is not cdled grammar

33:15 of somerhing. This is so unless the particular case is set for-th as thegenus, that is, given the name of rhe universal, which in this case isknowledge-then, grammar would be called knowledge of some-thing. Thus the panicular cases .re not reladves and th-ere is noth-ing absurd in a thing's falling under nvo different genera.2

1.d.1

34:2

34:3

34:5

34:6

34:9 So we say: In fire, spirits are unlike bodies-but not with re-specr to color, hardness or casting. For all spirits;'or [at least] most

34:10 of them, may have the same colors as rlose of bodiss-ssd, white,black, etc.; and, in terms of casring, spirits may be similar tobodies, since all spirits undergo casting in fire the way bodies do,behaving in rhe same manner. Finally in terms of hardness somespirits may function like bodies, just as in terms of softness cerrain

34:13 bodies may firncrion as some spirits. We are setting fonh a specificaccount of the spirirs and the bodies, to the exclusion of orh.rr,since it behooves us ro know thar the fut does not exisr except dueto spirits and bodies; [that is to say], rhere is no Art excepr invirtue of the three kingdoms of narure since [in the real world]norhing else exists.

35:t As for animal [substances], when distilled they leld nvo spiritsand rwo bodies: rhe oil and the water which come our of them arespirits, whereas the tincture and the eanh which they yield arebodies. . . . The same applies to plants. Concerning stones, rJresiruation depends on wherher or not they lend themselves to

. *;l

. ! l'1

'.,..labt

:::l.;J

CHAPTER 6

distillation. If they do, then the same applies to them too.But if they do not lend themselves to distillation, they are

divided into two types: those which vaporize, and those which donot. Those which do vaporize leld two kinds of substances: whatvaporizes from them is spirit, and what is left as residue is body.And those which do not eyaporate divide likewise into trpo kinds:the aqueous kind, and the calcined kind. The former is spirit, theIatter body. The aqueous kind, in its turn, divides further into twokinds: the kind that flees, and the kind that does not. As for theone that flees from fire, it is spirit; and that which does not, wen.ho"gh it is water, is body

So this is the complete alchemical classification of the mattersrelating to all natures, and this is exacdy what we have alreadymentioned in the Book of the Complzte 3 belonging to the AIIBoohs.

Ttr2]

35:10 As for the transformation of bodies from one srate into anotherhigher or lower state, it is according to our doctrine [an inter-change between] the s<terior and the interior, for in reality this iswhat exterior and interior are. The reason is that dl the constitu-enm of all things follow a circular paftern of change.

35:tr The exterior of a body is manifest, whereas its interior is latent,and it is the latter in which lies the benefit. For example, Iead in itsorterior is foul-smelling lead, and it is manifest to all people. Butin its interior it is gold, and this is hidden. However, if this latter isextracted out, then both the interior and the exterior of lead willbecome manifesr.

, :

I33l

3i:r5 Thus there is the Balance of Fire, and the Balance of the rest ofthe bodies. There are Bdances bf the natures of stars, their dis-tances, acts and movements. There is dso the Balance by means ofwhich one knows the Sphere, just as one learns through the Bd-ance that the essentid chracteristics of things arise out of the

TRANSLATION 195

natures. Those who have read our book known as The hd At-tained I and our Booh of the Sun 2 are acquainted with most ofthese Bdances, even with the Balance of the Soul and the Balanceof the Intelligence, after which there is no end. And since dl ofthese are intangible, it would not be difficult for such readers tomeasure the Balance of animals, plants and animals, for these o<istin nature and are tangible. . . .

Chapter on the Curriculum for the Thining of the Disciple

134l

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194

15:7

tAl

First you ought to understand a simple thing concerning theAn. That is, you familiarize yourselfwith the substances which arereddened, *hitened, coagulated, dissolved, softened, and dehy-drated.l Funher, you ought to know that all these processes arecarried out by the method of Balance. This has been explained toyou in the lucid accounts given in many boola of ours: [for ex-ample], we have thoroughly explicated this already i-n $e Result,rhe'Booh of Morphobg, rhe Baknce,2 and in a book belonging tothe CXl/known x the Booh ofTinaurel

Then, you ought to know the First, Second, Third and theFounh Elementsi [their] accidents and their qudities.3 For ex-

ample, lyou ought to know that] Fire and its sisters are the Second

Elements,a duritions of time are the Third, and black and yellow

compounds are *re Founh Elements.You see how your persond nature accePts all this, how you hgdle

this, and how-the ies.tlts suit your natural disposition. If you

already see that your mind has rejected one specific thing^while

you "i. [comforiably] handling seveld -others,

you ought first to

persist in reading. You should particularly read the Commmnry o7

tht Booh of the Ebmmt of Foundation, if it has reached you. But if

you have dready moved beyond this stage, congratulatiottj! . -.Having accomplished this, move ups to the sayings of philoso-

phers arr-d their doctrines concerning the natures and their36:14

r96 CHAPTER 6

combinations. Pick up a modicum of hakm,logic, arithmedc andgeometry. To some exrenr this will render your conceptual grasp ofproblems easy when they orercise you. But if you are alreadysomewhat trained in these disciplines, the task will be simpler foryou, and this would be a more favorable situation.

Nent, depending on your choice, you handle the science of thenatures, or some other discipline. If you prefer the science of thenarures, you srudy aspecm of the natures of stones and the [scienceof the] specific propenies of things.

TRANSLATION I97

38:3 Proceed with the undersranding that this is an art which de-mands specid skills; nay, it is the greatest of all arts for it [con-cerns] an ideal entity which ocists only in the mind.g Thus themore one occupies oneself with prolonged studies, the quicker itwill be to achieve a synthesis [of the elixir]. But the one who makesonly e brief study, his achievement will be [slower] in the sameproponion. Know that the fruit of the Bdances are the higheroperations performed on the products of qfntheses and elixirs.

tBl

3B:7 The Balance comes about only after the mixing of bodies withbodies, spirits with bodies, metds with bodies, spiria with spiria,srones with spirits, or stones with bodies and spirits: the Balancecomes about after these subsmnces are mixed [in these specifiedways].

38:9 Even if spirits, bodies and metds are in an impure state, weighthem after they are mixed together. Familiarize yourself with all oftheir constituent natures and know their equilibrium. The Canonof Equilibrium is known to you-if they conform to it, they areperfecr. But if they are [quantitatively] higher or lower [than l7l,suppress or augment the natures accordingly whence one wouldobtain from them enacdy 17 pans. . . .

135l

38:13 People hold diverse views concerning these [sc. cosmological]issues. Among them are those who give due consideration to theBalances and proceed with the assumption that the principle ofevery*ring is the natures. And among them are those who say thatin the narural world one thing was created before anotler. So, a

38:15 group of Sabians and their followers believe that some fundamen-tal building blocla of the natural world have, over olhers, a prior-ity in orisrcnce. But this prioriry [they say], is not wirh regard to:urangement or organization, rarher it is a temporal and qualitative

39:r priority. Thus I have seen one of them daiming that the first thingwhich was created in mamer is the duee dimensions-length,breadth and depth-whence rnatter became a dree-dimensional

37:1

37:4 Then you move in a single leap to the Balances. Thus, youfamiliarize yourself step by step with all aspects of various kinds ofBalances, such as the Balance of Fire, of music, and the Balances ofmetals. Some of these we have already mentioned in several bools,pardcularly in rhe Booh of the Elite.

37:7 And if along with the science of the narures you are inclinedtoward dre knowledge of fie craft, you srudy rhe Book ofTi,ickeries5so that you can be on your guard against the occurence of calami-ties, loss ofwealth, and frauds.

37:9 The next step now is ro become skilled in [maners presented in]the Booh ofthe Bahnce.6 You should know in what manner and forwhat reason these rlings are combined. Now, we have already toldyou that by this time you ought to have become accomplished andquick-wined.

37:tr If [the disciple] does not finish my book, the Seaen,T he willremain deficient in his [knowledge of] the Bdances. If, on thecontrary, he is rained in it, he will be in a position to construcrwhatever he wishes.

37:13 All that the disciple needs now is the [skill for the] handling ofdchemical operadons. Restituted from accounts scanered iri [alarge body of alchemicd] writings, these are operadons such ascerarion, waterings, pulverization, dissolutions, and coagulations. 8

,Anothe.1 example is rhar [of the elixir] about which piople havebeen r.alking since ancient times. But the ancients have wrapped in

37:15 ever deeper .mysteries rhe method of operations relating io theSupreme Thing. Now, as we have already rold you, this difficulry isovercome by nothing other than the [method ofl the Balances. Soknow this medrod if you intend to achieve a close approximadon[of the ideal elixir], or wharever you intend

"..ordirrg ro your

desire.

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198 CHAPTER 6

39:3 primitive body. Next, [according to.this claim]' fie four qudi-

ii.r-rr"-.1y, iot, cold, moist aird dry--were created in it' and

from this "rore

th. natures of things and rl-re elements of creation.

Finally, [so the claim goes], fie four natures mixed with one an-

oth.r to-form "o*porirdr,

and out of these arose all individuals

and all undifferentiated forms existing in this world'

3e:6 To those [holding such views] it-ought to be said: You have

introduced several unknowable stages [in your account of-the cre-

ation of the nanrral world]-none of them makes sense! You evenjo * f", as to er<plain the o<istence of the world [in terms of these

stages], whatever theY maY be. ' . '

tAl

39:9 So we say [to them], our success depending on God:.

[According'to you], the first of these stages [of creationj is (n3which is indestructible. [You believe that] it is not a body' nor rc tt

ftJ."..a of anything that is-predicated of a body' It is' you claim'

the undifferenti'ated ?ot- oi,hings and the element of created

oUj...t. The picture of this !!1,ti"'1tell usl, orists [only] in the

irriagination, and it is imposiible to-visudize it as a defined entity.

39:12 fou ,"y th1 th9 ,..o,,i stage arrives when the three dimensions

come to Pass In this tlna *h""ttt9 it becomes a- body' This body'

[pu claim], is not piedicated o{-*y of [the four natures]' hot'

Joid, *oiri*d dry^nor is it predicaied of any.color, raste, smell,

or of motion o, ,"ri. For [according to you], all these are qualities'

and at this stage qualities do not come to pass in it'

Now [dl] this is nonsense!4022

- ih.et you claim that after this second ttlg: th: four qualitiesl

come to pass in this body, namely the qudities hot' cold.' morst

and dry. From these arise the foui [elementary bodies]' Fire' Air''Water i"a g"t h. But quite obviously it makes no sense to suPPose

4o:4 that these fo,rr natures exist in "ry

iat or condition not defined

by the org*i""tion and-arrarlBelint in which they ar-e now-found

4ot5 ii th. ,r"i rrd world. Thus, 6rth is in the middle of the_Sphere''water is above Earth, Air above v'ater, and Fire aboveAir. Further,

each of the four natures tends to ovelPorser its contrary,- with the

,,rUa,t.a transforming into the uiumphant'-Plana and animds

*it. A"tg *ith theseiatures, derivinghom them' and transform-

TRANSLATToN lgg

40:9 ing [backi into them. Now the afore-described stages [of creation]

priferred by you are all intangible. But, as compared to-what you

iescribe, it-ij easier and less demanding on one's imagination to

visualize that things arise but not our of a single [abstract] entiry.

tBl

40:ll or [et us ask them that] they tell us if is it possible forlTater to

be created from the same prime matter as the one from which Fire

is created. If they say yes, they lapse into inconsistencies. For a

given thing which gives rise to something .!. Ir the.prime matter

40:13 if .n. hnJr. As th{ say, the sperm of man is the prime matter of

man, and the sperm of donkey the prime matter-of donkey' Thus

they deem it absurd to suppose that the sperm of man admits the

form of a donkey, since the former is not ihe prime matter.of the

latter, just as it equdly absurd to suppose that the sperm of donkey

40:14 admits the form-of " -*.

It is therefore necessary according to

this reasoning that the thing which admits the form of Fire is the

prime matter-of Fire, and biing such it cannot possibly admit the

form of Water.

tcl

41:2 If theY saY:'I?'e see'$faier undergoing transformation and thus rurning into

Fire. [In this processf thJsubstance which was the carrier firsi of

the qrr"litier *d .h"r""..ristics of vater is the carrier now of the

4r:4 qualities and characteristics of Fire. Thus whatever is essentidly

urr. of the former is essentially true dso of the latter: it is only the

accidents of the substance which have changed. Therefore, the

etemal prime maner is one and the same-it is the carrier of the

q"Ai.iJ and dispositions of 'Water if they come to pass in it, and

those of Fire if these latter come to pass in it'

4J:7 Then in rePlY we saY:'Water does nbi u-rfot- in a single stroke into Fire. Rather it

transforms first into vapors and then becomes Air. Nent, Air un-

dergoes transformation-and, [fitt"lly], turns into Fire. If someone

,"yJ th"t 'W'ater transforms, first, into Air and, ttren, transforms

irrto Fir., he is indeed speaking of a transformation [process]

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2OO CHAPTER 6

which makes [perfect] sense.41:lr Further, your doctrine concerning the simple, indestructible

prime matter is not consistent with this, for you do not say that it

is only by way of the afore- mentioned transmurations that Fire is

created out of the thing from which, in the first instance, Water is

4r:r3 created. Rather you say, "it is possible that the prime matter which

is ovenaken by the narure and chracteristics of Vater is subse-

quently overdken instead by the narures and chracteristics of

Fit ." At d, according to you, this mkes place without tht interme-

diary of the transformations tlat lie berween water and Fire. This

makes no sense!42:2 They claim that prior to acquiring forms and before the

occurence in it of the natures' the eternd prirne maner is endowedwith the Potentialiq/ only of accepting in the first instance thechracteristics and qualities of Fire. But that there is a kind ofprimematter which is endowed with the potenddity only of accepting thecharacteristics and qualities of Vater, and that the same goes for

4224 Earth andAir. It is through this doctrine that they demonsuate thecreation of the four eternally indestructible elements which possessdifferent potentialities. But, then, rhis refutes their affirmation thatthe First El.-.ttt is unique and does not admit of diversiry.

tDl

42:7 They are asked: "Is it admissible that things return to the eter-nal prime mafter the way they arose out of it?" If they say, "no, it isnotidmissible,' one m€ht ask, "but why not?" If they say, "this isannihilation of things, for then things will be returning to some-thing which is simple, not admiting of combination,' then we

42:9 respond, "and what harm do you see in saying that things willr.turtr to that which happens to be indesuuctible on account of itsbeing an eternal cause. And, funher, what harm do you see insayrng that while prime matter is simple and it possesses no combi-nations, it will annihilate the world?"

pl

42:12 It [ought to be] said to them: A majority of philosophers be-lieves that the four natures, which are the fundemental principles

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TRANSLATION 2OI

of creation and are the elements of the things (I mean [the ele-menm of the primary bodies] Fire, Air, \7a1e1 and Earth), Poten-tially exist in one another. Thus those people lapse in inconsisten-cies who say that the four nanres exist in something other thanthemselves, and thar they exist in somedring other than what arisesout of fiem. Such people declare it inconceivable that things canexist in any other way.

42:16 So if someone alleges that drese four natures are only to befound aristing potendally in sometling other than themselves, andin something other than what arises out of them, let him bring aproof of his hypothesis. [Indeed], he will never be able to do so, forit is irrationd [to espbuse a hypothesis] which stands in disagree-ment with this docuine [sc. the doctrine of the philosophers] andwhich conuavenes the organizadon and arrangement [ofwhich wehave spoken]!

tFl

43:2 The incorrecmess of their affirmation is deduced from what thephilosophers consider as an indubitable premise and an item ofnecessary knowledge, namely: It is absurd to suppose that a sub-stance can exist without any natural or fabricated acm, so that *rissubstance has no act either in itself or in anything else.

43:5 [YetJ this is [precisely] the nature which these people declare aseternal, claiming that it is the element of things, and that theprime maner which arises out of ir is indesuuctible and is devoidof all naturd and Fabricated acts. And this is the theory which isdismissed by the philosophers who deny the crsitence of such an

43:7 endry. To support [their idea ofl a substance devoid of all acts,rhey [sc. the upholders of this theory] have been able neither tooffer a proof of what they daim, nor to establish it by an indirectdemonstration.

tcl

Since the case is other than all this, the natures are [to beunderstood] according to what we elucidated for you in all thepreceding boola, namely that the natures are the fundamentdprinciple [of the red world], and that they are subject to the acts of

202 cHAprER 6

the Creator, may His praise be exdted! And from this you becomefamiliar with the method of attaining [the knowledge ofl theNatural Balance, nay, you even become an er(peft of all com-pounds that are constituted out of the natures, able to distinguishgoodness from corruption.

t36l

43:13 After accomplishing all this, the disciple moves to the task ofverbal and wrinen disiourse so that his skills reach perfection. If,[following this], his insight in the Art matches his insight in theScience, and if in applications he possesses a refinement of quality,he is to be cdled a pegfect philosopher!

43:t6 This ultimately brings us to an end, being the final stage re-quired in the uaining of the disciple whence the disciple meets ourdefinition and description of bim. At this time he is among thosepeople who are closest to us!

44:2 Now, without delay, we shall present the figures which illustrateBdances, followed by a figure [illustrating] augmentation and sup-pression. This is the conclusion of the boolq God the Most Highwil l ing!. . .

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CHAPTER 6

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES

203

t1 l

Jabir opens his discourse in the familiar traditional manner. One notes

th"t thlt is.norhirig particularly Shi'i or specifically Ismd'ili about his

religious locutions here. No prayers have been offered for'AIi, or for any

other Imims.The most important feature of this opening section' howwer, is the

way our authoi refers to Balinas. Indeed, this personage has been

mentioned repeatedly throughout the Jabirian corpus (see below), but

here for the fiist time we hear about him in connection with the Science

of Balance. This is puzzling, for there is no rrace of such a discipJine in

whatever we so far know of the writings attributed to Balinis. But we

must first identify this figure.Since the researches oFsilrr.ttt. de Sary (see particularly his ll799l), it

has been known that Balinds is the Arabicization of Apollonius (it exists

in other forms too, such as Balin[s, Abulrrniyns, Afrtlnniyus, 'hsts,Abaltu, etc. see Plessner, -r.2. "Balin[s," [EI2], l, p'994)' In the Islamic

tradition, rwo persons named Apollonius are known: the well-known

mathematician Apollonius of Perge (d. c. 200 B.C.), and the lst century

A.D. Neopyth"gor."tt sage Apollonius of Tyana. \flhile one finds in the

Arabic ,o,rr..i considJrable confusion between these rwo figures(Plessner, op. cit.), it is evident' as v/e shall presently see, that Jabir'sBdinis is the lattei Apollonius.

There exist at least eight Arabic titles attributed to Apollonius of

Tyana (for general ,,r*.!, of Arabic Apollonius literature see Ruska

ir)Zel; Plesirer; op. cit.; ;dr-, UgZll; idem, [1931]; Ikaus [1942-3], II,

pp. ziO-lO), but tlr. most imPoftant from our point.of view is the work

entitled Kitab Sin al-Khaliqa wd San<dt al-TabTawhich is now available

in a critical edition (\Teisser ll979l). AIso known as the Ktdb al-'Ikl,

the Sir seems to have had a direct influence on dre ideas of Jabir (see

Chapter I above). Now, as we have discussed in Chapter l.above, the

text in question has not been conclusively dated, but this much is ceftain:

it has nothing to do with the historical Apollonius of Tyane; so here we

must speak of a pseudo Apollonius.

204 CHAPTER 6

The phrase " sin al-khaliqa tta sancnt al-tabt,a " occurs in rhe Jabiriancorpus more than once (for exarnple in the Lfi, IGass ed. [1935],481:6; al-Sirr al-Maknfin, ibid., 339;l-2; al-Muan al-Saghir, ibid.,442:15), while in his Bahth Jabir refers to a Sin al-Tabi,a of Balines (MSJarullah 1721, f.44)by which he clearly means the same work for hequotes from it a famous aphorism which is indeed to be found in the Sirrtext as we know it today.

