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Detailed Internal Assessment Guidebook (SL) This document has been created to be your one-stop-shop for what you need to know and be able to do for your Psychology internal assessment. It has been designed with the help of resources from the IB website and from the textbooks we use in class.

Contents:

Page 2: Internal Assessment General Requirements Overview

This provides a quick overview of the internal assessment

Page 3: Summary of SL and HL Differences

Page 3-12: Detailed overview of the requirements of the Psychology Internal Assessment

Here is where you will find everything you need to know about the internal assessment. Please also note that the Psychology Course Companion (blue textbook) and the Pearson Psychology (green textbook) both contain very useful information if you have additional questions.

Page 13: Important Terms

These are the key terms you need to know and be able to use for the internal assessment

Page 14: Research Proposal Form

This will be completed in full and approved by your teacher before you begin conducting your experiment.

Page 19-20: IA Checklist

Please use this to ensure that you have covered everything once you have completed your first draft (or use it as you go along)

Page 21: SL Rubric

This is what will be used to grade your IA

Page : 23-8 Translation of the IA Marking Rubric

This offers additional explanation of the requirements and how your IA will be graded.

Additional Material: Please also check out the blog (tdixon.wordpress.com) to find excellent examples of IAs and a translation and detailed explanation of the marking rubrics.

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Internal Assessment General Requirements Overview

1. You are to conduct a simple experiment: a. A simple experiment is one that has one independent that is manipulated

(only two conditions) and one dependent variable that is measured 2. Assessment

a. SL = 25% of your IB grade 3. Word Count

a. SL = 1,000 – 1,500 words 4. It must be a replication (or might be a simplification – for example only two levels of

processing instead of three) of an original study. 5. You will submit the completed first draft of your IA at the end of Grade 11 and the

second and final draft in April of Grade 12. 6. You may work by yourself or in pairs.

a. You will have the same results as your partner or group members but you must submit different reports.

7. You are to follow these ethical guidelines (ask your teacher if you have questions regarding these)

a. No studies involving: i. Children (under 16 years requires a parental consent form)

ii. Ingestion iii. Deception or deprivation iv. Animals v. Conformity or obedience

b. You must provide your participants with: i. An informed consent form

ii. A debriefing at the end of your experiment iii. The right to withdraw and confidentiality

c. You are not allowed to conduct a quasi-experiment i. A quasi-experiment is where the IV is a pre-existing one, such as race,

gender, age, etc. 8. You must research the original study that you are replicating. If you cannot find

sufficient information, consider changing your study. HL students need to conduct detailed research for their literature review.

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Here is a brief overview of the main differences between SL and HL

Standard Level Higher Level • Explain the study to be replicated • Review of literature (analysis of

relevant background studies and theories) on the topic to be investigated

• Study must be replicated (or simplified by reducing the conditions involved)

• The study may be modified

• Statement of the aim of the research • Statement of a null hypothesis and research hypothesis

• Descriptive statistics are applied (central tendency and dispersion)

• Descriptive and inferential statistics are applied; there is a statement of the significance of the data

• Comparison of results to the original study

• Comparison of results in light of the review of literature

• 1,000-1,500 words • 1,500 – 2,000 words

Getting started

Starting the simple experimental study can be difficult, so it is important that you read through the recommended experiments that you can replicate. The more work you do at this stage, the easier your final write-up will be. It’s important to conduct thorough background research and find copies of the original study you’re replication (not summaries in textbooks) as this will make your introduction writing a lot stronger.

Choosing a topic

You will be given time to consider your choice of topic. Please use forethought when considering a topic, as for the purposes of the internal assessment it is often easiest to go with the simplest topics as opposed to more complex and complicated ones.

When choosing a topic, the following points should be considered:

• What topic/s are you interested in? • What topics do you find difficult/easy to understand? If you who choose a “difficult”

topic you might struggle in formulating and writing up your experiment. • Is the topic suitable for a simple experiment? Avoid using topics or research that are

difficult to set up practically, are time consuming, or have multiple variables and conditions.

• Are the resources available to carry out an experiment in this topic area? Avoid using topic areas requiring specialist or complicated equipment/apparatus or tasks.

• Where will you conduct the experiment and who will the participants be?