And this leads us to an importanr f€ature of the Sin. To the best ofour present knowledge, this work is the ultimate source of that highlyenigmatic but equally influential collection of aphorisms, rhe TabukSmaragdina, which had remained much in vogue in the larer MiddleAges and post Renaissance periods. Ir was first printed in l54l A.D. inthe anonymous Dr Ahhemia of Nuremberg, and often soon afterwards(Ruska U9261).

The Tabuh, which is the al-lawh al-zumurrudof the Sin (\Teisser ed.U979), pp.524-529, has been quored in its entirery in Jibir's (Jstuqussal-Uy (Holmyard ed.. [1928], 909-15), and panially elsewhere (Hoy,Baltth). However, neither the Tabuh, nor any other parts of the Sirrshow any trace ofJabir's Science ofBalance. Furrher, there is in thatwork no discussion about the natures being measurable and the harmonyof the world resting on their quandrative reladonships. Did Jabir haveavailable to him some otler work of Bdinas?

This is a question that needs further painstaking research. However, asa cursory remark one may point out that three works seem ro be goodcandidates for consideration as Jabir's sources:

(a) Artributed to Balinis is a rrearise entirled Kitab al-Fikha (TheBook ofAgriculture) and it has been observed that Jabir's l(hawass showssome significant dependence on this work (Sezgin, [GAS], M p. 163).

(b) The alchemist al-Jildaki in his Sbarh al-Sham-s al-Ahbar(Commentary on the Supreme Sun) mentio ns a Kitab al-Sab,a (Book ofthe Seven) of Balinis, on the first part of which he claims to have writtena commentary (MS Berlin 4188. See lGaus [1942-3),II, p.297, n. 4).liraus suspected an influence of this work on Jabir's science of Balance(ibid, pp.297-298).

(c) In the confused Arabic Balinis lirerarure, rhere is also a KtibM;rtah al-Hikma (The Key to r$7'isdom) which has been anributed ro apupil of Apollonius, the famous Artefius. This worh discovered bv LeviDella vida, is extant in Larin under the i.rle chuis sapientiae(Levi Della

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES 205

Vida [1938]). Sezgin suspects that Artefius may well have been theauthor of other works of the Balinis co{Pus (Sezgin, op' cit., P. 167).

I2l

Here we read that Balinis is in agreement with Jabir's idea that (a) allthings are reducible to the four natures, (b) these natures Posssessquantities, and (c) these quantities exist in all things in the proponion| :3 :5: 8, drus conforming to the number 17 (= l+3+5+8).

In the preceding chapters we have already discussed the importance of17 in the Jabirian system. As to why this parricular number is chosen byour author, it is a question which has remained a subject of speculativeinvestigadon on the part of modern scholars. It puzzled lGaus, who, asNeedham acknowledged, devoted to it an immensely learned disquisitionin his [1942-3] (II, pp. 199-22il, recalling the Tinueus and Pythagoras,looking for connections with the Music of the Spheres, and alluding to17 consonants in the Greek alphabet (Needham [980], Y, iv, p. 462).However he did not claim to have solved the problem ofJabir's sourcesin this matter.

In the fifties, Stapleton suggested that the mysterious Jabiriannumbers carr all be derived from the magic square of 3 (Stapletontlg53l;

|957J; [958]). A magic square is an arrangement of numbers in t{reform of a square or some other marrix such that every colurnn, svery row,and each of the diagonals adds up to the same number. Stapletonconsidered the simplest case and applied to it what he called gnomicanalysis to ercplain not only the number 17 of Jabir, but dso its Jabirianelements 1,3,5 and 8:

l:,tir

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.,riii

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3 5

8 5

206 cHAPTER 6

Divided in this way, the gnomon's total is 28 (sum of the numbers

*.f"J Ly h.""y lines, 4+9+2+7+6), while the numbers in the

remaining compartments add up to 17 and haveJibir's 1,3' 5 and 8'-

Stapleio' raced this -"gic

r!rr... ultimately to ancient China lvhere'h.;;il ;r, it is found "porri"bly [as early as] 1000 B.C. as the ground plan

;a;il ii;rg-Tong-the Ducal (.nd, latet, Imperial) T:-pl.t of Mystic

E.lieht.-.;l' (it9531, P.3q;. And further, writes Stapleton' "this

M;;il iqu";" ;;. k";*; in Europe to Theodorus' a pupil of ' ' '

Porphyry." b.37).- -fi;ii, ii *. early eighties, Needham.-reopened this question, but

r"fy ,r l.i"force StailetJn', .on.l,,sions (Neidham' o?' cit".pp' 461-

iiil. ct"ary r..ogrri"ing what he saw as Jabir's connection with Chinese

th-o,r*ht, Ne.dh"it s ue ^

strong suPPort to Stapleton's gcncrdization

iir", ?fr.t. has been""a cardinal]nfl,.ir,.. [ofl Chinese cosmism upon

Arabic protochemistry and alchemy'" (p' 462)''-Ti.;t;;.t1'

.r*J Jabirian ,ru-bt" tots at this juncture' B1t ilsofa

as the question of specific sources is a fruitful one' there seems to be no

**""it a.ny St"pl.ton t}re credit of providing a convincing historicd

.*ot'*".ion of ;aii.', 17. ln f".t, iht explanation is .particularlyffi;li-,,i.i"liJ*.r.rte fact that t}'e above TTit itYte

do-es' indeed'

"oo.", ir, irr. of fie Jabirian t.,<ts: this is rhe Kitib al-Matuaztn al-$aghV

iitrr.l_ar-g""L ;f '8"1"r,..r, IG 9g0, Berthelot ed. [1g93], III, p._118).

It is rather rem"rk ble th"t i,, his painstaking effort^to explai.n Jabir's

il;,;;; number, lSaus made no use of this feature of the al'

Mawdzin!

TEXTUAL NOTES

I This is one of the several legendary accounts of the discovery of the

*;;i;"; attributed ,o H.t-&' Some accounts' such as that of Abu

il,r::r'li:; a: ;;;i 886)-, h; -i;a"i

i n order ro p reserve revealed_ wisdom

Hermes had left i"r"tiiii"* "" ittt *"ilt

"f iemples and -caves

which

were subsequ.r,.lv air.Tr'.,iJ Uit"g*' Hermes hai himself received his

ffi;ili;5;;G; ;;e;, i'-"T:a bookwritten on sapphire tablets

;i;;% ii*uf'-*?.i. tcr' pi"s*' t-19681' For a general survev ofArab ic H e rmetica r.. pl#".t' ir i i +li mg t I 9 i I I ; .fo r- lP-ecifi c acco un tst;;ilt;i;i. .,"4i,i""',i" il; iitel, rvl pp. 2as-zie; Massignon's'Appendix" to Festugilre ll944l)'2 This entirc quotation of Jabir. (namc]/, "T9 expound the wisdom ' ' ' I

declare'), comcs pt"..LJ$ *rbatim from tltt Si,of Bdinis where one

.1

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C OMMENTARY Al ' lD TEXTUAL NOTE S 207

reads, "aqillu 'ah ithri hhabt hadha uta asifu'l-hihmata'l-lati ryidn

biha . .." ('Weisserc a."fi';il,'l'i-il' Indeei' the iegend of the cave in

;#i'' H.;;;;;".4.i^ftr't"L[';; sdi"ai is dsJ found in the sirt(lV'eisser ed.119791, PP. 5-7).3 The Art = alchemy.4 In other words, elixirs vary according to the objects to which they are

applied Gee below).

t3l

Below is a tabular representation of the contents of this section:

Ist Deg. IInd Deg'

l : ) :

IIIrd Deg. IVth Deg.

Jt8

: l$

Degree 605 dir. 3x605 dir' 5x605 di/' 8x605 dir'

Grade 60a diir. 3x60a dir' 5x60a dir' 8x6Cl. dir'

M;;,. 603 dir. 3x60t dir. 5x6o3 dir. 8x60'dir'

i"..ta 602 dir. 3x602 d'in 5x602 dir' 8x602 dir'

Third 60 din 3x60 dir' 5x60 dir' 8x60 dir'

; . * .h ld i r .= 3djr ' 5dir ' Sdir '

60 '*thlrsFifth l 'ashtr 3'dth' 5 'ash' 8 'ash'

TEXTUAL NOTES

| $anjais the term used for standard wcights used as counterpoise in

balances. Thus, " al'wazn bi al-sanjt would mean the measured weight'

or the effective weight.

2I tshouldbenotedthatJabirusestheterm..degree' ' intwodi f ferent

senses: (i) in the GdJi. ,J;;'"f it;i, ia (ii) as"the largest subdivision

of (i) which t"..., ,".'i'';;; il;; botto*td from istronomy' To

disdnzuish the two, d;:l'"i.'ii) ft* 6.." capitalized, thus "the degree in

;;Flilri.gt.e, the degree in the Second Degree"'etc'

208 CHAPTER 6

I4l

It has been pointed out in the preceding chapters that Jabir believes inthe artificial generation not only of plants and animds but also of humanbeings. His Tajmi'is devoted to this very subject, a work in which hegives actual laboratoqy procedures for carrying out such generation.

Here the author tells us about two kinds of Balances: a Balance createdby God, the First Balance; and a Balance which can be created by man,the Second Balance. In the al-Mtzan al-Saghir, we read: "There are twosorts of creation, a First, and a Second. The Second is represented by Artand resembles the First." (Kraus ed,. |9351, 449:4). And what is thedifference berween divine creation and artificial generation? In theformer case, Jibir explains, the natures are brought into relation withsubsance in one instant (dafatan wihidatan), whereas in the latter case,man is able to unite the natures with substance only in successive steps(fufal, bit by bit, over a period of time (ibid,444:4-6).

'We see Jibir reiterating his view that the artificial generation oforganic and inorganic bodies is within human competence. It isinteresting, howwer, that he attributes rhis belief to Balinis.

t5l

Given our detailed exposition of Jabir's Balance of Letters doctrine(Chapter 3 above), the contents of this secrion should present lirtledifficulry (for the problem of repetition of letters in a given name, seeespecially lApplication of the Balance of Letters").

We are told once again thar Balinis is in agreement with our author.But it is remarkably strange thar to this Neopythagorean sage Jabirattributes the view that the practirioner of Balance need rake intoaccounr no langu"ge other than Arabic! Does Jabir think thar Bdinis isan Arab writer? An answer to this question might provide someimportant clues roward the identification of rhe pseudo literarureavailable to our aurhor.

There are nvo funher poinrs of inrerest in this passage. Jibir's Balinissays that werything ought to be named according to the realiry of itsBalance. But, then, this would trap our author in a circle: for, accordingto him, one discovers the Balance of things by their names-now u/c aretold that to name a thing one needs to know its Balance!

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES 209

Jibir creates for himself another embarrassment by making his sage

talk about an unambiguous artificial language. This weakens his idea thatlanguage has a natural origin and is not a mafter of convention (See "The

Metaphysicd Syndresis,' Chapter 3 above).findin one notes Jabir's peculiar brand of 'esotericism' making an

appearance here. To baffle the unworthy reader, the author confesses,contradictions are deliberately introduced among the various para of thecorpus!

TEXTUAL NOTES

I The tent 4:8-9 is somewhat ambiguous due to the author's broken sryle.2 See the table in [3] above.

t6l

Sce Chapter 3 above.

TEXTUAL NOTES

I If the weights of the natures in a thing did n9g conform. -to

rheproportion l":3:5:8, one had to discover itLy intuition: thus, if thesei"eiihts fell shon, one made addidons; if the weighr were in excess, then,

"S.ii by means of intuition, "separadons" had to be carried out.

2 This is strange, for " dhohob" has only three letters: how can it signifyfour narures? 6ne notes also that our'author himself does not seem toagree with the view that the nature of gold "truly conforms to theBllance," for a litde later we are told that-gold is "excessive" (see [26]below).3 Note the eulogy here.4 It is not dear what the autJror means by "away from werything else.": Jabir very likely means inflecrions, feminine designations and plurdforms.6 Form = 17 (see [3] below).7 Indeed, through the method of anificial generation, the adept couldaccomplish this (see [4] above).

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CHAPTER 6

t7)

Quite abrupdy, dl references to Balinis have been suspended. Jabirnow proceeds with his explication of morphology, and, in effect, writes abrief and lucid treatise on the idea of verbal roots and primitive nouns.'We are taught how to resritute a word to its primitive core-this was, werecall, thc first step toward determining the quantitative structure of athing (see "Application of thc Bdance of ktters," Chapter 3 above).

wHere Jibir deds with the inflection of nouns, and explains it not by

stating general principles, but, rather, by giving illustrative examples.

TEXTUAL NOTES

l Jabir specifies two terms for the genitive case, hhaft and jan. Thisbeuays a terminological eclecticism, for the former tcrm was used by thegrammarians of Baghdad, the latter by those of Kffa.

tBl

He moves on to an explanation of verbal roots, identifring the tenadiunct consonants which are used to form derivatives of the root. n7eare told, funher, that these ten letters can also function as radicals-thisis a standard morphological fact of the Arabic language.

It is interesting to note that Jabir had manufactured his ownmnemonic phrase for these consonants, namely " al-1nwm unsdha." Tlisphrase appears in rhe lhhrnj, Kraus ed. [ 935), 11 :1 5. (For the differentmnemonic expressions of the grammarians, see Silvestre de Sacy [1831],I , p.3l) .

tcl

In discussing tfie three classes of roots, Jabir is concerned not withvcrbs but with nouns, and, given his interest in the names of things, thisis understan&ble. He is here deding with tJre different permutations ofthe three vowels (a, i, u) that are adjoined to the radicals and give rise todifferent paradigms. It is obviously due to Jabir's theoretical preoccupa-tions that he concerns himself with vowels, for in his method of analysis

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES 2II

of names, vowels play no role. Indeed, he is interested both in music andmetrics, and in this way relates them to morphology.

tDl

Now Jabir explains how the ten adjunct consonants are added to theprimitive core of a word. Here he deals with both nouns and verbs,gi"ittg avery.clear account' and one finds nothing unusual about the&"-pla given in the last paragraph flabir's illustrative nouns and verbsca" all be Found, for example, in Ibn Manzfir's Lisan al-Arab).

TEXTUAL NOTES

1 Indeed, lnm is added in " dha?" so drat it becomes " dhalts."2 This is not clear.3 The case Jabir has in mind is that of the relative Pronoun for the dud,e.s,., allodhan; (masc. noim.) and al?dbyi (masc. acc' and gen.)-these*6rds ar., indeed, spelt with three ldms, and the same applies to thefeminine forms.

I8l

See Chapter 3 above. (For the grammarians' idea of 'motion' and 'rest,'

see n. 16 ofthat chapter).

TEXTUAL NOTES

1 For an ortensive studv of Arabic phonetics see Bravmann tl934l. An

eircellent brief accountis to be fouird in Fleisch r.z. "flur[f al-Hii]ji',"

[EI2], nI, p. 596 tr.

lel

This is one of the most interesting passages in the whole text. 'S7e see an

abrupt introduction of an account of different rypes of numbers.-Notethat this is somewhat of a digression for the author malces no use of these

ideas in what follows.Significantly, tle terms uscd byJabir dl come from the Greeks. Thus,

210

; l

' t' l

1r! .1

i

' ' ll,t

, i

2I2 CHAPTER 6

fard. = peinon; zzwj = artio.n; ztutj ot-*"1 = artiahit artion; fard al.fard =peinahis perinon;

,yy1 al-fard = perittikis artion; and fard ot_L*i =artiahis perittoz. All these i.rntr

"f!."r in Euclid's Eleienx, Booh-wl

(Heath tr. [1956], Def.7-r0, pp. iiz-zlq. The standard text of Eucliddoes not rnention the lasr ot. ir the above list, bur see Heath's 'Notes,o(!4 t:r,, p.283) where he specifies a manuscript which does conrain adefinition of artiahis peitton. Th. sarne terms ate fourrd also in the othermajor-source of Arabic science of numbers (rilm al-rada$, namely theIntroduction to Arithmetic of the 2nd century aD. Greek mathematician,Nicomachus of Gerasa (D'ooge tr.11926l, book I, especiaily chapters 7-I l ) .

Ir is-significant, however, that the formulation ofJabir's definitions ismarkedly different from those of Euclid, and this is the reason why Ihave nor imimted the standard translations of Euclid's Greek rerms,namely 'odd.-times odd,' "even- tirnes even," etc. Rather, the terms havebeen rendered "odd-odd,' 'even-even,' etc., dropping the word .rimes.o

$.*. pro..ed, it will become evident that the rt*a"ia renderings makelittle sense in the Jabirian conrext. But one notes also that, d.rlite thedifferences in the formulations of the rwo authors, Jibir seems t'o ,h*.with Euclid most of dre concepts themselves.

on the other hand, Jebir's account has nothing whatsoever to d.oeither with the text or the concepts of Nicomach usY Introductioz. Thisplaces him in a distinct traditionifor we know that it is the rntroductionwhich had served as the essential source, e.g., of the "Treatise onNumbers" of che Ikhwnn_al-lafr, (Rasa'il, Znilir ed,. [192g), pp. 23_4g).In fact, the "Treatise," which mentions Nicomachus-

"r^ th. lr.ry

beginning, is largely a paraphrase of the In,oduction (see Gordstein'stranslation of the former in his [1964]). similarly, tle well-known(tftrtlt al-'ulilm of the 4thlr0,h century author d-katib al-Khwarizmidso reproduces the definidons of Nicomachus (Khadwej"- J [r96g],pp.177-179). But, evidently, Jabir does not belong'to this ArabicNicomachus tradition- If anything, he is closer to Eucfii(see berow).

This feature of our ley lrgh throw some new light on Je sticky

qu.:.r:" of the dadng of rheJabirian corpus. For whileihe Arabic Euclidtractrtlon rs a very complex and unusually rich phenomenon (seeMurdoch r.z. "Euclid: Transmission of the Eltmna" iOSg], i,-i,. qrrS,Busard, [1968], [1983J; De young [l93t]), it is dehn'itir.ti't

"o# ,U,

there are two ultimare sources "irh.

et"ui. tradition of the Ehments:(i) the ransladon of \Lajjaj ibn y[su{, first rnade a*i"g ,h.1;it" ,f

coMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NoTEs 2I3

Harun al-Rashid (170-194i786-809); and (ii) that of Ishaq ibn Hunayn,which was revised by another famous translator Thabit ibn Qurra whodied in 2891901 (Busard |9681, p. 1). Thus the first version of theHajjaj translation happens to anredate the Ishaq-Thabit texr by a periodof t}re order of one cennrry. Now, as we shall presendy see, Jebir showsclear affinities with that Arabic Euclid radition which incorporates somematerid &om rhe older of the two te)cs.

The Introduoion of Nicomachus, however, made its first appearanceonly in the laner half'of the 3rd/9th century when the Thabit ibn Qura,tlre same personage who had revised Isbaq's rendering of the Ehmentgtranslated it into Arabic (entided Kitab Madhhal ila 'Ilm al-Adad, thismanslation has been edited by Kutsch [1958]). Given the late arrival ofthe Introductioz, it is no surprise that Jabir's ideas are totally independentof it.

TEXTUAL NOTES

t Jabir defines odd numbers before defining even numbers. This reversesthe order one finds in Euclid's Ehments (D-ef.7 and 8, Heath tr. U9561,II, p.277). In fact it was a logical necessiry for Euclid to define evennumbers first, since he defines-odd numberi in terms of even numbers.As for the rest of the definitions, Jibir follows the order of Euclid.

But perhaps the most significanr fearure of this definirion of Iabir ishis use bf the rerr" " utahidrfor unir, rather rhan " utahda," for thii is oneof the idenrifring traits of rhe Arabic Euclid radiiion which derivesfrom, inter alia, rhe \l"jjaj text (see De Young, op. cit., pp.565-567).According ro De Young'([oc. cit.) the differenc6 b.ln"..t, ih. r*o ter-,hinges on whether the unit is considered odd or not. As we can see, Jibirdoes, indeed, consider the unit to be an odd number. Thus, we canlegitimately place hirir in a pre-Ishaq-Thabit environment.2 One would have thoughr that by 'sisters'Jabir means 'multiples,' but,then, he used the same word in his definidon of odd numberi where ithad a different sbnse! This definition, like his first one, is totallydissimilar to what one reads in Euclid (Hearh t., lac. cit.).3 Euclid's definition reads: "An even-times eyen number is that which ismeasured by an even number according to an even number." (Heath tr.,loc. cit.). Jabir's example of 8 cenainl! satisfies rhis definition, for 8 =2 x 4, or 4 x 2. Bw, rhen, to say that it arises also out of a pairing of 6 isto violate Euclid's definition.

' ' i l

r#'1.,J,J; i i

ll i:l:tir:i

1r'li

.i;l: llll, i l. l

.;,1'.'.j.{

.,3:rill

"*."4J

"iJ::ili.-,

"ii{,..;];;l

;J"..#*X

$E

;ii,,;'l'::11

.i,,i':,Uig.J

.,.d1]T

..{. {'4.rrt

I\ 'td{il

{{{.n

214 CHAPTER 6

Therefore it seems that Jabir views an e,ven-even number as that which

arises when an even ""tiU.t

pairs with itself, or with another even

number. Thus,- 8 =' 4 + 4, 6 + 2, 2 + 2 + 2+ 2 (double pairing)'.

Obviouslv this is a *or.hl." conc€Pt' for all evtn numbers ucept 2

satisfr this difinition. i ,-, . ,""?ii;^;;1i.", *t y it is-not appropriate ro translate Jabir's "uui

of)uj"' u "l *rn' ti-ri *rn," unliki'the case with Euclid)'

4 labir's err"mple of 6 will cenainly satisfy Euclid's Def' 9' namely' "an

"L,ij,rilI'.IJ-";r"b.;i: ih", *fri.h is'measured bl yeven number

;;;; '; i '"i; "r,

odd ;;b;;.;(Heath q', p'27.8)'.For 6 = 2:< 3,' and

ffi;;iiJ,#'""t; t';;;"d.r.d "n odd number by our author) also

aT;. ril*};r, ir'ir;*;t; what Jabir means when he sap rhat "6 is

contained in 9," etc.5 Accordins to Euclid, "an odd-times odd number is that which is

;;;J'ft; ;JJ ";-ber

acc-ording.tP T. odd.number"' (Heath tr"

loc. cit.).Jabir's o<amples dl satisfr this definition' slnce

3=5-

x3x5x7

9=1x9,3x3.P*,f '".-1",g,ri".""i.'t*::fri:'l'T''/1"j"*'i:|;;tf,:b"

'J;'.h;.fi;'?.h;;;L.iJ '"nt"i"ed in 3' 5,7'2' and in numbers

rr[. .i.r!l;iii. aia i., L". g i" ttir list, one would clearly see that he is

talking about Prime numbers'6 odd-even (or ratler, "odd-times wen") numbers are not mentioned in

Ni";;;;ilrYiioii"rr;"" 1*J ig"g not in the Rasd'il of the lkhwin),

;;;;;il fr;"; ir-ar rvris of the Ehments. He.ath tells.us (01. c;t,

". zfrai il;i t";;;";;'iP, t" yt"+ such numbers are introduced'

i#""; ';;;J-

u. rl.-"".I;[i'h, when dividea bv al odd number'

il:;;;;;;6;'; a quotient' This w-ould mean that anv--even-

?irr.r-.aJ'; "u*b.,

it Ato a"aa-times even" number' since 6- = 2 x 3 =

;T;,";;.i;ft;d;?t;t.i"" *p'in"t"us' Thus Heath considers this to

be an interpolation.^ i;fil;i.fi"iri"" it obscure' He gives as examples 7 ' 5' 3 and l: is he

talking about Prime numbers?

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES 2I5

[10]

The musical modes mentioned by Jabir are all well-known in the Arabic

iJi.i"" (see Vright lt978l, pi.-zSo-z1q. 'We note that he uses the

iu^ roriqa (pI. iara;iq, T;;},^etc') to designate loth-ifrrth'mic and

melodic modes known -or.

,p..ifically as 'iqi'At and asAbi' respectively

Gt-paraui U9671, p. 1022 ff.; i-tcindi [1965], p. 26, 9":11T" U967),olrlrr "1M".'uai 1874),VIII, pp. 98-99; al-Ghazali [1901]' pp'220'222. See notes below).__Lokirrg

at this section from the perspective of the history of Arabic

-*iJ-.ft?tf on.6nds in it nothing t::"qs:tt a post-2nd/8th century

oriqin of o.rri.*,. For all the terms uied bylabir aP-Pear-not.only.in the

;;j?;B; 'f

.f'. first Arab philosopher (i'e'', fa/'asafl "1.Kjl{tl it is also

k".;; that already the earliest musicians of ltl"-' Abu Uthmin ibn

t,tiri"h (d. c.9717i5) and his students, Ibn Suraf (d' c' 1.08172,6)' and

il;-'M",ir;; <a.. t. iitlt5), had between them formulated the rhythmic

;;ilfi. ',,,oa.r k,o*n to our author (see Lois al laruqi 119811,

pp. 101-102; Farmer r.a'. "Ibn Mit4"lt," IEIl]' D( (S"pP!)'.p: 94; ideru

I;: ;i-il vlrL rf rstam" tNoHMl; r, pp. 42r-477; Ylrisht 11966l,etc.).

TEXTUAL NOTES

1 Here Jabir is talking about rhythmic modes'

2 One of the 'famous rhythmic modes" (al''lqa'at al'MashhAra),which

are described, amons ".ft6*,

Uy al-Farabi in hk' Ktab al-.kIusiqA,al'Kab,r

ti;;pj,';.-itzi'Fl.-Iri"ifi - the classical accounrs, the "first

[#;f i*'.h; l";* percussrons, somerrmes equal in duration, but

;#"#; ;;;il:t'. being longer than the othtt two-' e'g' 4 beat -

;';;;.:; L.ii 'y.1.

i. ,r-iJaii U9671, p- 1045 ff. (see Lois al Faruqi

[1981], p.36i l .3 Accordinq to al,Farebi (op. cit., pp. 1038-1041), it had three slow

p;;;ti""t:forming an arithmetic piogressionz 4 - 6 - 8'

i Th. irrrr.rrtion of this mode is credited to Ibn |vl"trriz (Lois d Faruqi

rrq;ir;;.i;;i.;il;fii.fi "rthat it consisted of a three-percussion

cvcle bestnnrng wrrn ;;; l";g percussion' followed by rwo shon ones

iit;;it#i'0t33-ftti. Sffi; descriptions "re founi in al-Kindi and

if" Sina (iois d Faruqi, hc. cit')' Rnmalis dso a poetrc meter'

',!r!1'-"r:,-i:Yii'"f""?:: jTT,lrrt:l;:;;:r"f il'.HTSr'mfsrngrng ln anclent n

216 CHAPTER 6

(d.3291940) [1887], p. 186; Farmer [1941], p.25).Bur rhe term alsodesignates a conjunct rhythmic mode of moderate tempo, i.e., one inwhiJh dl percussiotrr

"t. of equal duration and follow tne another at

regular intervals. According to Ibn SinA,, hazai designates any coniunct(iuttasil) rhythmic mode"([I930], p.92). But al-"Farabi risuicis theapplication of this term only to the conjunct (matawassil) modes ofmoderate tempo ([1967), p.453). Like ramal, hazaj is aiso a poeticmeter.

Lois d Faruqi adds that hazaj "was thought to have been the firstrphmic mode introduced in thi new g.trt."of song of the [lst/]7thcentury known as ghina' al-mutqan." ([1981J, p.94).

-

! A thr99 p_e_rcussion cycle, two short followed by one longer (O.O.O. . . :2 - 2 - 4). (See al-Farabi [1967), p. 1048).t

Jllir rhyrJr:nic mode is described by-Farabi as a fast version of thaqilal-thani (OO.O. . . : I - 2 - 3) (al-Faiabi [19671, p. 1042ff. Cf. Farmer[1943], p.82).8 The "rapid rarnal'is described variously by authorities. Thus al-Kindisays that it designates a,rhythmic mode of either two or three percussions(OO.. : | - 2or OOO... : I - 1 - 1) (see Farmer U9431,p. S5). guraccording to d-Farabi, the term was used for a rhythmic mode with rwopercussions, the first short, the second long (O.O. . . : 2 - S) (d-Farabi[1967], p. L029; p.1033).In conuasr, Ibn Sina tells us that it is made ofthree_percussions of nvo different lengths (O.OO. ..:2 - I - 2) (IbnSina [935], p.209). Cfl Lois d Faruqi[1974], pp.t34-135.9 A conjunt rhFhmic mode comprising a sequence of equal percussionsperformed ar a rempo which allows J.rly orre percussibn ro be fitredberween any rwo percussions (al-Farabi U9671, p.451. See al FaruqiI r98l l p. tb) .

' J ' r

l0 "r4sdbi'" literally means 'fingers," a term which designates rhemelodic modes known to have beJn organized inro a sysrem trv the latel:./Zttr.S:llfy. mu_sician ^I!n Misjahldescribed by ibn al-Munajjim(d. 3001912) in his Risah f,l-M*ria tr976l, pp.853,868 tr). See i_ois

* F*qi [981].p. 20; Farmer [r9;7), p. 448; Wright [1978], p.41. For

lDn tvllslan see above.These modes are called "fingers" because they are named after the

finger or fret position used for froducing their starting tones (see noresbelow).'lTrighr ([1978], pp.Z50-Z5l) iells us that

"i orr. srase tlese

melodic modes were, indeed, allied ro rhFhmic rnodes to pr5d.r.. "corpus of 36 Turaq This essentially verifies Jdbir's claim.

,.'.11J

, . "e*

^,1- : {

,i.,.;i

,",jj

JJl :1

- : . t j

':li

: l l

.., ' i

. "1' ,d{

'':,1:-il,!t

,11r.l.{,,4,.

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES 217

tt !e_e llapter 3 above (for the phonetic rerms'motion'and'rest'see

n. l6 of thar chapter).t2- Muthq, according to al-Ferabi, designates the open strins of achordophone (U9671, p. 500). Jabir mentions ir as one of rhe"ocravemodes which were systematically described by later musical theorists suchas

^(Abd a.l-Qadir ibn Ghaybi (d.Bjglt4jS) (t_ois al Faruqi [1981],

P.216).

', S"il, mazmim is described by Ibn Ghaybi as one of th,e six ocravemodes known collecdvely as rhe asdbi, (t,ois al Faruqi [1981], p. lg0).tn Tfr. rcrm uruttAsignifies the use of the middle finger for producing thestarting tone. (For a detailed accounr see Lois d Fariqi, [19'Sl], p. 3{D.r5 Mahmulis mentioned by lbn Ghaybi as one of the asibir, i.e. one ofthe sixoctave modes (Lois al Faruqi tllAtj, p.164).

t l l l

somewhat si.le-steppin g, Jabir now presents a pedagogical discourse onspecific .gr"u:'y-- and its practica[ applicati,ons -in"

determing theconstitution of dloys and other mixtures. Evidendy, his essendal sourcefor all this is Archimedes. (For an account of Jabir's familiariry withArchimedes, see Chapter I above).

In .the .Ihhraj _(Kraus ed. [1935), 92:8-9), Jabir distinguished berween

two kinds of Balances: rhe Balance of (gtorr) velghr, (it-mrzanal-wazn), and the Balance of the Nature s (*ilan al-ybail.Thl formermeasured.the gross quantides of substances which enter into a mirture,wtule the latter derermined the larcnt quandties of the natures in a simplebody. \trfe are being told in this section thar the former is a croseapproximation of the latter. of course, in the determinadon of thequantitative sructure of a simph body lay a uury divine science (,,a\-rilmal-khfiti," Khamsin, qu. IGaus [19424],II, p. lgg, n.3), beyond thegrasp of a common man (al-Sin al-Mahnin, ibid., p. lgg, n.

-7). Here,

h-owwer, Jibir concerns hi.ms9!f wi$ gross quantities'of meiars in a givenalloy-i.e., he is concerned with al-mizan ai-waznr.

-- --- - i

tAl

It is inreresting to see how our author effectively undertakes a verytedious and challenging task not only does the praitirioner of Balance,

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES 2r92t8 CHAPTER 6

we ar€ told, have the expertisi to determine (i) whether a given metal

object consists of one *.irl or more, he is also able to (ii) determine the

pr."is. constitution of an alloy, and to (iii) measure accurately the

weights of the constituents.Iio*, t"rk (i) is straightforward, thanks to Jabir's knowled-ge of the

hydrostatic balance, "tr-d

hir familiarity with the notion of specific

er".,niw. (It is not clear, however, if our author knows what is called the

i,rchimedi"n principle-namely, the principle that the-loss of weight

suffered by a body in wat r = weight of the water displaced !{.fit !4f):But (iii and (iii) are practiially impossible tasks if one follows Jabir's

ohvsici method, as oppor.d to chemical assaying. His method consists

l" i"t i"g a unit *eight'of each of the metals and-finding out the loss of

its weigfit in water nihe" (a) it is unmixed, and (b) when it is mixed with

othe, inet"ls. From these observations one would compile a kind of.ready reckoner' of alloys and their precise-constitutions. But, then, in

prin"ipl., such a catalogue will have an infinite number of listings, for

*.t"1, "-

be mixed.og!.h., in innumerable proponions ofweights and

in all different combinations!The only way one can save Jibir's methg! is by assuming that metals

.o,rtJU. -t.d

tog.th., only in a small and known number of ways' and

that their differeni proponions in alloys were not only finite' they were

dso known in advance.

TEXTUA]- NOTES

I It has already been pointed out that in some parts of his.corpus, our

*'*., i".f"a7r gl"rt5 in his list of metds. Von'Lipmann identifies this

substance as yelloi amber (see Chapter I above)'

tBl

'\Ufe have here a partial description of the construction of an equal-arm

balance. From the manner in which Jabir talks about it, one gets the

;;;; th"t brl"rr". construction was a known art in his time he

-."rit"t 'diagrams'without actually Presenting *:*'-":d

this could

*.tt ,."" thl't they were commoniy-known ""d

h. felt no need to

reproduce them; similarly, we ,."d pht"sts such as " asual manner of

bi"t.. construction,' "ordinary balances," and this beuays ttre same

thing.

Indeed, we learn from external sources that since pre-lslamic ttmes

Harrin was a place where many skilful mechanics were engaged in

making balances, so accurate as to have - become

-proverbial (see

al-Maqdisi's al-Taqdsim f Ma'rtfat al-Aqalim, qu. '$7'iedem-ann s.a.

"al-Mizan" IEIl], V, p. ilt;;rhrir, "Zu, fechnik-der Araber," Fisher

ll97})).ln Chapter 1 above, we have referred to the rich and extensiveaccount of balances in al-Khzinl's Mtzin al-$ikma which indicates,once again, that dready by the middle of the 3rd/9th century the art of

balanc-e construction-had reached in Islam e very high degree of

sophistication. al-KhZini illustrates, e.g., the elaborate baiance of the

alchemist al-Rezi (Khanikoffed. [859], P.86). It should be remarked

that Jabir's balance looks like a crude one, and it is only through

improvization that it functions as a hydrostatic balance. He describes a

similar balance also in the Bahth, MS Jarullah 1721, f.133 (See lGaus

ed. U9351, p. 142, n. l2).

TEXTUAL NOTES

I The term 'tonzue' designates the needle which functions as the pointer

of an equal-"rnib"l"tt..] It is fixed at the centre of gravity of,the steel

be.- "ttd

divides it into two equal arms. This tongue moves with respect

to a carriage which is attached it right angles to the beam.

2 banhan = fnjdn. The word is of Persian origin (see lGaus ed. 119351,p. 142, n. I2).a;abir seems to be stating an empirical l1w tfia1 in a siiver-gold alioy, the

*.igh, of the silver in tfe alloy-: loss of weight of the alloy in wxter =

l :Vn.

t ,1

,lI

.,".1*

Ir2l

Jabir returns to his main t}eme, the Balance of Letters. He seems to

teliene that in drugs one nature dominates all others. W'e recall that in

his subdivisiorrs of a Degree, the highest unit is degree: only one nature

in a drug, the author t.-llt ot, ."tt oist in weights large enough to be

-.*rr.i in degrees. The remaining three narures were measurable only

in the smdlet t.tbdi.'itiotts--grades, minutes, seconds, etc.

220 CHAPTER 6

tl3l

22r. l. lI

-"1I

..:l",|r l

J'{

..','|, . j. ' l. r lr . ). , ]

I

I

i l

: i . I

, ,1'iujr,: I

':.r'.i

i:::l,i*l

il..*l'fl

.""jI

,,t4

I

.I",1

.'.:1

-t

:=1

"jiil

*''i'; i' it"

. . . . !

. -t.

. i

sjlr!

';

i;

' r..ia'r..'lX

.,;,,;I

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES

TEXTUAL NOTES

I One notes that all three manuscriDrs contain a numerical error here.But more surprising is the fact that Kraus too reproduces this mistake inhis teirt (IGaus ed. [1935],159:12-13). See critiial notes to Edited To<t,15:8-9 above where this eror has becn specified. Indeed, according to [3]49"gt the we.igfrt of the degree in the First Degree of inreisiry- ii777,600,000 dirhams.2 See [3J above.

Irn

Given below is a tabular represenration of tlese'Socralic'values:

Ist Deg. IInd Deg. IIIrd Deg. IVth Deg.l :325:8

hroq dnnaa d,anaa d,anaq

tr4l

The only point of interest in this beginning is its shi(i character: note theepithet "'Wali" for .Ali. As we have dready remarked (see Chapter l),Jabir is not at dl consistent in his sectarian sympathies, foi in thebeginning of the next part of our tent he will show, and just as clearln hisnon-Shr'i leanings.

l l5 l

On the whole this secrion presents no major difficulry.

TEXTUAL NOTES

I That is, when rhe welghts rhey signifi do not exactly add up to 17 or iamultiple.2 It is not altoge^ther. clear what, in this conrext, the author means bydecomposition of bodies.

l lq

The first paragraph of this secrion is highly obscure. There is noerplanation as to how the author arrives

"t lh.-rrrr-.rical values for the

natures in- animals, plants and stones. surely, by virtue of his owndoctrine, these values {epend on the names of th.r. objects-how canhe, then, give them a fixed precdculated value without'regard to theirspecific names?

Here once again the "Supreme Principle of Balance" is emphasized,namely thar in all things the four natures exist in the proportion1 z 3 : 5: 8, conformingrc 17. This number is now identified with form.

Jabir is here explaining the pracdcal sreps one ought ro take in orderrc mahe the natures of a thing conforrn to 17. This matter has dreadybeen discussed in Chapter 3 above (see especially "Applicarion of theBdance of lrners").

Degree 7Grade 3Minute '2V2

Second 2Third lbFourth IFifth %

35 5615 24l2r5 20l0 167Y2 1258'rt/^

^

) l

97rt64r53lY2

(Notc that all uteights hcre are grum in dnnaqs. ForJnbir's rysten ofanits sceChapter j, n. 69, aboue.)

\7hile l\re see that Jibir's Socrates also believes in the proDortion| : 3 : 5: 8, his values, unlike those of Balinis, do nor form

" ro"goi-"I

geometric progression (see below). In fact from the fifth to the grade, the'socratic' values constiture an arithmetic progression (thus in the FirstD-egree we have, 0.5, l, 7.5,2,2.5,3), but this progression breaks downwhen we reach the values assigned to degrees.

TEXTUAL NOTES

l4g{", all three manuscripts, as well the text of lftaus (ed. [1935],160:7), contain an error. SeJcritical nores to Edited Text, l5i14.

-

222 CHAPTER 6

l l8l

Socrates is perhaps the only classical historicd figure for whom Jabir hasan unreserved admiration. Hc is always referred to with a great deal ofrespcct, and he is dways preferred over others, appearing throughout asan authority par cxcclhnce (see Chapter l, n.29 above; see dso [27]below). But Jabir's Socrates is without doubt a pseudo figure, for ourauthor does not seem to know any of his genuine ideas. In fact, in tleTajmi< Socrates is presented as the pioncer of the Science of ArtificialGencration! (IGaus ed. [1935], 377 tr.). Similarly, the Kitab al-Fidda(Book of Silvcr, IG 948) records a historically impossible conversationbetrreen Socrates and Thales (Kraus [1942-3],I, p. I l3).