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Most students choose topics from the cognitive level of analysis and this is a good idea because they offer good results and allow for suitable analysis for the requirements of the internal assessment. When you’re selecting your topic, again, remember that you only have two conditions! If the experiment you are replicating, you will need to simplify it (for example, if you are conducting Loftus’ car-crash study you would two verbs instead of five).

Some Examples of Suitable Topics

• Craik and Tulving’s Levels of Processing • The Stroop Effect • Imagery versus Rehearsal learning • Glanzer and Cunitz’ study on primacy/recency effects • Loftus’ eye-witness studies

o This is a very brief list and you are free to find your own research study to replicate/conduct. If you do, have it checked by your teacher first!

Finding background research

Once you have conducted suitable background research, you should then find a topic on which you wish to carry out your experiment. You are required to find a suitable piece of research to replicate or modify. SL students' need to explain/describe the study that is being replicated (e.g. aims, procedures, findings). You should base your study on the original report, not a textbook summary, if possible.

Formulating Your Aim

Once you have done the above, you should now be at a stage where you have chosen a topic area and have started to consider the purpose of your research. At this stage, you need to start to make your aims (SL) more specific ensuring that you have fully operationalized your independent and dependent variables.

Draft methodology

Before collecting any data, you need to have planned how you will carry out your experiment by drafting a method section. Guidance for what should be included in the method section can be found later in this guide. Use the proposal later in this guidebook also.

Developing the materials

Before data collection commences, you will need to produce the materials needed to carry out your experiment. This includes standardized instructions, consent forms, data collection sheets, debriefing instructions, and any materials specific to your experiment, for example, word lists, pictures, and video clips. How you created some of these documents

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may need to be included in your methods section, so please keep notes as you go along. Moreover, it is good practice for you to note design decisions when developing these materials, and to record where you sourced your information in the design process for later reference in your method section.

Pilot study

You should be carry out a small-scale pilot study to test your procedure and materials before you start data collection for your experiment. Details of the pilot study, and any modifications made after the pilot study, should be included in the method section of your report. For instance, you can trial your experiment on someone at home or a friend who is unfamiliar with the experiment. In my experience, every pilot test that I’ve observed has needed some minor (and often major) modifications. This is an essential process because it can eliminate a lot of mistakes later on.

Once you have completed these stages, you are ready to carry out your experiment in full. At this stage, the proposal form should have been signed by the teacher and your experiment approved.

Ideally, the report should look like a journal article. You should be familiar with such articles (look online for example pdf files of experiments. E.g.: http://hs-psychology.ism-online.org/files/2012/08/Glanzer-Cunitz-1966-serial-position-memory.pdf

The total length of the report should be 1,000–1,500 words for SL, excluding supplementary information such as abstract, title page, references, section headings, parenthetical citations, graphs, and appendices.

Layout of the Final Report:

• Title Page • Abstract • Contents Page • Introduction • Method:

o Design o Participants o Materials o Procedures

• Results • Discussion • References • Appendices

See page 333-4 for a table bullet-pointed overview of what is required in each section.

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The following paragraphs indicate the information you include under each heading of the report. Please read this very carefully, as oversights in requirements will lead to a deduction in marks for your final draft.

Title page

The title page should give clear indication of the experimental method and the specific topic of study. The aim will determine how the title is constructed. For example, if the aim of the research is “to investigate how category headings impacts upon word recall,” then an appropriate title could be “An experiment to investigate the effect of category headings on the recall of a list of words”. A title such as “An experiment on memory” is not specific and is, therefore, insufficient.

The title page must include:

• Title o The method used (experiment) o The topic under investigation (for example, recall) o The variables (for example, category headings and their impact on word

recall) • Student name and number • Subject and level (SL or HL) • Date, month and year of submission • Number of words.

Abstract

The abstract gives the reader a chance to find out the bare essentials of the experiment without going any further. The style should be brief, but should not use note form. The abstract should include the following.

• A one-sentence summary, giving the topic(s) to be studied (This should include the aim or hypotheses and the area studied.)

• A description of the participants and setting for the experiment • A description of the experiment conducted by the student, including the design,

independent and dependent variables, and a basic outline of the procedure • A statement of the findings related to the aim (SL) including a mention of the

statistics used, and one sentence summing up the outcome • A short summary of the conclusion

The abstract should be no longer than 200 words. The word count for the abstract should be included on the abstract page.

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Introduction

The purpose of the introduction is to introduce the theoretical framework and the background research and/or theories that should lead to the aim (SL). It provides the background and justification for the research study. Be sure to define all important terminology in this section as relevant to your study (for example defining immediate and delayed free recall (IFR and DFR) if you are investigating the primacy effect).

The introduction is arguably the most important section of your internal assessment because what you write in your results and discussion will be directly related to the research you have reviewed in your introduction.

The introduction should follow the order below:

• A general introduction to the psychological subject area under investigation. Include an indication of the perspective that is being discussed.

• A summary and analysis of the key theories and research studies (The introduction must include proper references, for example, (Zajonc 1965). Students at SL must cite one reference. Ensure you use a standard format for referencing, such as MLA or APA).

• A rationale and justification for your study. • The aim of your study.

See below for further information about the aim and hypotheses.

Aim

The aim of the study is a clear statement about what is being investigated and what is expected. Your aim needs to include details of the independent and dependent variables. For example, the aim of this study is to investigate how the use of category headings (IV) affects the number of words (DV) that bilingual students at St Maur International School can recall. Your aim needs to be clearly formulated.

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Method

This section must be sub-divided into four parts; design, participants, materials and procedures.

A: Design

A description of design decisions should be included, for example:

• Experimental (treatment group) and control condition/group (note: you won’t necessarily have a control condition/group, you may have two treatment groups).

• The type of experimental design (independent groups, repeated measures, or matched pairs) chosen by the student and justification (i.e. why this method and design were chosen) for your choice Identification of variables (independent and dependent variables), operationally defined.

• Ethical considerations and reference to documentation (informed consent, debriefing, parental consent for participants under 16 years old) in the appendices.

• Identify and explain any controls that were used. • Independent and dependent variables must be clearly identified.

You need to clearly justify your experimental design as it applies to your study. Use appropriate terminology for your justification (see important terms later in this guide).

B: Participants

A sample of 15-20 students is recommended, however the more you have the easier for your statistical analysis. Details of the participants involved in the research should be included, for example:

• The researchers involved in conducting the research • The target population, described in terms such as age, gender, education, language,

or reference to any other relevant variables (e.g. colour-blindness for the Stroop test.

• Be sure to include details of the gender distribution (how many boys and girls) • The sampling method and justification of why it was used • The size of the sample (a participant sample of 20 is recommended), and how the

participants were selected and assigned to experimental conditions (random or selected allocation – if you’re using independent samples).

You need to identify your target population.

Another common downfall is that students do not state the correct sampling method that they used (for example they say random when it was in fact opportunity). It’s imperative that you justify why you used that sampling method.

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C: Materials

A clear outline of materials or apparatus is needed. The exact details and examples should be placed in the appendices and referenced. Such things like paper, chairs, tables etc, do not need to be listed. Any materials that were specifically developed for the experiment should be listed and referenced to a sample copy included in the appendices (e.g. word lists). The full text of materials such as debriefing forms, standardized instructions, informed consent forms should be included in the appendices as well.

It’s fine to use bullet points for your methods (but again, be sure to reference in your appendices).

D: Procedure

This sub-section should include a statement of where the research was undertaken, the instructions given to participants, details of debriefing, and any other relevant details that would be necessary for replication of the experiment. It is best to write in bullet points, as this often uses fewer words so you can save your word count for the discussion and other sections.

Your procedure should be written in chronological order, beginning with how materials were developed and the design decisions and procedures you chose, including decisions made during the development of materials (e.g. how you chose words for a word list). Enough detail should be included so that another researcher could replicate your experiment. The sampling technique does not need to be re-described.

Further evidence should be included regarding design decisions, such as counterbalancing, random allocation of participants to groups, single- or double-blind, control of extraneous variables, standardized procedures and steps taken to avoid any possible bias in sampling or in the experimental procedures. Details of informed consent, briefing and debriefing of participants should also be included.

Results

This section includes numerical and graphical reporting of the data you have collected. The results should include the following:

• Statement of the measure(s) of central tendency, as appropriate • Statement of the measure(s) of dispersion, as appropriate • Justification of choice of descriptive statistic • Appropriate use of fully explained graphs and tables (may be computer generated)

You need to give a narrative presentation of the results related to the aim and hypotheses of the experiment. All raw data should be included in an appendix. It should be presented in a readable form with all headings clearly explained. Personal details, such as

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the names of participants, should not be included. Such information should be regarded as confidential. All the actual answer sheets need not be included; one example in the report will suffice. You should keep the answer sheets.