In the last paragraph of this section, Jibir expresses indifference withrespect to Bdinis and Socrates-follow whichever system takes yourfancy, he says. Yet it is interesting that throughout the rest of the Afiar,he follows 'Socrates,' without, in fact, giving his own system ofsubdivisions of a degree. .

Jabir's remarks concerning the sexagesimal qystem are also to be noted.In 6ct, a similar view is expressed by Theon of Alexandria (4rh centuryA.D.) which has been cited by Thureau-Dangin in his work on thehistory of tlre sexagesimal system (Thureau-Dangin |932]).

TEXTUAL NOTES

I In this paragraph, Jabir's expressions are exceedingly convoluted.Evidently, all he intends to say is that in developing a system of units,one has no choice but to adoot a sexagesimal Drogression. The reason?He orplains immediately bel6* th"t ttr. se*"g.siild system simplifiescalculations.

t lel

Concerning this table see the remarks in Chapter 3 above (see especiallyn.69).In fact, it is esentially the same as the 'Socratic' table given in [lZabove which has here been related to t}re letters of the dphabet accordingto the ABJAD scheme (see Chapter 3, n. 68).

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES

[20]

223

Jabir begins to talk about metals which he here calls fusible stones. Morefrequently, however, metals are referred to in the corpus by theappellation 'ajsid' (sing. jand). Further, here he narnes only six metds,elsewhere we find a list of seven; the substanccs listed as meals likewisekeep changing (for a fuller discussion see llu:aus 11942-31, II, pp. l8-30.See also the remarks conccrning Jabir's classification of substances inChapter I above).

'!7e observe mctals being classified according to color. Red metals, weare taught, have a prepoderance of hot-dry (this corresponds to Aristode'sprimary body Fire); in white metals, on the other hand, cold-moistdominate (corresponding to Aristode's'Water). (cf. Chapter 3 above).

It should be remarked that even though Jabir's specific red and whiteclassification is origind to him, color has remained since ancient times afundamental criterion for the classificadon of substances and has af*cinating chemical history (see Crosland U9621, pp.30-32, e6-73).lnone form or another, color classification is found throughout Arabicalchemy (see, e.g., Stapleton, Azo and Husain |927), pp.367,385).

TEXTUAL NOTES

I He does give tfie tables at the end of this second pan of his book.2 Note that throughout Jabir makes the natures conform to theproport ionTl .3:5:8.

12rl

r0Tithin the internal perspective of the Jabirian system, there is noobscurity in this pass€e if it is read in conjunction with the 'Socratic'table reproduced in section [19] of the translation above. Here the authorextends his color classification to all corpored objects of the naturdworld. rUTe are told that the total weight of the four natures in werynaturd object, when these objects are considered "according to thcprecise Balance,' is exactly 17 x 7 ddn.-e multiple of 17. This mcansthat all corporeal objects are quantitatively idcnical. Indeed lhis was so,but only in the case of idealbodies represented by the leners al$ b4', jimend, dil (ABJAD). In practice, to be sure, the names of physicd bodiesdid not necessarily havc these four lettcrs, a fact emphasized by the

224 CHAPTER 6

author's repeated declaration that the weight of 79 dir. and 5 dnn. "is drefigure arrived at according to the precise balance "-i.e. how it ougbt to be;for, in practice, one had to mahe the total weight conform to 17. (SeeChapter 3 above, especially "Application of the Balance of ktrers" whereJabir's idea of eirternd/internal natures has bcen discussed).

TEXTUAL NOTES

I Like Aristotle, Jibir believes that hot and cold were acrive qualities,whereas dry and moist were passive (see Mcteor,,4.l,378b; Gen. ct Con.,1.6-7 , 322b-324a; ibid., 2.2, 329b-330a).

l22l

In effect, Jabir here gives a clear expression to his belief in thecorporeality of the four qualities in the naturd world (see Chapter 2above). Indeed, the question he is considering arises as a logicalconsequence of this beliefi if dl bodies contain all four narures, then aIIbodies contain a given nature as well as its contrary. Now if thesecontraries are of equal strength, how is it that they don't cancel eachother out? And if they are of unequd strength, why doesn'r tle strongerneutrdize the weaker?

Jabir provides what may be called a spatial explanation. The naturesare placed in such a way that they don't come into conract with theircontraries-and this prsyents mutual destruction, or the neuualization ofone by the other. This explanation makes perfect sense within thecontext of the Jabirian cosmology: the four narures were corporealentities, so they necessarily occupy place.

I23l

The doctrine that qualities must occupy place now leads the authornaturally to his concept of equilibrium. \7hile this has already beenexamined in Chapter 2 above (where trGaus' paraphrase of this passagehas also been quoted), one might add here two further observarions.

(a) Fro- the standpoint of the science of mechanics, Jibir's conceprof equilibrium is perfectly legirimate for, effectively, equilibrium 1sviewed by him as a balance of natural forces. At the macro level, he

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES 225

evidendy idendfies equilibrium with the state of rest (the phrase "and itis not a [flowingJ liquid" is an unmistakable evidence). And at the microlevel, equilibrium is identified with being in an integrd state-if thiswere not so, the object would explode. Here, no doubt, Jabir has in mindsome idea of balance of forces acting on the elementary constiruen$ of asolid body.

(b) A" account of equilibrium in a different cont€xt appears in Jibir'slater work, the al-Maud,zin al-Saghlr where he says, "I have shown youby oramples the necessity of equilibrium in the performance of the Great\7ork . . . You must know that this equilibrium is indispensable in theScience of Balance and the prastice of the lfork." (Benhelot ed..[1893],Lil, ll5:2-4). (It should be noted that the al-MautdzIn al-Saghirisdifferent from the al-Mlzin al-Saghirwkrrch latter forms part of rhe Boohsof Bahnces. Due no doubt to the similariry of the mro tides, Needham inhis [980], V iv, p. 477 confuses the two).

TEXTUAL NOTES

I That is, elements pais into ens anethcl-this is an assertion ofJabir'sbelief in transmutation.

124)

Like many other (in the case ofJabir all) substances, elixirs were classifiedby the alchemists of Islam into rwo groups-red and white. The formerrvere supposed to turn its subject into gold, the latter into silver (seeHaschimi [1962]). fu a standard principle of classification, this idea hadalso found its way irito the alchemical tradition of the l,atin West. Thus,e.g., one reads in the SpeculumAhheniae of Roger Bacon that "the redelixir makes substances yellow infinitely and transmutes dl metals intothe purest gold" (qu. Crosland |9621, p.31). Haschimi, op. cit., hasdicussed red and white elixirs in terms of ion exchange coatings onmetals.

Jabir says that in red elixirs hot-dry dominate, in white cold-moist.But this is identicd to his explanation of red and white mctab. Moreover,the effective weight of the elixir (i.e. the totd weight of its natures), hetells us, is 19 dirhamsand5 danaqs (= 17 t7 din., a multiple of l7)-and this is precisely the effective werght he gave, specificdly, rc the meuband, generally, to all (ideal) corporeal objects (see [20] and [21] above).

226 cHAprER 6

This means that elixirs are nothing but idcal meub.Indecd, already inthe al-Rahma al-Ihbir, which is Jabir's earliest extant work, he hadcategoricaily stated that "the red elixir is of the same nature as gold. . . .The white elixir is of the same nature as silver.'(Benhelot [1893], III,150:r5-r7).

Elixirs werc idcal metals because in practice no metal had a weightprecisely of 17 x 7 frn.; one had to augment (ttya/") or suppress(naqldn) their natures in order to make them conform to 17.

The last pass€e in this section explicidy repeats the Jabirian idea thatthe quantitative structure of all natural objects is ultimately identical-"all our examples signifr the number 17. . ." (see [21] above).

I25l

The Jabirian distinction between letters as units of ardculated speech andleners as signs of the Arabic script is clearly o<pressed here. As we havediscussed in Chapter 3 above, the former were for Jabir natura.l entities,while the latter were no more than a mere convention. Maintaining withremarkable consistency his ontological equivalence between the letters (inthe former sense) and the four natures, the author now spcaks oftransmutationin alphabeticalterms: indeed, physical change in an objectwas in his rystem equivalent to a change in the name of the object. Thus,in keeping with this doctrine of the equivalence of physical and nominaltransformations, Jibir here speaks of a change of " ali? into 'be'" or into"jim' or into "dil," etc., rather than speaking of a change of,, say, Eanhinto Fire, or into Air, or into'Water, etc.

This passage providcs a further instance of Jabir's logicalconsistency-while speaking of tranformation of one letter into anotherhe says "provided you dcrive these leners from the Second Elements,namely, Fire, Air, Water and Earth." To be sure, it was in the Jabiriansystem not the natures but the four Empedoclean elements which passedinto ohe another. The natures, being the First Elements, maintainedtheir individual sha1as161-neither did they transform into one anothernor destroy one another. Logically speaking, the primitive elements hadto have these features, for it was in terms of these elements that all elsehad to be o<plained.

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES 227

IzqtAl

Jabir now explicidy identifies ided metals with elixir. 'We also find acategorical statement here that elixirs are, indeed, ideal objccts, for theyare p ractically non-oristent.

Once again, as in [23], our author o(Presses no romance for gold!

tBl

'S?'e are told that in order to transform a metal into elixir all one hadto do is make tJre totd weight of its natures precisely 17 x 7 dinaqs (see

124) above).Indeed, Jabir is remarkably consistent in this matter.

I2n

Quite courageously, dre author contends with the embarrassing questionof the plurality of names of a given thing. But he resolves the issue quitesimpllby say-rng that all langauges "seek to exPress a unique langauge,"andthis unique langauge was concerned only with meanings.

The passage heie is perfectly accurate in its -survey of different

appellati,ons applied to the metal tin, namely: {kll; ziutul (= Zeus,ijentified with the planet Jupiter); and, qasdlr (= Gr. kassitcrol. For Jabirto make a group t"y th"t "its [tin's] sibling is called 'usrar " is to malre a

statement *t i.tt ii also historically true, for indeed lead and tin were

often distinguished a.s rasas al-usrab, and rasis al-qah'i (fot a .detaileddiscussion ottho. names see Goltz U9721, especially pp.243-245).

And here, once again, one notices Jabir's preference for Socrates (cf.

[18] above).

TEXTUAL NOTES

I The planet Jupiter.2 At the end of this part of our terft, the author does. produce a table ofcalculation of the *Lightr of the natures in tin: indied, this has beenworked out according t-" the appellation "Zew:us"

',1I"l

.*l

s

,,$|slLlst,I.Aili:t I''fJ:rjii

{it

,,,]1.;fil

fii$,:f l

:cfi

,.:il.l$::n:llli

-$l.'!itltl,:!,1ql

I"tC*l.:'i:;.{,.,"{

;1

l;*tr.iiir'l

"":I'.,:J. t,,,1,]Jl,

'l1

q'r{JI,J.{J

228 CHAPTER 6

[28]

In sharp conrrast ,o *: opening words in rhe "Second part,,, nore thenon-Shlri character of this op.rfrg, to call Mut,ammad

^o I*a_ i, ,o

disregard the very foundadon-of ,..i"ri"n St i.ir-i

Izel

From what we have so far read ofJabir, it is already quite crear thar hisconcerns are not limited to the inanimate world of *h"t he calls srones.Rather, his system claim.s to be appricabre to ail.natrr"l;G;;rrot o'ryto inorganic substances,.but .q,rily to plant and animal ,,16r.*.o., fhir.

is,a distinguishin_g fearu.i noi only of Jabir, b"; ;i;l; Arabicalchemrcal tradition itself, for the interest of Hellenistic alchemists hadnever reached beyo^nd the realm of the inanimate. (It is for Ji, ,""ro'thar Needharn refuses to calr them alchemisrs ar ail-they were,according to him,_"Greek protochemists,,' that ir,

"r,ir"'rrr, ,oaplrilosopherl. See Needham[i9g0], V, iv, parsim). fn contrast, rhealchemists of Islam showed.from th. rr.ry beginninga r,rroi.r.Jirr..r.r.

illedicine, il

iru.g:, and in.rhe phenomenon of life in general (an

:fj:TlI r.1dy in 'his regard is that of Temkin tt953D. N-or only did

:1.t.,l.h:-ists apply their prin-ciples, operations and-producr to allthree langdoms of narure, mosr of them arso drew their materials from ail

l{rye realms (Ibn Umayl ilal.erception. See Ali, Sapleto" *i H,rr.l.,Il933l). Thus, hisrorians

1{{chemy are unired in tlreir "br;;r#;;;

::X[r:ldlng ancient China, ir was rhe Arabs who introdu.J pJ;and anlmal substances into the repertoire of alchemy, and that this is oneof their major conuiburion, ,o .h., complex ph.rro*.rro" *ilh I;J;;rne emergence of modern science. From this point of view, fibir,spas_s1ge

-ar hand is of outstanding historical significance. '-- -'' )

Jabir's elixir, we nore, ca' be-made "r, "f,r.,1,

.rg""ic and inorganicsubsrances. Thus ir is declared that elixirs

"r. of-r.rr.r, ayp.r, ,hr..uncombined, three wirh constituents drawn ftor, *o-or-ii. ,r"a,rr"tt#Tr in different combinations, and one made of subrr"rr.., i"k* fro_

all tnree realms.

"!,1, . i l. +;ri

e. i {

;,{

:,..1*j:,lI

' i$

')i,IJ

:t:lal

.r{

rJt

i;l, i i, | '

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES 229

tAl

'lfhen read in conjunction with the table in section [19] of thetranslation above, this passage Dresents no difficulry. Our aurhor is nowapplying- his Supreme Principle to elixirs. Like everphing else, elixirspossessed the four narures in the proponion I :3:5 :8. Bui as to whichnarure corresponded to which rerm in this proponion, this dependcd onthe name of th" elixir. 'Sfe are reminded th"t dependinj upon itsposition, the letter alif can represenr four different weights. In his table,Jabir has already given the quantity of these weighi which he hererestates.

tBl

ceration (tashmf< = Gr. cnh4rbsis) is a srandard process of chemicalc1aft. As ia erymology suggests, ir is a process of softening a substance sothat when dropped on a hot plate, it readily melrs liki wax, withoutwolution of fumes. As a technique, ceration is cenainly known to Jabirfor he mentions it in its usual sense in, e.g., the Kitab al-Lah*r (Book of!,iviniry, IG 123, MS Jarullah 1554, f.4b, see Kraus [1942-3],1, p. 45).The alchemist Rizi has in fact devoted a whole section to this process inhis Kitab al-'4srdr (Bo9k of the secrets, qu. stapleton, Azo ani Husaint1927), p. 3?2), a work in which he invokes the authoriry of our authorreferring to him as "our masterJdbir ibn Hayyin" (ibid, p.385).'what is strange, however, is Jabir's identification of ceration withaugmenration of rhe natures in a body. surely, he is nor speaking fromthe point of view of the actud techniques of cerarion, fo, th.rJ is ooexplanation as to how one carries it out. AII we are told is that thetransformadon of a stone (mineral substance) inro elixir consists in nvodistinct sreps:

(a) determination of the preponderanr nature in the stone, and.(b) adding-a 'fifth' to this nature (fifth, we recall, is Jabir's smallesr

subdivision of a Degree), whose four different numericd values are givenfrom the table which appears under [19] of the translation above.

But how does one go about doing this?

tcl

The method of 'ceration' of animal substances was similar to the one

o*""air*. To the dominant nature, one added 3 'f6nfth'-this is the

,.corrd ,i.ll.tt subdivision of the Jabirian Degree'- H.r. one notes Jabir's peculiar use of the tcrm 'elixir'. Clearly, in the

Dresent context, '.ii*ir' d.rrot., anY substance which is the subject of

i"i.iiJ op.r"tiorr. It is neccssary-to reld the text in this waybecause,

o.t *ir., ;ibir's asseftions concerning the nansformltion of,the elixir

from "one thing to another" would make no sense: in its usud meanlng'

elixir was not a-patient but an agmtof ttarrsformation!

Again, all th; numerical ,'"l"ut' come from the table reproduced in

sectiin [9] of the uanslation above'

tDl

To ,cerate' a substance derived from plants, we are told, onc ad.led a

'rhird'-J. next higher subdivision of the Degree-to the preponderant

nafttre. The weights-are all specified from.[19]'

Once again, %[*it' = dn! subster.ce to be operated upon'

t3o1

Hcre I Dresent to the reader a textud discovery of mine'.. \?#;;L".

"i rr*a, I hercby declare, is a hirheno unknown Arabic

,.rJ*in* of Aristotle's (hngoio',8, 8b25-11a37' a discovery which is

itd;h*-otk"""a .o'n,tqt"ntts for the whole question of the

t ansmission of^Greek ideas into the world of Islam'- iorn. forty years

"!o, th. w-ell-known authoriry.ol t|t Arabic

""lirirt-oi'e'rirro.lcl Richatd Valzer, had called it "common

knowledee" that the ";;i; a;"g"ies. . . [it1 dt . to Ishaq ibn Hunayn

ti.'iiiiitli: Clra*r fl962], p'.6.7); Indeed' no other Arabic;;J",i";

"fthis'work oferirr".i. has hitheno been known despite the

6"t th"t it had generatcd such monumental and sustained interest among

It" pf"i.tt*r[l *rit.r, of Islam that wc have received from them a

.rir'iJ.t"Uf! kgacy oi A""bi" efsoy' literature in the form of

;;;;;;i"t,-i"i"pttoses, introdrictions, and the like (see Peters

iift8l; v^lur,'tp. i;r.t2iimermann tl98ll)' It seems' then' that the

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES 23I

discovery of another translation would warrant a somewhat happyrevision of the position stated by'u7alzer.

To be ttt., "t

I shall demonstrate, there is clear evidence in the

Jabirian translation that it is totally and significantly independent ofIshaq's text. More than that, it shows a remarkable ignoran-ce of theArabic philosophical terminology found in the latter, terminolgy whichhad bein definitively fixed and standardized by the second hdf of the

3rdlgth cenrury. Funher, in its style the Jabirian text is much cruderthan that of Ishaq displaying what seems to be an archaic character. And

-finally, as we shall presently witness, the Jabirian translator sometimesshrinla from translating Aristode's philosophical terms, providing insteada gloss or presenting the original text in the form of paraphrases andadaptations; tlus, oJt Arabic text betrays a translator not quite at homewith the Greek logicd tradition. All these features converge to suggest anearlier date forJabir's version.

The possible existence of a pre-Ishiq Arabic translation of theCategoiaeis hardly an anomaly, for we abeady kngw of

-t\e living Syriac

tradiiion of Aristotelian logic which had been inherited by Islam from

the Hellenized centers of the Near East. Thus, as early as the beginningof the 2nd/9th century, available to Arabic writers was an enormouscorpus of Syriac Categoiae literature which included not only numerous.orrr-.ot..ies, but

"i l."tt two independent translations-one of them

by James of Edessa (d.901708) (Georr ed. 119481, pp. 2_53-305), ot

possibly by Sergius of Rish'aynd (d. 536 A.D.) (see Tkatsch [1928-32],I'p. ZOU); .h. oih.t by the famous scholar of the school of Qennesre,'G.org.,

Bishop of ihe Arabs (d. 1061724) (Gottheil ed. [1893]; cf.

Furlani tl933l). A third syriac translarion was produced somewhat later,

and this is attributed Job of Edessa Qfl. c.184-3361800-850) (see Georr,

op. cit., p. 380).- Funhermore, as I have pointed out earlier (Chapter 2, n.28), contem-

por^ry scholars now generally agree that Porphyry s familiar introduction

io thi Cattgor;ae, thi Eisagig4 matla the frst entry of Aristotle into the

world of Islam, As for the earliest Arabic translation of the Eisagbgt, its

critical editor Danishpazhuh concludes that the uaditional anribution of

this text to thc well-known translator of Pahlevi worlcs AbuMuhammad,AbdAllah ibn al-Muqaffa, (d. 1421760) is corect, and that, contrary to

the contention of Kraus (see lGaus U9331, pp. l-5), this work cannot be

credited to his son Muham mad ibn 'AbdAllah ibn al-Muqaffa'(Danishpazhuh ed. 119781, pp.65-66). Given all this, the claim seems

CHAPTER 6

: l'',1, l",t1

rir.1.;s]

.ilrl. :dt

,siIli?lr$l

+l'til'lll.it:|$t3,t.,W

sJ,,ilt:illiltl

;],.q

. i l.;,lliSl',i{!l'rlP,

.itl

"r!4

,'''i.'r'i..{, r:d{',H

,ril:il$

i:{".;{d,*{

- id.!/rt

i{tr{,",.,q'lill

.rr,l,ll

,$,,s;;il

,g:4

!iis

;:ffi'1!|, , :dq.#';'ill"d

ifi.Hrfis

ARI STOTLE

(Minio-Pduello cd. [1956], Ackrill u'

tle63l)By qtulityl mean that in virtue of

r"hi.tt things are said to bequalified somehow (8b25).