You need to present your results in a way that other people can understand, which is why you use a graph, a table and describe the results in paragraph form. Central tendency is used to describe where the middle of your data is and dispersion is to describe how spread out your data is.

Interval and ratio are the best types of data to gather because they allow a deeper statistical analysis. Furthermore, you have to think carefully about your choice of central tendency and dispersion. For example, if you have outliers (extreme values) these may affect your mean and so you would be better off to use the median. It is OK to present percentages on a table, however this is not a measure of central tendency and so you must also provide this as well. Your graphs and tables will be a result of the descriptive statistics that you use, and it is important that when you are constructing your graph you do not put raw data on it. You need to be presenting frequency of responses in a way that shows you have processed your data.

It is important that your dispersion measure matches your central tendency. For example, if you use the mean you should use standard deviation. If you use the median, you should use range. Use your processed data to make a decision in your discussion about whether or not your results are what you expected.

Descriptive statistics (SL and HL)

Appropriate numerical statistics should be included, for example, measure(s) of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and measure(s) of dispersion (range, standard deviation).

Appropriate graphical statistics illustrating summary data should be provided, for example, tables, bar charts, histograms or pie charts.

Special care should be taken to ensure that all graphs and tables have clear titles, all graphical axes are clearly labelled, and all graphs are drawn on graph paper if hand drawn.

Raw data should not be included in the results section, but can be placed in the appendices.

Graphs detailing individual scores or other irrelevant information should not be included.

It is important that you determine what type of data you have collected (nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio) and apply the appropriate descriptive statistics to that data (see table below). It is important that your central tendency is consistent with your measure of dispersion also. For example, if you use mean you should use standard deviation.

All calculations should be added in the appendices.

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Level of Measurement

Definition Example Appropriate Measure of Central Tendency

Appropriate Measure of Dispersion

Nominal (don’t use!)

Data that is able to be placed in to categories

Smokers/non-smokers

Mode None

Ordinal Data that can be put in to ranks.

e.g. using a survey that uses the Likert scale and asks (1) strongly agree (2) agree (3) disagree (4) strongly disagree

Mode or median Range

Interval Data that can be measured on a scale that has precise and equal intervals

IQ scores or how many words were recalled on a memory test

Mode, median and mean

Range, quartiles, standard deviation

Ratio Data at the ratio level that has a true zero

Weight in grams (you can’t have -600g)

Mode, median and mean

Range, quartiles, standard deviation

Discussion

There are four divisions for the discussion:

1. Explanation of findings: The word “explain” means to give a detailed account including reasons or causes. Explanation may include reference to descriptive statistics. You should have stated the results of your experiment in statistical terms in the results section of your report. If you did not find much of a difference between the two conditions, this often can lead to excellent discussions regarding why this could be the case (participants, methodology, etc.).

2. Relationship to background research: This is your opportunity to explain your results in relation to their initial aim and hypotheses, as well as to your background research. SL students need to discuss whether or not your results were the same as the study you were replicating, and possible reasons why they weren’t (if this was the case). You need to write an in-depth discussion of your own results in relation to the original studies yours is based on.

No new research should be included here, but duplication of material from the introduction should also be avoided.

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3. Limitations, modifications and suggestions for further research:

Even a well-designed study will have flaws. The design and procedure should be considered and suitable modifications should be suggested. Limitations include, but are not restricted to:

• Experimental flaws and problems that may have affected the results, such as lack of sampling controls and problems with the procedure

• Materials • Design

o A small sample size and recommended a larger sample size is not a useful analysis for this section as it could apply to all IAs, not just yours.

You should analyse and evaluate your own methodology. The best IAs identify possible confounding variables that may have influenced the study and will go beyond basic evaluations, such as ‘our sample was too small.’ Modifications need to be clearly stated and could include other ways of investigating the aim.

You should refer to any ideas you may have for further or follow-up research. Ideas for future study should be aimed at trying to determine what additional studies could further our understanding of the topic area under investigation.