]ABI R

Gai .a io,, 3i:L-33:17)

Qu"liry is a certain condition of

the qualified thing, I mean the

condiiion by virtue of which the

rling is qualificd.

232 CHAPTER 6

highly plausible that there existed more than a single version of the

Arabic Categoriae; equally plausible seems the further claim that there

d.id orist "

virsion considerably earlier than that ofi*raq'

Turning now to my evidence, I have, in what follows' juxtaposed the

..r,, of eiirtotle and'of Jabir, carrying out a direct comparison of the

Arabic transladon with i$ source. The-rwo texts are then compared and

contrasted with Ishaq's rendering'

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES 233

Providine its own gloss and its own illustrative examples' the Jabirian text

-** *t?,lt "it,""Jty "

terminology-free rendering' In contrast'.Isbaq

L-"f"r'litr..tf airirfot to the ,J,.r.. and translates all terminolgy

".."t"iayt th,r,, ki"d (eidol = ndt)<,i srate (hexi) = makka; copdirion

tiirirr;rj = hit (g"di*i ed.,29:15). Note that our translator has no

,.t-i"tit*y'to render into Arabic the nuance benveen 'states" and;;;;;;;:'; th. *ord *hdl" h,*to perform both funcrions' Thus' rather

.i""-rr""rf"iirrg th. rwo terms of Aristode, the Jabirian text explains

them.

Another kind of qualiry is that in And among rhe. conditions are

virtue of which we call people those which e:ilst ln Potentlalrty' as

boxers or runners o, healthy'or walking is to 'AbdAllah (rhus'

r*f.fy-ttntting, in ,hort, -irich

animals are planrc in potenddiry'

,i.y'-. Jr.d ii.,inue of a natu- in actuality they are "9t T1,tl:

ral capaciry or incapaciry. For it.is same appltes.to stones ln.reratlon

,ro, b..",rr. one is ir ,o,,,. condi- to plants and animals). Similar is

ii." ,1r", one is called anphing of r:hecase of t19 acquisition of [the

,Li, ,or,, but because on. hit a knowledge] of geometryr'hen it is

;;;";J;"p"city for doing some_ unacquired [in actualiry]. Funher,

,hir,* ."rilv . .'. (9a13-lgi. Simi- pot ttlid conditions o<ist either [a]

[rf""*i f, ih. h"rd and the soft: as a capaciry il i eilg: such as our

;;i"rJ is so called because it has saying that 'AbdAllah is [in a state

the capaciry not to be divided "f

Utingl fallen to the grTund

."rity, .ir. ,oft b..".rr. it has an in- when he has the gap3city to do so;

, p[r;ry for this same thing (9a25' or [b] as a narural affecrion' sueh as

n-. ; third kind of 'qualiry our saying that .a given stone is

.orrrir* of afectiac.qualities and hard, meaning that it "annot be

affeoions(gaiq. ji'f:1o.Tj'l;ll,*::lffflf::can be broken aPart without

difficulrY.

Aaother Jabirian gloss. Aristotle's idea of qualification in rirtue of a

;;;J;p"city (f,uoa-is phusih|: Itttiq:. qi-*o ubi'qrya' Badawi ed"

lg;ibt "'iJr'il"ff..ti*'. qualities lpait'ti;*i; polo.tttel =.I'l'4'j hyfaal

-iofr'airno, ibid., 3l:9) *i "ff..tiott

s (pathi = I+aq's kflf4 ha cit')

;; i:rt.ff...i".Iy ,ubsum.d in oui text under po-tendally.existing

q"irn* 1i;i-q"wt)a). Once again, Ishaq gives a faithful rendering and'

,lil

J,,tjiil

.qtrt,lr$l

{ifi

,,trl. i4E

:fl]s,,tfr|il

ial',,c|,iilu,',.,s]1ilt

ffii li(t

,],flt11t.#,$ir&1,M{€ii

ii$lH. ifJ

. rtft

'lflFffi,iilc'at*w1,tr,'s{iT:,llit;*.fi,

'".#

..iiiitl

-"*{3il - -

;*

:.iM

'*ti.*4!$ii#

rs.!W

x-fj

,rl'i$ri. lt)

ltr(S

.'*1tfti

{#'r,$sl

It seems that we have here a free and somewhat crude translation' Note

that there is in Aristotle no mention of condirions as-yet' In contrast'

Ishaq's translation is much more elegant and strictll fiterd, rhus: "wa-;;;;;

U;;i.rfiy.ti titka't-hti kia yuqalu f,l-ashhhas; hayfa hiya."

(Badawi ed. F9481' 29:13).

One kind of quality let us call Amo.ng these conditions are those

states and .orrdiaiorrr. A state which erist in actuality, such as *re

differs from a condition in being walling of .AbdAllah when he is,

more stable and lasting longer. in fact, *"LHnS'. F'urther' among

Such are rhe branches of knowl- such acrually exlstlng condltlons

edeeandthevir tues.Forareei therthosewhichchangeorf."3*f.J*. teerns to be something disappear quickly' for example

;;#; ""J n*a ro.h"rrg. . .l r.*dittg sinittg, being in a state of

Tgii/_101. lt is what are -easily embarrassment or anger, and the

;;;J "rrd

q.rickly changing that like_such acrually existing condi-

;Ji;dr.io",('sual)." - ;ffi*.n:,'*"fi:noT;T;change or disaPPear quicklY, such

as [the knowledge ofl geometrY,medicine, or music when [suchknowledge] is actuallY Present in

an individual.

234 cHAPTER 6

as we iust witnessed, translates Greek terms direcdy and rigorously' Note'

ir**." *at Aristotle's orample of the hard Ghhros) and soft (ma.lakol

i;;, a.;; airtrrtily ,eproduc.d in the Jabirian text, but the rendering of

the latter term is iere'rahhu as opposed to Ishaq's lin (ibid.,3lt7).

. . . ti?hen such circumstances have Things are rarely said in discourse

their oriein in affections that are to be qualified-I mean character-

il ;;";*g. "rrd Permanent- ized-by those conditions which

*t ;; ;;ii.? qu"lities. For if change or disappear.quickly' Thus

p"lio, o, darkners have come *e do not call pallid-the.one who

Ii"ri irr-.ft. natural make-up they turns yellow out of fright' nor

;;.;.ll.d;"Jiti", (fo, ir,.'ii'. of swarthy the one who turns black

,hJ;. .'rc s"id to be qualified); due to a journey [in the.heit of the

""i--ir ;;il; o, d"rk,.r, have sunl' As for the conditions which

r"t"f*a?t"- long illness or from last longer,.things might be said to

sunburn, and do-not easily give be quali=fied by t!:-: Thus we call

way. . . these too are called q;ali- yellow (or, say, black) that which

i;.]. . : . ;;;.h;* that result^from acquires this color as part of its

rcrn.,fti"g.}".easilydisperses-1nd natural make-up (likewise'. if it

quickly gives way "r.

.il.d "ff..-

acquires some other condition

;;;:;h? p;"p1.'"r. not, in virtue whL! is not easily, removed [it is

;a ;i;;,' ,"id .o be qualified called accordinglvl)' 4nd. these' I

somehow. Thus a man who red- mean the condittons whlch do not

l.rr, ,frro.tgh shame is not called disap-pear easily' are .the ones

;;y;;;;""ne who pales in fright *T;l' o".g!t necessarilv--'" b'

;"llti. . . Ob2o-32).' " called sufitie;, since the

;s;entialnature of a thing is qualified bY

them.

In contradistinction to Ishdq, the Jabirian translator does not follow the

"tq.i"?.il"tigi"A .or. b,,.

"l'o "oto several Jabirian glosses' Aristode

to*t of "*"ttf,irr.ss

resulting from sunburn; our to<t changes-sunburn

; jr;;.y, "b;iourly -.*i"{^..iou^'y

in,the heat of the sun' Istraq' on

thJ other'ir"td, do., tr"rrrl"i "sunbuin" literally (;b'aq sltams' Badawi

,i.,-iirtq. Simil".ly, unlike the case with ishaq' ihe example of

reddenine out of shame has been omitted in our text' 'For the term'rii6'ii,^;rrJaq

f,* the Arabic equivalent al-jibilh al.tabi';yta (ib;d.,

5;;;';;r-;Anj;iili"" texr ir is miznj. The lasi sent€nce in thc latter

,p."f "f

ot"rr.irl n",,rr. $auhar), and this is another gloss'

COMMENTARY AND

Similarly with regard to the soul

also we speak of affective qualitiesand affeitions. Those which are

Dresent right from binh as a resultlf ...t"ii affections are cdled

qualities. . . . Similarly with.anyaberratiotts that are not natural but

result from some o,ther circum-

stances, and are hard to get rid of

or even completelY unchangcable;such things, too' are qudtttes.'.torin vinue oTth.- PeoPle are said to

be qualified. But those which

,.r,rlt fro- things that quicklY

subside are called affections, e'g' if

a man in distress is rather bad-

tempered; for the man who in

,.r.h "n

affection is rather bad-

tempered is not said to be bad-

tempet.d. . . (9b33-10a8)'

A fourth kind of qualitY is shaPeand the external form of each

thine, and in addition straightness

and-curvedness and anPhing like

these. For in virnre of each of these

a thine is said to be qualified

somehJ*; because it is a triangle

or seuare it is said to be qualified

,o-.ho*, and because it is suaight

or curved. . . (1Oal l-15).

TEXTUAL NorEs 235

Similarly there might be in the

soul either [a] easily disappearingconditions, such as sadness or

happiness arising out of.a certain

specific reason and Passtng awaYquickly, or [b] longer lasting con-iitiotti, such as sadness or haPPi-

ness arisinq out of one's innate

dispositiorifor it. Obviously the

laner is identical [in appearance]to the former. However, we do not

characterize as sad one who is sad

for a short period of time for some

reason, nor haPPY one who is

h"ppy briefly. Rather, we do so

-h* ah.t. are Part of someone's

essential nature, whence Perma-nent or preponderant.

'\UTe have here a lucid paraphrase' Note again the absence of technical

terminolgv from the;"'bi,i* text; thus' uilikt the literal translation oF

i;ffi;'d;;;;; ;;#auivalents appear for "affective qualities" and

TCJ;;f'""Jeti"".r.", idt" "f

*ttt qudities as are Present from

b;"h ;;;t.t*l Uy .h. .o*-o"ly used word'kd'ii (which has been

translated Ly -.

rather freelY)'

Shape, external form, straightness,

.,r*edne.s and the like are also

qualities, for each one of these is

said to qualifr things. Thus, wemight say of a thing that it is atria'ngle or a square, or that it is

straight or curved.

236 CHAPTER 6 COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES 237

Now in most cases, indeed in Qualified things are named after

practically all, things are called their qualiry. Thus in mosr cases

p"tony*otrtly, as pale man from things are named paronymously-

p"l.rr.rr, thi grammatical from such as hAtib from kitaba, ja-'ir

gr"*-"r, the just from jusrice , ftom iautt, 'ilil from 'adl'Yet thk

ird to on. But in some cases, may not be so in all cases, either

because there are no narnes for the because the quality in question

qudiries, it is impossible for the er<ists in potentialiry,.or due to rl're

,irirrgt ,o be calleJ paronymously fact that language lachs a name for

fromthem.. .Q0A8-32) ' i t .

The Jabirian text follows Aristotle closely but does add its own gloss.Thus, out of the three illustrative examples given in the source (the palefrom paleness, the grammadcal from garmmar, the just from-justice), thefirst rwo have been changed to "the writer from wridng," and "the unjustfrom injustice"; the third one is faithfully reproduced. Not so with Islraq.The difference in the approaches of rhe rwo rranslators is also reflected bythe overall technical nature of the latter's renderings: thus pardnumish*s

been uanslated by Ishaq as a formal term'ali niq al-mashtaqqa (Badawi

ed.,34:7-8); in contrast, the Jabirian uanslation is clearly non-technicd.Note thar our text gives tuto reasons why things are not calledparonymously: either there is no name for the qudiry,- or the q"-"lityo<ists only in potentidiry. The latter is not explicidy stated in Aristode.

There is contrariety in regard to There is contrariety with regard toqualification. For example, jusdce qualifications. For example, justiceii conuary to injustice and white- is contrary to injustice and white-ness to blackness, and so on; also ness to blackness and so on. Simi-things said ro be qualified in virtue larly there is contrariery in regardof them-the unjust to the just to qualified things. For example,and the whire to the black. But just is contrary ro unjust and whitethis is nor so in all cases; for there to black. But, [on the otfier hand],is no contrary to red or yellow or there is no contrary to red or yel-such colors though they are quali- low or such colors. Likewise, therefications (l0bl2-17). is no contrary to triangle and

circle.

A faithful translation, but dissimilar to that of Ishaq. There is also aterminologicd differencq our text has ahmar for red as against Ist'aq's

A reasonably faithfirl translation and similar' though not id,entical' to

;;;;f ;iiiaq. Thus i" u"u translations: shhtma = shahl; haparhhousa

morvh\ = hhilqa , *rit, = istiqdma ; hampllotts = inhind'', But' in

:;d;r;;ff;'i;; Ishaq foilows Aristode's rsxr verv closelv and-

;t."6-&s a fiteral ,.,,it'i"g (Badawi ed"'33:L3'17)'

'Rare' and'dense'and 'rough' and Rareness' denseness' roughness'

';;;.h' might U. .iffit to and the like.might be thought of

,intifu a quallficadorr; th./"e"', as qualities; they s991 horvever not

ir:;il,''; -C.-i"rag" 'ro rhe to Lelo'g to qualities. This.is so

classification of qualification. ' ' ' because' to be prectse' a uung rs

frt "

ifti"g is dense *i.r, i,, p*' dense when its parts are close

; ;;;; otog.th.r,

,.r. btt"t"e together; rare when they are sepa-

;;-;t. ,."p"r"..d -i,o-

one 'aied

from one another; smooth

*rln*, ,_Jrh b;;"r. irs parts because its parts lie uniformly on a

lie somehow on a straight line, straight lins-nens belng aDove or

rough because some stick"up above beloi another; and rough when

oJ3r, 00a16-24). they are otherwise'

Again, a faithful translarion and close to Isheq's. Note, however, that

.,"ffi;L;;;;.;;i"y rhe same Arabic,root to translate Aristode's four

tt ^r-t*"tr,

puk)or,'t ohhus, leios),Ishaq remains stricdy literal and

;;;';;;; "i "d;..ti''r.,

(mutahhalhhat, nutahathaf, etc'' Badawi ed"

33:17); the Jabirian .r"nrl".o, renders them as verbal nouns (tahhalhhul'

tahathuf,, etc.).

Perhaps some other manner of Qualities are possibly of other

qualiry might come to light, but fr.n{s too'

-Among. these other

i'. ft"'". -""d. " Pretry Jo*plttt kinds which we shall mention

list of those most spoken of are' ' ' '(r0L25-26).

In contrast to the brief senrence of Aristotle, the Jabirian translator adds

"""*.r,." kinds of qualities to the list. These are nowhere to be found

in Minio-Paluello's tent.

tllT

,l'' j: l '1l l l

,ll;ir::i

.,i:j'::1,,i,1

ri,ritrli '1' t l

,ti:.i1': l,.:!|

, : l

:,ii:'l

I

,t-,;**.::l,l

. l

*..*fI' ' ,1

'.::,ljr1

. , , . |t.:i'r!, ' l;"lEi,l

t i:I

]:'g.L

.- ; I

.;,i|

t : , l i: - l, . I

' ' t l l, | t

.

.;}J

238 cHAPTER 6

ashaar(Badawi ed-,35:12).It is interesting to see the Jabirian translator

:i[';r';:;;;".1.1' J;dv'llo* his oJn rwo examples of circle and

triangle.

Further, if one of a Pair of

contraries is a qualification, the

other too will be a qualification'This is clear if one examines other

predicates. For example, if justice

i,.ontt"ty to injustice and justice

is a qudification, then injustice too

is a qualificadon. For none of the

other predicates fits -injustice,ncithei qualitY nor relative nor

where ,rot i" i^rt ^nY

other such

predicate €xcePt qualification ' ' '( lob18-25).

'We havc here a lucid, accurate and highly faithful translation' But' again'

it differs from Ishaq'r-fo, instanci in our text lve have maqilh for

hattgoia; Ishaq has ia't (Badawi ed" 35:14)

similarly with grammar and the

other conditions. At anY rate

things spoken of in- virtue of these

admit of a more or less: one man ls

called more grammatical than

another, juster, healthier, and so

on (10b26-11a4).

Even though the Jabirian toct adds its- ow1 gloss here and tlere' it gives a

zurfu f"i,fr"f"l traislation; and here, despite clear differences in formula-

tiorrr, ou, translator is quite close to Ishaq'

Triangle and square do not seem

to admit of a more, nor does anY

other shape. For things which

admit the definition of triangle or

circle are equallY triangles or

circles, while of things which do

not admit it none will be called

,noft thdt than anothcr-a square

is not more a cide than an oblong

is, for neither admits the definition

of circle. In short, unless both

admit the definition of what is

under discussion neither will be

called more than the other' Thus

not all qualifications admit of a

-or. *d a less (1 la5-14)'

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES 239

more and a less, for it maY well be

said that this man is more

eloquent than that, this man is

-or. j,rt, t*ran that, or that this

man is better with regard to justice

and health.

Oualifications admit of a more

"id " l.rq for one thing is called

more pale or less Pale than an-

other, Ld more just that another'

Moreover, it itself sustains increase

. . .-not in dl cases though, but

in most. It might be questioned

whether one justice is called more

a iustice than-another, and similar-

lv for other conditions' For some

o.opl. disPute about such cases'

Th* ,tr,.tiv denY that one justice

is ciled more or less a justice than

another, or one health more or less

a health, though theY saY that one

Derson has hialth less than an-

ither, justicc less than another and

Further, when one of a Pair of

contraries is a qualification, the

other too will be a qualification'This is clear if one o<amines other

categories. For orample, justice is

contrary to injusticc and justice is

a qualification, th.tt injustice too is

a qualification. For none of the

oah., .",.gories fits injustice'

neither q.rJiry, for examPle, nor

relation, 'p1"..,

ti-., nor anY other

r:rrcgory o(cePt qudification'

Oualifications admit of a more

"id " l.rtt for it maY be said that

this whiteness is more than that, or

that this thing is whiter than

that-not in all cases though but

in most. Thus it might be

questioned whether it is Per-missible to cdl one jusdce more a

iustice than another' or one health

rnor. "

health than another' Somepeople say it is not permissible' yet

,h.u ,"v'rh"t one has health less

th"r, "ttothe

r, justice less than

another, and similarly with writing

"rrd oth.r conditions. So, as for

things spoken of in virtue of these'

th.y"""q".stionablY admit of a

However, not dl things sPoken of

in virtue of a qualiry admit of a

more and a less. For examPle, the

triangle. . . and the square. . . do

not admit of a more and a less. For

one triangle does not exceed an-

other in i.rp.., of triangularitY,

and one square does not Possessmore squareness than another. ' ' 'Thines which are equallY said to

be Eiinsles [and thus] equdlY said

to fall u-nder the definition lof tri-

angulariry] are not called more or

lesiwith i.tp..t to that definition;

the same holds for circles and

squares. . . . In general, all things

*iti.h are equally said to fall under

a given definition, as well as two

thi-rre, which are not said to fall

,rrrd."t one definition, such tfiings

do not admit of a more and a less'

One speala of a more and a less

onlv in cases where the [qudiry to

whose] definition a thing con-

forms sustains increase and de'

crease; for examPle, a white thing

which conforms to the definition

' !