4. Conclusion: Students should finish with a concluding statement of their findings (SL).

References

This section should be a list of all the material the students have referred to. If the student does not have the original source material, all the necessary details can be found in the references section at the back of the book that referred to the source.

All references stated in the introduction and discussion sections of the student’s report should be included in the references section.

References should follow a recognized format (e.g. MLA or APA) and be consistent throughout. One common error is not referencing internet websites. The URL is not sufficient information and you should check the guidelines for referencing based on the format you are using.

The recommended style for a textbook reference is:

• Flanagan, C (1997) An introduction to Psychology. London, UK. Thomas & Co. (That is, in the order: surname, initial (date) title. Place of publication. Publisher.)

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References for textbooks written by multiple authors should be presented as follows:

• Crane, J & Hannibal, J (2009) IB Diploma Programme: Psychology Course Companion. Oxford, UK. OUP. (That is, in the order: surname, initial & surname, initial (date) title. Place of publication. Publisher.)

Please note that page references should be included.

Websites must be fully referenced with "http://www.” followed by the address so they can be located.

Any statistical packages used must also be included in the references section.

Remember not to number your references and be sure to alphabetize them.

Appendices

In this section, you must include blank copies of all supplementary information (e.g. word lists), a list of the materials used, such as standardized instructions, debriefing notes and a blank copy of an informed consent statement. This section provides all the materials necessary to allow the experiment to be replicated. Tables of raw data and calculations must be included. However, it is not necessary to include all participant responses: one blank copy or a sample is sufficient.

Materials should be clearly labelled and organized. You need to include raw data and calculations as well in your appendices.

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Important Terms to Know and Use

I. Design Type – your experiment will be either of these two a. Repeated measures design b. Independent samples design

II. Controls – these are factors that you may need to consider when designing your experiment

a. Order effect i. Counter balancing

b. Participant variability c. Demand characteristics d. Sampling bias e. Confounding variables

III. Sampling Type – you will use one or more of these to attain your research sample a. Self-selected/Stratified/Random/Snowball/Opportunity

IV. Allocation Type – this is how you determine who is in which group (if using design type b)

a. Random allocation b. Selected allocation

V. Data collection – what type of data you are collecting a. Nominal b. Ordinal c. Interval d. Ratio

VI. Statistics a. Descriptive statistics

i. Central tendency (mean, median, mode) ii. Dispersion (quartiles, range, standard deviation)

VII. Ethicality – issues you must address in your research a. Informed consent/ Right to withdraw b. Debriefing c. Confidentiality

VIII. Statistics – to be addressed in your results and discussion section a. Central tendency/Dispersion/Descriptive statistics

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IA Proposal

Name/s:

General Topic:

Which experiment are you replicating/modifying?

Original Experiment and Year:

Aim of original experiment:

References for information from original experiment:

o

o

o

o

o

o

Aim of your experiment:

Independent variable:

Dependent variable:

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What controls will be used to minimize confounding variables:

o

o

o

o

Design Type (independent samples/repeated measure/matched pairs):

Justification of Design Type:

Allocation Method (if independent samples):

Justification of allocation method:

Statistical Test to be Used:

Sample Method:

Justification of Sample Method:

How will you logistically obtain this sample?

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Characteristics of sample (age, language, gender, etc.):

o

o

o

o

Detailed description of treatment group:

Detailed description of control group/treatment group 2:

Ethical issues (e.g. need consent forms for participants under 16 years of age,

consent forms, debriefing, etc.):

o

o

o

o

o

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List of materials required:

o

o

o

o

o

Questions and/or Problems:

o

o

o

o

o

Procedures:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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6.

7.

8.

9.

Participants Details:

1. Age:

2. How Many:

3. Target Population (e.g. students):

4. Male/Female Distribution:

Stardadized Instructions: you need to write a set of instructions that you will either

give to the students in writing or verbally. This will reduce a possible confounding

variable of providing slightly different instructions.

Student Signature:

Teacher Signature:

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Internal assessment checklist—SL

Title page Done Peer To do

Have you stated the title of your research?

Have you included your student name and number?

Have you included the subject and level (SL or HL)?

Have you included the date, month and year of submission?

Have you included the number of words?

Abstract Done Peer To do

Have you stated what you are studying?

Have you mentioned the aim?

Have you briefly described the method?

Have you given some details about the participants and where the research was conducted?

Have you briefly stated your results?