. j , i l:. r:::

illi'l

',]'trtir.:i

r i l

' i.rl

' ' ' . f

r:"ll';'::+,, ";xi

::

1i

'':]:,. . .Ei

. : t l i i.\,ti

:j:ilii

iirili.riiii

rjji&Jr!ffi,,,q*3

240 cHAPTER 6

of being white can verY well be

;ffi"::. less with resPect to

'\J?e have here a rendering that is full ofJabirian gloss, some of which I

have omitted in this citJtiott (but see Edited Text, 32:17-33:8)' One

notes also solle rearrangement of the source: Aristode's last sentence

appeats first; whereas the"last Jabirian senrence seems ro be based direcdy

# *. former's second senrenc€ in the immediately preceding citation

("Moreover, it irself sustains increase..."). TheJabirian terminology in

ihi, p"rr"g. differs markedly from that- of Itttlq: thus, for hgos,out text

has'hadi^s opposed to Isiraq's literal translation qawl (Badawi ed.,

36:12); th. former skips Ariitode's reference to oblong, the laner has the

standard rcrm mastafr I ( ibid., 36:L4).

Nothing so far mentioned is It is in virtue of a universally

distincti"ve of qualiry, but it is in defined q"4iry that things are said

virtue of qualities ottly ,h", things to be similar or dissimilar; for a

are called'similar ^nd.

ditti*;hr;^ thing is not similar to another

thing is not similar ro another in e)(cepr in virnre ofits qualiry. For

virtu"e of anything but that in ercample this triangle is.not,similar

virtue of which it is qualified . . . to that triangie e,xlept in vinue of(1 lal5-18). the triangle which has already been

universally defined.

\fhile Ishiq and the Jabirian translator have idendcal translations for

homoios ^nd,

ono*oios (shabth, ghayr shabil), the former provides a

fairhful and accurare rendering of rhe source; the latter, as we nore,

presents a paraphrase.

lve should not be disrurbed lest It may be said that though we only

someone may say that rhough we proposed to discuss qualities we

proposed to disclss qudiry *. "t.

have frequently mentioned rela-

.o,ttttittg in many -relatives.

. . . tives since we have s-poken of

For in pi.tg'well all such cases the knowledge and the, like, and

g.rr.r"'*. spoken of in relation to knowledge exists in virtue of the

iomething, -but

none of the par- known. Indeed, the genera com-

ticular caies is. For knowledge, a prehending these things, I mean

genus, is cdled just what it.ii, of ihe universals, are spolcen of in

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES 24I

something else . . . ; but none of virtue of something else, such as

the partic"ular cases is called just knowled_ge which is spoken of in

-h"i it is, of sometling else. For vinue of t{re known. But none of

example, grammar is not called the individuals-[of a giv-en.genus],

grammar Jf ,o*.thittg nor music that is, none of the panicular cases

irusic of something. Iflr a[ it is in [of a given universal], is spoken of

virtue of the genui that these rwo in virtue of something else. For

aie spoken of-in relation to some- examglg, knowledge,^[a genus], is

thing: grammar is called knowl- called knowledgc of something,

.dg.-of ,o-ething (not grammar but grammar, [a panicular case], is

oisomethi"g). . . . Thus the not cdled gramTar of somcthing.

particular ."ri, "r.

not relatives This is-so unlesstheparticularcase

itt"zo-Eo). is set forth as the genus, that is,given the name of the universal,which in this case is knowledge-then, grammar would be calledknowledge of something. Thus thepart icular cases are notreladves. . . .

The Jabirian text again apPears with its own glosses and paraphrases.Note that fuistode, while speaki ng of gen|, does not invoke the concept

of universals (nor, correspondingly, does Ishiq). In contrast, the Jabirianauthor does speak of unive..rsals more than once. In this PT$rage our textis quite distant from that of Ishaq who is consistently faithfu! and literal;foi example , for sunhataithmeisthai Ist'aq has the literal renderin$

'addadnaiBadawi ed., 37:5).T'be example of music is, likewise, faithfully

reproduced in Ishiq;.from our text it is missing.

Moreover, if the same dring redly . . . and t}ere is nothing absurd inis a qualification and a relative a thing's falling under twothere is nothing absurd in its being different genera.counted in both the genera(rra36-37).

Note that thc fint part of the sentence is missing from the Jabirian text;the second pan is rather awkward, though it may aPPear smooth becauseI present it here in a rather free translation. Literally rendered, the Arabicrcxt will read something like: "and chere is nothing absurd in a thing's

l . '

|: \,,rfii. i l, i i : ;

\ . . . j

;)::::1.I i.l]

i:r!..:r'irtl:rl:iii,.t ,j

l : l l l

'1\,lii.!

.rrl|"l

,i::r:j

.l liJli

,t;i:i

,.[:i:ifli

ri.;:1ilrlii,j$

'nils.:;iltj

.;riii:r.ji

,',:'il

,t t:11

.._:i:tll:::

.r1ir4'

_'l:iji:

,;*.

''],r{li.r.tij1:i:

'Frt

.?+fl.;;::$t;

,,,r4J

t,iil

ri#s

.,": i iad''rilis

.::ld&

242 cHAPTER 6

falling in the genus in two dif;Ferent *"yt-'- Note that ltttag': translation

i, ,rttlrry un[[e ours and is quite elegant (Badawi ed" 37:16'17)'

t3ll

As we have already observed in Chapter I above, Jabir is somewhat

irr.onrir..rr. in his classification of ,,,L't"ttts' However' it should be

noted that this inconsistency is not with regard to the pinciphs of

classificadon which remain thoroughly uniform throughout the _c_oqpus.These principles are clearly and systematicdly stated i:,th:

!t-(:*e:)i-ntiri"*hi"h ,hr.. kinds of substances are distinguished (qu. IGaus,

lI, U942-31, pp. I 8-20):

(a) Spirits-those which completely volatilize in fire;

iil r,ft.orri" Bodies ( ajsad)_those which are fusible, malleable,

possess l,rrt L, and produce a ringing 1?"T+t *d

, r ., I(c) Bodiei (aVan)-mineral ,,.rbrt"t..,, n"t mdleable, mey be fusible'

puiverizable. These are funher subdivided into dree grouPs:

(c1) containing some quantity of spirit-(e'g', mica);

i"zi "o.t"irrirr[ ".,.ry

t-tl qu""tity of spirit (e'g', shells); and

(ca) containing no spirit (e.g., onyx)..(Fo.'" detailed

"J.o,rrri of thes"e principles see Kraus ' op' cit" pp' 18-30)'

Iabir is teaching us that the difference berween spirits and_ bodies does

""i ill;J.i, .oior, hardness, or in the manner in which they yndgrgo

."r.i"*-f"a.ed, all natural substances' no matter from which of the three

;;3'.1';*.* a.ii".d, contained both body as well as spirit- The

guestion as to wherein lies thc difference between bodies and sprnts rs

taken up later in the text.

TEXTUAL NOTES

I At the end of the book Jibir does give illustrative calculations of the

weights of the natures in sPirits.z ahs point is repeated that if upon analysis- of the name of the spirit the

.";i;J;i;;;d,f,;;;;"'cs is nJt foundio be exactlv 17 or its multiple'

otr. "ugti.nts/supprcsses

the natures.

3 k7t-73.

.rt ir i

, "1rt: I

. ; l

,:, i' I:::llt i li ' t l t

' rn l

'1ll,:rri;l

' In,

, r : : lT

' i . ' l

',qi li

.ul

.';s, , l l

:::",1

..ir:,1

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES 243

13z1

By now we are familiar with Jdbir's-idea of external/internd natures' 'We

hLre here a categorical ,,",.rrr.rr, that transmutation of natural objects

consists in a direlt interchange between the orternal and internal natures.

one notes the further "rr.*'ion

that t{re elements of all things follow a

.ir",rl", pattern of change, something which, in all.probabiliry' the

author deri.res from Aristotle ("It is evident, drerefore, that coming-to-be

of simple bodies will be cyclical." Gen. a Con',2'4,331b2-3)'

t33)

See chapter 3 above where this passages have been cited and discussed.

TEXTUAL NOTES

I lk 373.This work belongs to the Boola of Balances'

2y\r 51. This is the title of a lost treatise which is Paft 9f of -rhe

aQI

".16i;".Th.i. it Ar" a Kitab aLMi*kh ua al-Shams (Book of Mars

and *re Sun) in the Lffcollection (Ift 189)'

0+1

Abruptly, Jibir introduces his curric':Jar PIogTm for.the.disciple' But he

do., -or.

than that, for in the middle oF hit ditttttsion he digrcsses into

;F;;; "n""k "g"ir,rt

the doctrines.gf 1g1oup of people identified by

iil;A; Sabians."somewhar ironicdly, it is in the course of this side-

,i"fpi"g that he reveals to us some of tir. most interesting and cssendal

principlcs of his cosmolog;r.

tAI

In this section Jibir spccifics sevcral stages in his training program. His

disciple *", ,,rppir.d to study the following subjccts in the order given:

(i) Alchemicd Processes: Recognition of substanccs

iib Cosmolory: the Four Classis of Elcments, ThcirAccidents

and Their Qualities

244

(iii) Philosophy: Sayings and Doctrines of Philosophers(i") IQlnm, Logic, Arithmetic and Geometry: Selected Topics(") (a) Science of the Natures (optional): Specific Properties of

Things(b) Craft and Trickeries (opdonal): the EioE ifTt;cker;a

("i) Science of Balance: Bdance of Fire and of Music; Bdances ofMetals

(vii) Study of the Booh of the Baknce(viii) Alchemical Operations: Ceration, Coaguladon, erc.; Opera-

tions Concerning Elixirs

TEXTUAL NOTES

t For a detailed account of these chemical processes see Stapleton, Azoand Husain fi9271.2 See note 6 below.3 Note the distinction Jabir maintains berween tab'and hotfylo.a See Chapter 3 above.5 Ik 1063. This work is not extant.6 There are r, /o works in the Jabirian corpus with this title, IG 197 andk 366. Boti are losr7 A Boob of the Seuen is parr of the LW (lk 132). Also found in theccrpus is e ccllection ol'se.rcll bcck-s, on€ o!-.! each of the seven metals(gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead, and kharyinr), and this is likewisereferred ro by rhe aurhor as the Sab,a (k 947-953).8 A fuller discussion of rhese operarions is in Stapleton, Azo and Husain[1927].9 Nore the categorical statement thar elixirs are only ideai subsmnces anddo nor actudlv exist.

tBl

The first paragraph of this subsection is somewhat obscure. Ifwerphing has a Balance, why are we told now that the Balance corn€sabout only after substances are mixed together?

The second paragraph is largely clear bur only if we assume that byequilibrium Jabir here means Balance, not what he meant in {23) (cf, theaccount ofJabir's Canon of Equilibrium in Chapter 3 above).

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES

t35l

245

Coincidentally, it was by examining the cosmological foundations of

Jabir's Balance that we had begun our substantive study of his naturalsciendfic system (Chapter 2 above), and this is precisely the subject onwhich our author now brings his book to a close. Thus, given that thecosmological discourse of this section has already been effectively andextensively discussed, it should now make an easy reading.

Vhile no atternpt has been made to reach a definitive identification ofrhe group of people Jabir is here attacking, it should be remarked thattheir alleged views make them seem like some Hellenized philosopherswho derive their ideas largely, though not exclusively, from Aristode. Veare told that they postulate a unique and eternal prime matter, and thatthey explain the constitudon of the entire natural world as having comeinto being through a temporal cosmological process. During thisternporal process, the prime matter progressively acquired, first, threedimensions; then, primary qualities; and, finally, gave rise to the fourelementary bodies.

That Jabir is troubled by the idea of an abstract, imperceptible,unknowable and anributeless prime matter has a-lready been examined atIength in Chapter 2 above. But here he brings into focus another funda-menta] feature of his cosmology. In fact, it is tfris feature which appearsto be one of the r.rost outstanding characteristics of his entire cosmologi-cal drougirt.

As v-'re have alrcady seerr, jabir himsclf belie.res in an incorporeal sub-stance (jawha) "which is in everything, and out of which everythingagis€s." He also believes in sorne kind of a process vrhereb;' his substancebecomes corporeal, attaches itself to the four qualities, and gives rise tothe Empedoclean prirnary bodies (Chc.pter 2 gbo'r:). But, then, this .,.rasnot, according to Jabir, a temporal process. It was, rather, a description ofthe various hierarchical stages of the descent of material bodies. Nobuilding block of the naturd world had a tempora-l prioriry over any ofthe others.

Thus, one stage of the world was not replaced by another. Rather, likethe steps of a ladder, all stages existed together in a hierarchy of anontological plurality. The elements, and the things which zue constitutedout of these elements, had both come into being at the same instant,created by a single act of God ("dafatan wabidatan" see [4] above). Thisposition has been explicitly stated in [AJbelow.

CHAPTER 6

246 CHAPTER 6

In this way, Jabir distinguishes himselffrom his Sibians' and' indeed'

from his Hellenistic predecessors in general'

wThis subsection has been quoted and discussed alrcady in chapter 2

above. (For the term tlnt, ,.. n' 53 of that chapter)' But lere we

""r,i."fif" note labir's asscrtion that the elements o?the

-atetial world

6]f;;;;j and things which,arose out of rlese elemen.' (plants,

*i-it and minerals) exisied simultaneously' The world-' we are told'

dtJ;;;;porally evolve to its present state; it has always been arranged

; ;r;;;t"'.d in'the same $'a)'. Of course this did not mean that the

""*of1""tfa $,as static. Jibir's'four natures were capable of entering into

an unlimited numbcr of different combinations, giving rise to the vast

ai".^ity of objects in the world' These objects perpetudty ;hltSgd'

transformed into one another, or rcturned to their elements by being

,.rot""a into the natures which constituted them' These Processes

marked the narural world.

TEXTUAL NOTES

I Note the very rare application of the rcrm hayfiy\itto primary qualities'

tBl

Continuing with his polemical -aftack' Jibir now tries to- beat his

Sibians at t$eir own game. He points out- that in terms of their own

.#;;J p-iil"t"pfr'.* c.""ot co"'istently. main"ti" +":tTI .!:*of= Ci.' huh)is

^ ur;qu, entiry (for a discussion of the tetm ha1ruh see

Ln"*., 2 above).;abi, d.*o"strates that if they ar9 tru€ to their own

logi", th.se peoplewill have to postulate as many hdyoa as there are

elements!-'-6;;*ricular point of interest in this subsection is the way Jabir

widens the concept "i;;t

matter in order to give it a defined and

concrete sense.

tcl

The argument dismissing-the uniqueness of -prime

matter continues'

labir s Sa6ia"s here appea, Zlo" to Aristotle' talking of prime matter as

;l:

l , l

COMMENTARY AND TEXTUAL NOTES 247

the ultimate subject of properties in a body, itself admitting of no changebut having the potentiality of accepting forms. But if prime matter haddffirent potentialities, argues Jabir, then it cannot be unique for then itwill admit of diversity in itself!

During the cours€ of his argument, Jibir side-steps into matters ofdetail. He rejects the claim that \U7ater transforms into Fire without firsttransforming into Air. Somewhat ironicdly, this idea of an intermediatestage in the process of 'lZater + Fire transformation can legitimately bederived from Aristotle himself. We have already referred to Aristotle'sstatement that the four elements change into one another following acircular pattern ([32] above). The traditional schematic diagram of thiscircle has been reproduced beloi,v. Now, if we move in an anticlockwisedirection stirting with 'Water (cold and moist), the first stage oftransformation is Air (hot and moist), involving the change only of onequaliry. Next, Air transforms into hot and dry Fire, again through thechange only of one qualiry. This is perfectly consistent with, and issupported by, Aristotle's belief that elements having one quality incommon (Air and lTater) change quickly, whilst elements with noqudity in common (lZater and Fire) change slowly (Gen. et Corr., 4.2,33la).

M

As we have already observed in [4 above and elsewhere (see Arabictelft in n. 59, "Addenda to Notes," Chapter 2 above), Jabir beliwes that

248 CHAPTER 6

things ultimately resolve baclc, or rerurn ro, their elernents. He finds nodifficulty in maintaining this doctrine, for if rerurning to consriruenrelements meanr annihilation, so be it-the world was not going to lastfor eyer $;owey.

tEl

It is clear that Jabir is here attacking the abstract notion of the fournatufes, which, upon his account, the Sabians seem to espouse. To hirisuch a notion is elusive. Thus, invoking the authority of the "majority ofphilosophers," Jabir claims that the foui natures exisr either potenddly inone another, or they are found in the elements which they lonstitute. Inother words, the natures had concrete existence, and to postulate thatthey exist in any other way waS nonsehse. Given rhe contei<t, this "otherway" evidendy refers to the abstract way of his Sabians.

The doctrine that natures exist potentially in one another is a veryintcresting one,-bur it makes an appearance as an isolated thought, foiJibir neither elaborates on it here, nor does he bring it up anywhere elsein his cosmological discourses in our text. Thus, a philosophicalcommentary on this doctrine is unwarranted.

tFl

This passage has been quoted and discussed in Chapter 2 above.

tGl

Finally, Jabir declares the core docuine of his entire sysrem: Thc foarttat tres cowtitute tbe ftndammtal pinciph of thc natural world.

Bel

After a long digression, Jabir now returns to the subject of his trainingprogram. Much like the present-day practices, his disciple is required 6present his ideas before an audience, both verbally andin writing. Thiswas the final stage of training after which the disciple could in prLciplebe called a philosopher.

APPENDICES

;;ilii:i"J

.iIjafij'l.,i,ijl

.dilial

,,:*ilr;;ll:tiiJii,ri,,,i::ln4il

.r,,l

i,;:l'i:ir"l

rill::l

- cs&l

.';:;::l:;r{

"il,.+aC

',,qi

.;,,itt

rliS

',t lr:-,til

APPE NDI X I

CONTENTS OF THE EXCLUDED

sEcTIONS OF THE AIt IAR

.:".1. l

.,,,. i

IIIIII' t ' lI.,.{

' j l,r,l

:.I. i. t

. tIr , l

;li:l"t.11

' : l

;IiJ::l

.,*L

iil

"11

Selarc botlltt tntttff the folios and lines of MS Paris 5099

[58b21-59a1 l]

Criticism of the views of Balinis and his followers. Bibliographic notice'

ii. i*por.ance of the Kiub al-Hudad: "'Vhile all other books should be

;;;;'.;;;""th, the Hadnd'ought to be kept before the eyes all the

time!"

159b8-59br7l

Dieression into an elaboration of the concePt of definition \h7(' pl'

t "7AA.

Definition of definition (hadd al-hadd ). Definition of dchemy.

ffi;il;ab* 1';shq). Eulogv ot' the merits of the Kitab al-Hud'ad'

l6ob7-62il31

Extensive alphabetical list of the names of drugs' Morphologicd andysis

;i ;i; ,p.iin.a names. Supressio.n of 'ex-cessive lettcrs' and the

J...r*i"'"ri"n of the primitive literal core in the appellations applied to

drugs. Deternination of the Balance of drugs'

l62a,l7-62br4)

The contents of the following three boola' The imponance of collecting

."g..h* fr; m the A$arb foui pans dl the various asPects of the Sciencc

ofBdance.

251

252 AppE NDIx r

[74ar-75a2)Explanation of the 'socratic" values of the leuers as rhese are presentedin the immediately preceding table. The ABJAD sysrem. Nanie-Naturecorrespondence.

[78a&79a6]

Pfo.llr:: or,r. geomery. The three dimensions (ab,ad): lengrh (til),

breadrh .(.'ard) and deprh l'ynd. Geomeuicar/conceptual objels ("q lii

and red/natural objects !h;*i). The concept of a straight'line (hhan:nusugm), point (nuqta) and center (markad. Geome-trical surf"cei(s ulil), .three-dimensional sensible bodies (aj sam), regular solid bodies( mu,udi la). Curves (hhuy! lllysiyya), chordi (kiuttzf*atariya), cird.s(da'ira, n!. dau'a,1)fnherls (hari, pl. uhar). Arc (qo*l

"# r.gm.rrtl

cross+ection (qit'). claim that the shape of animals arise out of siraightItnes, thar of stones out of curyes, and that of plants out of lhecombinations of straight lines and curves. The section contains threegeometric illustrations.

[79er480b2o)

Illustrative numerical examples of the carcuration of the Balance of:oqp.I' gold, silver, lead, tin and iron. Digression into a discourse on theIogica.l srrucrure of g;,gm_elical proofs. E"xplication of the seven logicallg:iolt $ab, muqaddimat) of Ge sciencetf geometry: claim/predicare\!!1bar), likeness (nrllll),,absurdiry fthalfl, arrangemenr (nazm),dift relria. \fu I) 1 y r.oof ( burhan) and conctus iL"' frr*arijiii"l. tgicaltruths (sid4) and falsehoods (hadhib).

[82a7-8ja2)

Bibliographic_nodce. Explication of the theory and practice of ceration(usui,,)...The logical.notiln oe and the hierarchi."l jador,rhif U.*..r,,genus \jins), species (nau,) and individual (shahh)

I

I

J

fi' I

,{,i-lTi

':l

;J,*lrl;l

..illi;l

'xl. "lldI,.i

cONTENTS oF EXcLUDED sEcTIoNs 253

[86.36.-86b26]

Transmuratiy Gst;lak): its philosophical meaning and irs alchemicalmeaning. Different forms of movemenr (laraha).

[88a8-89al3J

Further elucidadon of the difference berween spirits and bodies.Illustrative examples.

[9lb-95a]

E-xposirion of the Balance of spirim. 'worked-our exarnples to illustrate

the numerical cdculation of the Balance of spirits-yeliow arsenic, redarsenic, yellow sulphur, red sulphur, sd ammoniac, camphor, erc.

APPENDIX I I

MODERN EDITIONS ANDTRANSLATIONS OF JABIRIAN TEXTS

= K;tdb B. = Book S = Selections

Editions

(1) Steclc U892h

K. Hath al-,4srdr(8. of the Discovery of Secrets,Ik 972)

(2) Bcrthclot end Houdas [1893],III:

(i) K. al-Mulk (B. of the Dominion, IG 454)(i0 K. al-Rahma dl-Sdghir (Smdl B. ofMercy, IG 969)(iii) K al-Rahma al-IQbir(Great B. of Mer4,l<r 5)(i") K, al-Tajmi, (8. of Concentration, IG 398)("1 t{, al-Ztbaq al-Sharqi (8. of Eastern Mercury, Ik 470)("i) K. Ziba4 al-Gharbt (8. of\Testetn Mer"uqy, I* 471)("ii) K. al-Nar al-Hajar (B. of the Fire of the Srone, Ik 472)(viii) K Ard al-Hajai(B. of the Eanh of the Srone, I* 473)'(i*) K. al-Maudzln al-saghir(Small B. of Balances, IG 9g0)

(3) Holmyard [1928] (from an Indian lithograph of l89l):

K. al-Baydn (8. of Elucidation, IG 785)K. al- Hajar (8. of the Stone, Ik 553)K. al-Nar (B. of Light, I<r t7)K. al-I/alt (8. bf Explication)K. Usnqus al-Uss (8. of the Element of Foundation,Kr 617lg) |

Tafir K. U1. al-Us (Comentary on the B. of the EIem. ofFoun., 13 9)

K. al-Tajrid(8. ofAbstraction, IG 399)(S) K aLMa&,o(n. of Utility, (G973)

(i)(ii)(ii0(i")(")

("i)("ii)t

,li

255

256 AppENDrx rr

(viii) K al-Rahma al-Saghtr (Small B. of Mercy,l<r 969)(i*) K al-Malih (B. of rhe King, Ift 1985)

(4) Kraus |l935h

(i) K. Ikraj rnaf'l-Quwwa ik,l-Fi,l (8. of the Passage of Porentid-iry to Actudiry,Ik 331)

(ii) K. al-Hudud (B. of Definitions, lk 328)(iii) K. al-Mdjid(B. of rhe Glorious, tr.I706)(tv) (S) K. al-Ahjar,ak Ra,y Bal;nas (8. of Stones According to the

Opinion of Balinds, IG 307/308/310) (First Part / SecondPan / (S) Founh Pan)

(") (S) K. al-Khawass al-I{abrr (Grear B. of Properties, }ft 1900 -r970)First Discourse / Second Discourse / Fifth Dicourse / SixrhDiscourse / Tenth Discourse / Fifteenrh Discourse /Sixteenth Discourse / Seventeenth Discourse / NineteenthDiscourse / Twentieth Discourse I Twenty First Discourse /Twenry Founh Discourse /Twenry Fifth Discourse / ThirtySecond Discourse lThirty Third Discourse / Thirry EighthDiscourse / Sixty Third Discourse

("i) (S) K. al-Sin al-Mahnin (B. of the Hidden Secrer, I<r 389-391)("ii) (S) K. al-Tajmi. (B. of Concenrrarion, IG 398)(viit (S) K. al-Tasrtf(B. ofMorphology,Kr 404)(ix) (S) K. al-Mtzan al-Saghir (Small B. of Balance,lG 369)k) $) K. al-Sab,in (Lfr.Books, IG t23'-192)("i) (S) K. al-Khamstn(Fitty Books,lG 1835-1884)(xi| $) K. al-Bahrl (8. of Research, IG 1800)(xiii) (S) K. al-Rnhib (B. of the Monk, IG 630)(*i") (S) K. al-Hasil (B. of the Result, lk 323)(*u) (S) K. al-Qadtm (B. of the Erernal, Kr 981)(xui) (S) K. al-Ishtimal (8. of Comprehensive Undersranding)

(5) Zirnis U979) (unpublishcd):

K. Utuquss al-Uss (8. of the Element of Foundation, Kr 61718) tTafn K. Ust. al-Us (Comentary on the B. of the Elem. of Foun.,Kr 9)

MODERN EDITIONS AND TRANSLATIONS 257

(6) tr,ry [l9ss]:

(S) K. al-Sab,in (I_WBoola, IG t23-tg2)K. al-Lah,nt (8. of Di,,iniry, IG 123) /K. al-Bab (8. of Operation,Kr 124) lK al-Thatzthin lelima (8. ofThirryWords, l(.u't25) I K.al-Mund (B. of Desire, IQ 126) | K. at-HadA (B. of Guidarrce,I* 127) lK. al-Siftt (8. ofAnribures, IG l2B) tK,, shara (B. of-t!e

T_e1, IG t2i)'/K. at-Nu,it(B. of dpithem, Ift 130) trc i,Zla(B. of the Pact, lG 131) lK al-Sab,a (B. of rhe Swen,'IG 132) tKTadbtr alArhan ua'l-usil (8. of the Trearmenr of Elements andP:inciples). I K. lath al-Asrir (8. of the Discovery of secrets,Ik 972) lK al-Safi(B. ofthe Pure,lG 640)

;;$,:.

-ill

El',4:fnlt!'l:idl,!r:nt:rlitiliii

l;i,,.f;:itilfi*'t'ifil

if'

.eii

,B.l.

,i;i:t#

Hii;,

.ir_q

. ' i l

,,,$.:.:.':;:i3

sa"*

."*'rri

jll' '1

..*i

'1

.,.i1

'jii' : !

English Translations

(l) Stcde [1892):

K. Hatk al-'4srdr (8. of rhe Discovery of Secre s, Ift 972)

(2) Zircis [1979] (unpublishcd):

K. Usyquy /-Uss (8. of the Element of Foundation, IG 6/7/S) tTaftr K. Ust. al-Uss (Comentary on the B. of the Elem. of Foun.,IG 9)

Frcnch Translatioas

(1) Bcnhclot and Houdas [1893], III:

(il K al-Mulh(B. of the Dominion, t* 454)qi). K al-Rahma al-Saghir (Smdl B. ofMerqy, Ik 969)(iii) K al-Rahma al-1fu:bir(Great B. ofMercy, IG 5)(i9 {,al-Tajmi,(8. ofConcentration, f, glgt

lri {4?rt"q zLSharqi (8. of Eastern Mercury, IG 470)(vi) K Ztbaq al-Gharbi (8. of 'lfestern

Mercury, k 471)

* This work is not listed in tfie ccnsus o f Kraus [1942-3].

25& APPENDIX I I

("ii) K. al'Ndr al-Hajar (8. of the Fire of the Stone' k 472)

6i K Ar/ at-$ajai@. of ,h.E"tth of the Stone' lk 473)

i*l' ,< al-Ma*a"in al-Saghir(Small B' of Balances' Ift 980)

(2) Corbio [1950]:

K. dl-Mdjid(B. of the Glorious, k 706)

(il Lory [1983]:

(S) K al-Sab'in (lflBooks, Ys 123'l9Z)K al'Lahat (8. of Divinity, Ik 123) tK' al-Bab (B' of Operation'

t*-ilqf t X' al_Thalathin'tioti-o('. of Thirry'Words, lk 12, l K

al-Mund (8. of 6.tit., Kr 126i lK al-Huda (B' of Guidancc'

ii tzr'l i x. "ri;pr1B.

ofAttributes, IG 128) | K al- "4shara(B'

of the Ten, k ligi)K. al-Nu'ur(B' of Epithet! IG^130) l^K' al'

'Ahd (8. of the Pact, IG l3l) | K' al-Sab'a (B' of the Seven'

Y\r 132)

Gcrmen Trandationr

(l) sissd [958]:

K. al'surnitn (8. of Poisons,k 2145)

(2) Rcx 1r975)t

K. Ihraj ma f'l-Quwua ih'l-Fi'l (B' of the Passage of Potentiality to

Actualiry, Kr 331)

BI BLI OGRAPHI C AB B REVIATI ONS

.Abd al-Jabber ltg74l = QeCi .Abd al-Jabbar. Fadl dl-I'izal, ed. F.

Sayyid. Tunisz 1974.

Ab[ Hanifa al-Dinawari tlS88] = Abir Hanifa Ahmad ibn Da'nd

al-dinawari. Rtab al-Ahhbar al-Tiwal,ed. V. Guirgass. Iriden: 1888.

Ackrill tr. fi9631 = J. L.Ackrill. Aristotle's Catogorics and De

Interpreutionc. Oxford: 1963.

Affifi t195ll = A. E. Atrfi. "The Influence of Hermetic Literature on

Murli- Thought," Bulletin of the School of Oricntal and African

Sndiet 1951,73, pt. 4,840.

alrAmili Il94Ol = al-Amin al-'Amili. Ayan al-Shi'a,vol. xv. Damascus:

1940.

von Arnim [1903-1924] = H. von Arnim. Stoicorum Wterum Fragmentq

4 vols. Leipirg: 1903-1924.

ps-Apollonius of Tyana = [1979). Kitab Sin al-I(haliqa uta Sancat-

al--Tabi'd,ed. U. \7eisser. Aleppo: t1979).

AristodeAist. op. = Aistoulis opera,Bel<kered. [1831].Cat.= taugoiae,Minio-Paluello ed. [1956]; Aclrill tr. [19631',Gen. et Cio. ='De generatione et corraPtionc, Joachim tr' [1922]'

Arabic version in Geon ed. [1948h Badawi ed. [1948]'Pbr.= Plrysica, Hardie and Gaye u. [1930]. Arabic version in Badawi

ed. tr964l.M*aph. = MaaPbsica, Ross tr. tl928l.

al-Ash.ari 11963l = 'Ali ibn Ismi'il al-Ash'ari. Kitab Maqdldt

al-Islnmiyyin, ed. H. Ritter.'\07iesbaden: I 963.

Badawi ed. [948] = A. Badawi. Manig Arastfi, vol I. Cairo: 1948'

'

.Jli

,,irL

i l

t l l l

1:l'ii

il

i!l.i.it1

",|

'l:l

+:

,,ri,i

^1i"

. ,lt

' l

' I

259

260 BIBLIoGRAPHIc ABBREVIATIoNs

ed. [1964] =Arastiltilis: al-Tab|,a, Tarjamat Ishaq ibn Hunayn,2 vols. Ciro:1964.

ed. |9551 =Phtinus apud Arabcs. Caro: 1955.

Bekkered. [1831] = I. Bekker. Ai*otelis opera,2vols. Berlin: 1831.

Bergstraesser [1925J = G. Bergstraesser. "Hunayn ibn Ishaq, iiber diesyrischen und arabischen Galen-Ubersetzungen," Abi. f d. Kunded. Morgenl, lT, II. kiptrg: 1925.

Berthelot U9061= M. Benhelot. "ArchCologie et Histoire des Sciences:avec Publicarion nouvelle du Papyrus Glec chimique de Leyde, etIrnpression originde du Liber & Scptuaginta de Geb,er," Mdmoires deIAcad. Ro/e des Scicnces, 1g06,4g, 7.

and Houdas [1893] = M. Berthelot and M. O. Houdas.IaChinie au Molm Age, vol. III. Paris: I 893.

Borellius F6541- Petrus Borellius. Bibliotheca chimica,paris: 1654.

Bravmann [1934] = M. Braymann. Materialim und (Jntersuchungen zuden phonetischm Lehren derAraber. Giimingen: 1934.

Brocklemann [GALS] = C. Brocklemann. Geschichte der arabiscbenLitterawrSapphmnt. kiden: 1937 (vol.I); l93g (vol.II).

Burnett [1986] = C. S. F. Burnert. "Arabic, Greek, and Latin Worla onAstrological

-Magic Attributed to Aristotle" in Kraye, Ryan, and

Schmin eds. [1986].

Busard [968] = H. L. L. Busard. The Transkion of the Ehments ofEuclidfrom the Arabic into Latin b! Harmann of cainthia (?).rride,"1968.

--------:- [l 983] = The First Latin Translation of Euctidi ElementsCoinmon$,4sc.ribed to Adehrd of Bath. Toronto: 19g3.

Charlton [1933] = W. Charlton. "Prime maner: a rejoinder," phronesis,tgg3,2g, lg7.

Cl$e1 U9591= M. Clagen . The Scienee of Mechanics in the Middh Aga.Madison: 1959.

Co_rbin tr. [1950] = H. Corbin. "Le liare du glorieux de Jabir ibnHayyin," Eranos-Jahrbuch, 1950, lB, 47.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC ABBREVIATIONS 261

[1983] = crclical Tine and Ismar,iri Gnosis.London: r9g3.Cornford tr. Il957l = F. M. Cornford. p\r! Thcory of Knowhdge: tbeTheaetetus and the Sophist ofptato. New york: 195/. '

tr. [1960] = prato! cosrnobgr: the Timaeu ofptato.Indianaporis:1960

Crosland tl962l = M. p. Crosland. Histoical Sndies in the Language ofChemistry. London: 1962.

Daiber u9751 = H. Daiber. Das tbeorogiscb-philosophische system desMa,ammar fbn Abbiid as-SularnI.Beirut: 1975.Danishpazhuh ed. [l971j = M. T. Danishpazh uh. Al_Mantiq (L"grd At!n, aL{uyffi, and Hudt}d al-Martiq' (Drf)t;;;r';f;:gd by lbnBahnz. Teheran:l97g. ' /

Darrnstaedter [1925] = E. Darmstaedter. "Liber misericordiae Geber,eine lateinisch. Uf..t .y:lg des grcisser r" t;raO ii_roiri)J'7*na pr,Geschicha dzr Medizin, tgZ5, tg,ilt.Deussen [191]-1915] - p. Deussen. Argemeinc Gescbicbte derPhilwophie.Ixpzig: lgtt-1915.

v'Jc"'b'J

Dij&sterhuis [1961] 1EJ. Dijksrerhuis. The Mechanization of the rvorrdPicture. Oxford: 1961.

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al-Shahrastini [1951]; [1955) = Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Karimal-Shahrastini. Kitab al-Mihl uta al-Nibal,2 vols., ed. Mut'ammadibn FathAllah Badran. Cairo: l95l (vol. i); 1955 (vol. II).

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Shawqi U9761= Y. Shawqi. Risah lbn Munajjim f al-Musiqa wa lhrhfal-Rumilz Ktdb al-Agbani. Ciro: 1976.

Siggel [1950] = A. Siggel. Arabisch-Deutsches tViirterbuch dcr Stofe.Berlin: 1950.

[1953) = uZur Kenntnis der lftafte der zusarnmengesetztenHbilminel,' Sudhffi Archiu, 1953, 37,389.

- u. [1958] =Das Buch der Gife daJabir ibn Halydn. Abersetztund Erhutert. l0fiesbaden: I 958.

Silvestre de Sacy ll799l = A. I. Silvestre de Sacy. "Kitab Sirr al-Khallqali-Balinls al-Hahtm. Le livre du secret de la crCature, par le sageBClinous." Notices et extraitt fus manuscrits de la Bibliothique du Roi,1799,4,107.

[83U = Gramrnaire Arabe. Paris: 183 l.

$kabelund and Thomas U969) = D. Skabelund and P. Thomas. ''Walterof Odington's Mathematical Treatment of the Primary Qualities," ./rer,1969, 60,3,203, 337.

Sorabji [988] = R. Sorabji. Matter, Space andMotion.khaca:1988.

Stapleton U9531 = H. E. Stapleton. "The Andquiry of Alchemy,"Ambix,1953,5, l .

Jabiriab dchemy was based," Ambix, 7957, 6, L.

Il958l = "incient and Modern Aspects of Pythagoreanism,"Osiis,1958, 13, 12.

'Ali and Husain U933) = H. E. Sapleton, M. T. 1{Ii and M. H.Husain. "Three Arabic Treatises on Alchemy by Mut'ammad ibnUmail (l0th Century A.D.)," Memoirs of the,4siatic Society of Bngal,1933,12, no. l , l .

Azn and, Husain U9271= H. E. Stapleton, R. F. Azo and M. H.Husain. "Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the l0th Century A.D.,'Memoirs of the ' siatic Sociery of Bngal, 1927, 8, 315.l

; , . , i t?. .ii

,|;., ir,l

:-i":: Mesopotamian Zigurat and the Magic Square Numbers on which

274 BIBLIocRAPHIc ABBREVIATIoNS

Steele tr. t1892] = R. R. Steele. The Discoaery of Sccrets Atnibuted to

Geber. Inndon: 1 892.

Stern [EI2] = S. M. Stern. "Abd Allah b. Maymtn'' [Ep], I, 48.

Suothman [EIl] = R. Strothman. "Sab'iya,' [EIl], fV, 23.

al-suyuti 11949) = Jalil al-Din al-Suyugi. al-Muzhir f 'Ulum al-Lugha,

eds. Jad al-Mawla, et d., 2vols. Ciro:1949-

al-Tabari [1869-1901] = Ibn Jarir al-Tab*i. Ta'rihh al-Rusul ua'l-

Mulah,l5 vols, eds. M. J. de Goeje et al. kiden. 1869-1901.

Tamir ed.1957). See al-Mufaddal ibn 'umar 11957)-

Temkin ll955l = O. Temkin. "Medicine and Graeco-Arabic Alchemy,"

Bulhtin ofthe History ofMedicine, 1955,29,34.

Thabit ibn Qurra tl958l. Kitab Madhhal iln 'IIm al-Adad, ed' '!7'

Kutsch. Beirut 1958.

Thureau-Dan gin [1932) = F' Thureau-Dangin' Esquisse d'une histoire du

systlme sexagesimal. Paris: 1932.

Tkatsch ed,.11928-321 = J. Tkatsch. Die arabische ubersetzung dtr Poaih

dts Aistotehs, 2 vols. kipzig: 1928-32.

ullmann tl972l = M. ullmann. Die Natur- und Geheimurissenscahfen im

I s km. I;:iden-Ki5ln: 7 97 2.

\flallis tl972l = R T. \7dlis. Neophtonism'l-ondon;1972'

vlalzer t19621= R. 'walzer. Grceh inn Arabic. cambridge, Mass.: 1962.

IEP) = "al.Farabi," [Elz],ll,778.

\(leil [915] = G. \[eil. Zum Vastiindnis der Methodz dzr muslimiscben

Grammaiher (Sachau-Festsehif). Betlin: 1915.

[EIl] ='.Arod,' lElrl, r, 667.