Have you written your conclusion?

Is the abstract less than 200 words in length?

Introduction Done Peer To do

Have you introduced the subject you are investigating?

Have you included details of the study that is being replicated, l d h ?

Have you included a thorough review of the background literature (including theories and studies) relating to the study being replicated? Have you cited one reference (SL)?

Have you provided a rationale and justification for your research?

Method Done Peer To do

Design

Have you stated the experimental design (independent groups/repeated measures)?

Have you explained why the design decision was made?

Have you stated and explained the experimental and control conditions?

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Have you stated the independent variable?

Have you stated the dependent variable?

Have you explained how you controlled any extraneous variables?

Have you mentioned ethical considerations?

Participants

Have you described the participants (number, age, gender distribution) and the population from which they were drawn?

Have you stated how the participants were selected and allocated to the conditions?

Have you clearly justified the sampling technique you have used?

Materials

Have you included all materials and apparatus that you used?

Have you included specimens of materials and apparatus in the appendices?

Have you included standardized instructions in the appendices?

Have you included debriefing instructions in the appendices?

Have you included a blank copy of the consent form in the appendices?

Have you included other important material in the appendices?

Procedure

Have you described how you developed your materials?

Is the procedure relevant and clearly described in chronological order?

Is there enough detail in your procedure, to allow replication?

Have you referred to any ethical issues that were addressed (for example, obtaining informed consent and carrying out debriefing)?

Results Done Peer To do

Have you given a summary table of raw data in the appendices?

Have you provided descriptive statistics (central tendency and dispersion) for your data?

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Have you labelled axes on graphs, columns on tables and given clear titles?

Are the results clearly stated and accurate in a written statement?

Discussion Done Peer To do

Have you related the results of your study to the results of the studies cited in the introduction?

Have you stated what your results mean in relation to your hypothesis?

Have you explained why you got those results?

What were the strengths and limitations about your design and methods?

Have you explained the reasons for the strengths and limitations?

How would you improve this study if you were to do it again?

Have you included ideas for modifications and/or improvements for follow-up studies?

Have you given a conclusion?

References Done Peer To Do

Have you included a complete set of references?

Are the references presented in an approved format?

Appendices Done Peer To do

Are the appendices clearly labelled and well set out?

Are the appendices complete (materials used, standardized instructions, debriefing notes, informed consent statements, calculations, tables of raw data)?

Presentation Done Peer To do

Do you have all of the proper section headings, page numbers, and a table of contents?

Is your report within the word limit of 1,000–1,500 words (SL)

Is the report in the correct format (title, abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references and appendices)?

Have you used the spelling and grammar checker?

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Rubric: Standard Level (for top marks)

A: Introduction

2/2 The study replicated is clearly identified and relevant details of the study are explained. The aim of the student’s study is clearly stated.

B: Method: Design

2/2 The independent variable and dependent variable are accurately identified and operationalized. The experimental design is appropriate to the aim and its use is appropriately justified. There is clear indication and documentation of how ethical guidelines were followed.

C: Method: Participants

2/2 Relevant characteristics of the participants are identified. The sample is selected using an appropriate method and the use of this method is explained.

D: Method: Procedure

2/2 The procedural information is relevant and clearly described, so that the study is easily replicable. Details of how the ethical guidelines were applied are included. Necessary materials have been included and referenced in the appendices.

E: Results

3-4/4

Results are clearly stated and accurate and reflect the aim of the research. Appropriate descriptive statistics (one measure of central tendency and one measure of dispersion) are applied to the data and their use is explained. The graph of results is accurate, clear and directly relevant to the aim of the study. Results are presented in both words and tabular form.

F: Discussion

5-6 Discussion of results is well developed (for example, differences in the results of calculations of central tendency and/or dispersion are explained). The findings of the student’s experimental study are discussed with reference to the study being replicated. Limitations of the design and procedure are highly relevant and have been rigorously analysed. Modifications are suggested and ideas for further research are mentioned. The conclusion is appropriate.

G: Presentation

2/2 The report is within the word limit of 1,000–1,500 words. The report is complete and in the required format. The reference for the study being replicated is cited using a standard method of listing references. Appendices are labelled appropriately and are referenced in the body of the report. The abstract is clearly written and includes a summary overview of the student’s experimental study, including the results.