\Teisser ll979l. See ps-Apollonius of Tyana

t19801 = U. !7eisser.Das "Bach iiber las Geheimnis der

Schapfung" aon Pscado-Apllonius aotl,Tyana- Berlin: I 980'

R.u. i:. V. Zi--.t-*tt, Mcdical Histor!, 1981,25,4,439'

BIBLIOGRAPHIC ABBREVIATIONS 275

'lfhittaker [1913] = r$7. u(rhittaker. The Neopktonists: A Study in the

HistotT of Helhnism. Cambridge: 1918.'Wiedemann

11970) = E. '\07'iedamann. Aufiatze zur arabischen\Yisscnschafisgeschichte, ed. \7'. Fisher. New York 1970.

\Tolfson U9761 = H. A. \f'olfson The Philosopb of the Kalarn.pambridge, Mass.: 197 6.

\(rright U9661= O. 'Wright. "Ibn al-Munajjim and the Early ArabianModes," The Galpin Society Journal, 7966,X1X (Apil), 27.

U9791 =The Modal System of Arab and Persian Masiq A. D.1 250- 1 300. Oxford: 1979.

\U'right t1862) = 'u7. ITright. A Grammar of the Arabic Language,2 vols.London: 1862.

11894) =A Sbort History ofsyiac Literaturc. London: 1894.

al-Yaf i [1388/1919] = 'AbdAllah al-Yaf i. Mir'at al-Jandn. Hyderabadedition: 138811919.

Al Yasin tl965l = M. H. Al Yasin. "al-sayyid 'Ali AI Tawus (589-664

H)." Majalht al-Majma' al''Ilmt al''Iraqr, 7965, 12, 192.

De Young tl98ll = G. R. De Young. The Aithmetic Boobs of Eaclid'sElements. Doctoral Diss. (1981), Harvard Universiry.

Yusuf ed. tl965l = Z. Yusuf. Risaht al-Kindtf dl-Luhun u'a al-Nagham.Baghdad: 1965.

aL-Zayydt 11 3 5 8 | | 9 6 5l' = al - H usa)'n ib n B istim al-Zayydt an d Ab u'Atabibn'Bistam aJ-Zayyit. Tibb alA'imma,ed. Hasan al-Khurisin. Najaf:135811965.

Zimmermann [l981]. See 'Weisser F9801.

11986l = F. \f. Zimmermenn. "The Origin of the So-CalledTheohg ofAristotli in trGaye, Ryan C. B. Schmitt eds. [1986].

Zirnis tl979l = P. Zirnis. The Kitnb (Jstuqus fsic] al-Uss of Jabir ibnHa1rydn. Doctoral Diss. (1979), New York University.

INDEX OF JABIRIAN IOTORKS CITED

' l

l

500 Books. See Ki&ab al.Khatw Mi,aCXII Boohs. Se:-. Kutab al-Mi,aba,l-hhz,i

,rlshara

IX Bookt. See Kab al-Sab.in

Ad h*dcm Sooatis dixit Gcbcr = O KiabMusahhahat SaqrAt,47

al-Arbacin Kitdb, llI&ab al-,Afidi|,36IGfib al-,Ahd t5, 40

f?b. "Wuf ,ata Ra! Bati*, passim

Kiadb al-Ajaad al-Sab\ 37,38 '

IGtab al-.{sbd?h, t95Kitab al-,Ayn,40IQtab al-&ahtb,26,27, 28,35, 36,38, 45,

50,70, 77 ,78, t102,103, 204, 2r9IGfib al-Bayan,43IGaab al-Fidda,222Kifib

^l-Gharl37Kifib al-Hajar, 23, 35, 43Kirab al-Htuit, 5, 16, 36, 40, 86, 87, 99,

100, 102, 105, t65, 167, t95Kitab al-Ha1y,46,204Kiab al-Hadad 37,85, r}r, 184K;aab al-fibdtu,37Kiazb al-Ihhtil,at, 45Kifrb al-lamal al-,hhin, llKiaab al-Iemal t8Kicab al-Kanil 194IGaab al-Khalis, 34Kitdb al-Kharc Mi,a, 12, 13, 37,38, 39,

47Kitdb al-Kharcin, 23, 38, 7 8, 98, lO2,

103,217Kiaa b al- Kha rrq, D 6, 244Kifib al.Ihdn;ni,37Kidb al-Kbauast at-Iebir 16,36, 37,38,

40,78,204,242Kiaab al-Ubit,229

Kihab at-Maj4 n,36,37Kadb al-Malih,47IGadb al-Manaf,,37Kab al-Maudztn dl-Sagbrn 46,T0, lO4,

206,225ICfib al-Minihh wa al-Shens,243Kab al-Mrzan, l.95, 196, 244Kab al-Mizan al_Saghir, 36, 59, 61, 72,

73,74,75,76, 204,225Kihib al-MujanaAat, 34, 35, 47 , 70Kab aLMulh,46, 47Ichdb dl-Muntuba, 195Ktab al-Nubas,70Kaab al-Nnr, DKfib al-Qadim,26Kaab al-Qadir, t2Kfib al-QaraaJJKadb al-Rahib,40Ktdb al-Rahma al-Ihbir, B, 14,37,46,

226K aa b a l. Rahna at - Sash i r, 40Ktab a!-Sab,a,244IGab al-sab,n, 7, 12, 13, t4,36, 37, 38,

40, 46, 47, 72, 73, 74, 75,s6, ro4,105,204,243,244

IGaab al-Safwa, 44,74, t67, 196Kaab al-SahL t2Kaab al-Sharc, 195IGfib al-S;n al-Maknnn, 50 , 7 | , 88 , 90 ,, 98, l0 l , 102, 103, l l l , 204,2t7Kaab al-Sumim, 4IGaab al-Tajmi", 35, 45, 50, 78, 96, 98,

. ro4, r05,208,222Kifi b al-T4nf, SB, 70, 7 2, 7 3, 7 4, 82, 83,

99, r00, r03, t64, 166,167, t83,195

Kaab al-Thalathin l{atina, 47Kdbal-&a|,47Kab al-Vahid al-I{abir, t2

277

278

Kaa b a l-Va hid a l- Saghir, 1 2Kiab lLhnaj na f'l-Quuua ih'l-Fi'|, 9,

22, 35, 39, 40, 78, 100, l0l, 102,103,210,217

Kita b lhamsat'fu hara, 47Kitd b Mayd,an al-'Aq I, 36, 58, 59, 7 4, 7 5,

166, r82Kita b M usah hahat D hitnaq rdtis, 35Kia b Musahhahat Suqrat, 47Kaab Nar al-Hajar,40Kbab Sharh Uqlidis,36Kaab tJs*q*ss al-Uss,7, 12, 18, 35, 37,

46,204Kutab al-MautiizIn, 7' 13, 14, 37, 38, 68,

98,111,243Kunb al-Mi'a wa'l-hhid c'4shara, 13, 17,

r8, 34, 37,70, 194, 195, 243Kutub al-Masahhahat, 38Liber funudanr*m= (?) Ktdb al-

Mrjanaht,4TLibcr miscticordiae = Ktab al-Rahma46Liber de pondcrih.t artis = (?) Ktdb al-

Mauiztn,46Libcr radiatm = Kaab al'Usnl, 47Liber rcrni = (?) Kub al-Mulh,46Libcr i scptuaginu = Kitab al-Sab'rn,46,

47Liber W- (?) Ktab Khamsat'ashara,47Libcr )A(V urbis = (?) Ktab al-Tbalatltin

I{alina,47Sharh Kitab tVam al-Taj li Arshamidis,36Tafir Ktdb Unt4ass al-[Js,41,194

INDEX OF JABIRIANlWORKS CITED I

INDEX OF PRO PER NAMES

.Abd al-Jabbtu, 98Fadl al-Ivizdl,98

'AbdAllah ibn Ja' fa:, 21

'Abd al-Rahman I, 69Abfr qteb,20

Kdb al-Ahhbar al-Tiual, 34Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi,33, 100

a I- Imtd' wa' I-Mt'iinasa, 100Abu'l-Khanib, 20, 21, 23, 4lAbulnniyus,203Abulns,203Ab[ Ma'shar, 206Ab[ Sulayman al-Mantiqi, 3

Ta<dliq,3,33Actuill,I.L.,232A.ffifi, A E., 206Afiiluniyus, 203Agathodemon,5De Abhcmkof Nuremberg, 204Alo<ander of Aphrodisias, 5, 25, 50, 51, 70

Kiaab at-Aq I ua' l-Ma'qul, 7 0K;tdb al-Ndf,70Ki ta b/M aqa h f ' l-' Inila, 7 0Risak,70Refutation of Galen's Kiaab al-Muhatik

al-Auwal70

'Ali ibn 'Abbas al-Majusi,66,77Libcr regiu,77

(Ali ibn Abi Tilib, 22, 43, 176,203, 220.Ali ibn Ishaq d-Barmfi, 17.Ali ibn Yaqtin,34Al Yasin,4lal-.Amili, al-Amin, 19-20, 41, 42

Ajdn al-Shi,a" 19,41von Arnim, H., 76al-Ash'ari, 20, 27, 42, 45, 76

Maqalat a l- Is hniyin, 27, 42, 7 6Anebon,70

Apollonius of Perge, 203Apollonius/ps-Apollonius of Tyana (see

also Balines), 5, 29, 6t, 203-204tuchimedes, 5,28, 36, 217-218Arif Tamir,4lfuistode, Aristorclian, Aristotelianism, 5,

9, 14, 25, 26-28, 35, 49 -62, 64, 69,70, 7 r, 90, r03, 1 12, 223, 224, 230-242,243,245,246,247

Ana lyica po sterio ra, 7 0Analyica piora,ToDc anima,703Caagoiae, 25, 26, 50, 51, 70, 7 l, ll2,

230-242Dc coeh a m*ndo, 50,71De intcrprcutione,TODc getrationc ct cornrPtionc, 50, 7 l, 7 5,

224,243,247Meuphyba, 50, 52, 69, 70, 70, 7 |Paraa Na*ralia, 103De phaenomcnh mcteorolngicis, 50, 224Physica, 26, 27 , 50, 70, 7 |Dc sensu ct sensato, 103Topica,50,70

ps-Aristotle, 29, 38, 5lSeaetum secrcuntm,29Theologia Aristotelis, 57

Arnald of Villan ova, 63 -64, 7 6-7 8Aphorisni dc gradib*, 63

Anefius,204,205C lau is s ap i en tia e/M iftii h a I- H i h ma 20 4

Averroes. See Ibn RushdAvicenna. See lbn Sina

Bacon, Roger, 14,225Spenhm Attheniae, 225

Badawi, A., U, 45, 7 l, 232-242Badran, M.,42, l0O

279

280 INDEX OF PROPER NAMES

Fakhry, M., 7ld-Faiabi, 69, 103, 215-217

Ihfi, al-,Uh1m,703a l-Jam' bayna Ra lay a l- hak itnayn

AJIz tin a I- Ih h i ua A*t ilta h, 69a I-M&ti q a 4t- Ka br/, 21 5

Farmcr, H.J.,215,216a.l Faruqi, L.1., 215, 216, 217Fatima,22Fatimid,(s), 22, 42Festugilre, R. P., 206Fisher, V., 219Fleisch, H.,2llFlugel, G., 33, 34, 4t, 45, 46, 70Frar&,k,44,71Freytag, G. rt7'., 102Fiick,J. W.,41Furlani, G.,71,231Fyzre, A. A. A.,41

Galen, Galenic, 5, 25, 28, 63, 64, 65, 66,67,70,77,92,207

De composiione rncdicamt ttorumsecandum locos,28,35

Dc elementis secandum Hippoaatem, 28,36

De facabati b*s na nrali b*s, 36De propiis phcitis,2SDe pulsibas ad tirones,35De i mp li cium medi camez tontm

tcmp erum mti s a facuhati bas, 3 6, 77De usu parti*m,36a l-Adtuiya b i has a b a I -M auadt,

al-L{tima.'zaal-Andsir,28

f'l-Upqsat <ah Ray Buqrdt,28

f ma Ya'uqiduln Ra'yan,28tnd I'taqadahu Ralan, 28al-Maynmin 28al-Mahati k al-Auual, 7 O

Geber, 4, 31, 46, 47 , 64,77Ad hadzm Sooatis dixit Geber,47Li ber p raoictts G c b eris, 34Liber qai flos naturarum uocatur, 35Sumna perfeaioni,4,34

George, Bishop of the Arabs, 231Georr, Kh.,23l

INDEX OF

il-Ghezall215Ghule', ,22,43DeGoeje, M. l . ,yGoldstein, B. &,212Gokz,D.,227Gottheil, R. J. H., 231Grenc, Marjorie, 14von Grunebaum, G. E., 99Guirgass, V., 34

H{jaj ib n Y ttsuf , 2t2, 2 | 3HejjiKhahfa,33

IQthfal-Zunun,33Halm,H.,42HaIyAbbas. See.Ali ibn .Abbas al-MaifisiHrt"da" Qarmar,2lHaq, S. N., j!Harinians, l0Hidn,.Abd al-Sdem,72Hamn al-Rashid,2l3al-Hasan ibn al-Nakad d-Mawsili, 3Haschimi, M.Y.,225Hayyen al-rfuftirr,34Hearh, T. L.,212,213, Zt4Henry, P. and Schwyzer, H.,73Hermes, Hermetic, Hermeticism, 5, 10,

29,50, 69,206,207Arabic Hermetica,206

Hiero, 28Hippocrates, Hippocradc, 64Hisham ibn al-Hakam, 24,27,g8

f k htilaf al-Nas f , l- I n dnu, 24

Hodgon, M. G. S.,43Hoefer, F.,34Holmyard, E. J., 8, 16, LB, 32, y, 35, 37,

38, 39, 40, 4r, 43, 46, 47,204, 255Houdas,38Huan, Cl., 34,72,76F.Iunayn ibn Ishag, $uanyn school, !, I0,

25,26, 27, 28, 45al-Husayn ibn Bisram, 20

Ibn'Abd Rabbihi,2I5al-,Iqd al-Fari4 215

Ibn al-Athir, 44Kinil44

PROPER NAMES 28I

Ibn d-Haythzm,44Ibn d-Munajjim,216

Rkdhf,l-Mil.riqd, 216Ibn al-Muqaffa., Abi M"hammad

,AbdAilah,7t,23l

Ibn al-Muqafa., M',trarnmad ibn(AbdAllal,23l

Ibn al-Nadim, 3,4, 17, 19,33, 34,38, 45,46,70, trr

Fihrtt,3, 18,4t,45Ibn Ghaybi,2lTIbn Khallikan,33,39

B iograph i ca I Diaionary, 33Ibn Manztr, 2l I

Lisan al-,Arab,2llIbn Misjah, 215-216Ibn Muhriz, 215Ibn Nubara d-Misri, 3

Sarh al-,Ufin,33Ibn Rushd, 103

al-Hfus ua'l-Mah*, 103Ibn Surayj,2l5Ibn Sina, 103,215,2t6

Kiaab al-Naf, 103Ibn Tahir al-M agdisi, 4, 34, 62

IGhab Bnd, ua al-Ta,nhh, 34,62Ibn Tawtu d-Hilli, ,Ni, 19,4l

Famj al-Humnm bi Ma,rifat ,Ilm al-Nujnm, 19

Ibn Umayf, 4, 6, 9, 34, 228IGtdb Ma' al-lUarasr, 34

Ibn \fahshiyya, 3IQnzal-Hikna,4Sumxm,4

lbnZaydtn,33Ibrahim, M. A.,33Ikhwan

".1-9"ft,, to,46,gg, t0l, 103,

212,214Rma,il 10, 38, 46, 99, t}l, 2t2, 214Treatisc on Numbos,212

Inge, R.,73Isma(ili(s), Isma(ili,'ya, Ismi(ilism, 2 l_24,

42,43Isbaq ibn Hunayn, 26, 27, 30, 213, 230-

242Itt;ndtit,29,30Ivanow,Y.,42

Balinis (see also ps-Apollonius of Tyana),5, 29, 36, 45, 67, 97, 1 tl, 163-202,203-2t0,221-222,251

Ktab al-Fihba,2O4Kitdb al.Sab,a,204a l- ku h al -zum*rrad, 204Sin al-Khaliqa/Kiaab al-,Ihl, 29-30, 45,

6r,76,203-207Barmecide(s), 17 -19, 4lBaTt al-Hihna, 9,27Bergstraesser, 45Benhelot, 8, 38, 46,70, 104, 105, 206,

225,226, 255, 257al-Biruni, 101

Kitdb al-Saydah, 101Blumbcrg, H., 103Borellius,46Bradwardine, Thomas, 63, 7 6, 77Bravmann, M., l0l , 211Brockelmann, C,,41,42Burnctt, C. S. F.,38,46Busard, H. L. L., 212,213

Carre de Vaux, 70Charlton,'0f., 71Cheikho, L., 34Clagen,M.,76Corbin, H.,33,43,258Crew,D.,42Crosland, M. P., 2?3, 225

Daiber, H., 44,45, 102Danishpazhuh, M. T., 23 |Darmstaedrer, E., 46D as tfr r al-Munajj imin, 21Democritus, 5,35,50Descertes, 53Deussen, P., 73Dhu'l-Ntn al-Misri, 6Dirar ibn <Amr,76

D'ooge, M.L.,212Duval, P., 7l

Empedocles, Empcdoclean, 57, 58, 59, 60,64, r85,226

van Ess, J., 76Euclid, 5, 36,212-214

Ebmntl212-214

. l

II

:

284 INDEX OF PROPER NAMES

Sa.id d-Anddusi,4Tabaqdt al-Umam,34

Sa'd ibn'AbdAlleh aI Qummi, 24Salman, Companion of the Prophet, 43Sayyid, F., 98Schmieder, K.C.,34Schiiner, !f., ZScott, W,,206Sereius of Risir < aynd,, 23 7Sezgin, F., 8, 9, 18, 25, 28, 32, 35, 38, 39,

4r, 42, 43, 44, 45,70, rrr, 204, 205d-Shabibi,33d-Shahrasteni, 20, 42, 100

Mihl ua atr Nihal 42,100Sigsel, A., 9, 33, 38, 76, 77, ro4, 258Silvestre de Sacy, 45, IO2, 203,210Simplicius, 5, 49, 50, 55, 69, 72, 7 3

in PLrys.,69,73al-Sirafi, 100Sin dl-Tabr,a 204Skabelund, D. and Thomas,P.,76,77dc $lanc, Baron, 33Socrates, Socratic, 5, 35, 47, 52, 92, 94,

97, r77, 178, r85, 22r, 222, 223,227,252

Sophroniscus, 52Sorabji, R., xvii, 61, 69, 70, 7 l, 72, 73, 75,

76Stapleton, H. E., 34, 37 , 205, 206,223,

228,229,244Steele, R. R.,255,257Stern, S. M.,42Stoic(s), 61,75, 185,

Snicorum utcrum fagnmu, 7 6S$othman, R.,23,42d-Suyiiti, 99,102

al-Muzhir,99

al-Tabafi,34,43Tibb al-A,imma,20Tzhrh smamgdina 29, 46, 204Tajaddud, R,45Tcmkin, 0,228Temple of Mptic Enlightement, 206Thabit ibn Qura, 213

Madkhal ih ,Ilm al-AdaL 212-214Thales,222

Themistius, 5, 50Theodorus, 206Theon of Alscan dtia, 222Thureau-Dangin, F ,, 222Tkatsch, J., 231Tornberg C.J.,44

Ullmann, M.,46

\fallis, R. T.,73Valter of Odin gton, 63 -64, 7 6-7 7

Icoccdron,63,77'V/dzer, R., 69, 230, 231Weqift,23Veil, G., 102Weisser, U., 30, 46, 7 6, 203, 204, 207Whittaker,'W., 73'Wiedemann, E.,219Ifolfson, H. A-,44Wright, \$f. ,71, 100Vright, O.,215,216

al-Yifi.i, 19,4lMir'at al.Jandn, 19

Yagtin,34Dc Young, G. R.., 212, 213Yuhanna bar Masawayh, 9

zidj,24 ral-Z.zyyet Bisdm ibn Sabtu,20 I7ans,227 !Zimmermann, F. '!trfl., xvii, 38,45,46,71,

230al-Zirtldi,Kh.,99, 101,103,212 iZirnis, P., 18,33,41,256,257 iZosimus,5,23,50