NAF

International Working Paper Series

Year 2009 paper n. 09/02

IMPACT OF VELD FIRES ON LAND ON

SMALLHOLDER FARMERS IN CASHEL VALLEY

IN ZIMBABWE

Gabriel Vusanimuzi Nkomo

Maria Sassi

The online version of this article can be found at:

http://economia.unipv.it/naf/

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Scientific Board

Maria Sassi (Editor) - University of Pavia

Johann Kirsten (Co-editor)- University of Pretoria

Gero Carletto - The World Bank

Piero Conforti - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Marco Cavalcante - United Nations World Food Programme

Luc de Haese - Gent University

Stefano FAROLFI - Cirad - Joint Research Unit G-Eau University of Pretoria

Ilaria Firmian -IFAD

Firmino G. Mucavele - Universidade Eduardo Mondlane

Michele Nardella - International Cocoa Organization

Nick Vink - University of Stellenbosch

Alessandro Zanotta - Delegation of the European Commission to Zambia

Copyright @ MariaSassi ed. naf@eco.unipv.it ISBN 978-88-96189-01-6

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Impact of veld fires on land on smallholder farmers in Cashel Valley in Zimbabwe

Gabriel Vusanimuzi Nkomo1 – Maria Sassi2

Abstract

Veld fires outbreaks in Southern Africa result mainly from land use activities such as land clearing,

hunting, pasture management and crop production. This contributes to a significant proportion of

land degradation and green house gases to the atmosphere. Furthermore, fire destroys resources

needed for immediate use over the dry season, crops, livestock, grazing land and even human

beings. Frequent, hot fires may have long-term effect on the reproductive capacity of important veld

products. In this context, the paper assesses the veld fire risk in the Cashel Valley farming

community of Zimbabwe in order to ascertain causes, frequency, magnitude of damage, and crop

yield. Results provides important information for designing a community based fire control strategy

that is under consideration by the local government. Rapid Rural Appraisals approach is adopted as

approach to the empirical analysis. It consists in field observations, interviews and a questionnaire

that were submitted to 100 farmers in the above mentioned area where approximately 300 farmers

are established. Agricultural activities, such as burning of plant residues as well as burning to

improve grazing land, are the major responsible of veld fire outbreaks in Cashel Valley from 2000

up to 2007. The frequency of veld fire outbreaks as from 2000 up to 2001 depicts a rise in veld fire

occurrences. This was the period within which most land invasions began and thus most people

were moving in and settling in the area haphazardly thereby causing a steady rise in fire outbreaks.

From 2002 to 2004 there was a marked decline in veld fire incidences due to the fact that most of

the arable land was almost taken up. Maize crop farming is a very important activity in Zimbabwe

as it is a staple crop. From 2001 up to 2004 most farmers had not enough inputs and access to

sound agronomic advice. After this period land invasions had also subsided and hence proper

farming was taking place. Information dissemination as well as availability of required inputs on

time led to the increase in maize yield. On the control and management of veld fires the respondents

tentatively agreed on ways and means of solving the problem of veld fires which include erection of

fireguards, burning of field at end of rainy season as well as education. However a coordinated

approach to land redistribution, proper farming techniques such as conservation farming as well as

1 Department of Applied Sciences - Mutare Polytechnic – Zimbabwe - e-mail: gvnkomo@cooltoad.com

2 Dipartimento di Ricerche Aziendali – Faculty of Economics – University of Pavia - e-mail: msassi@eco.unipv.it

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education are fundamental to the successful control of environmental degradation through human

induced veld fires.

Key words: Veld fires, Land, Smallholder farmers

JEL: Q15

1. INTRODUCTION

Cashel is a farming village in the province of Manicaland, Zimbabwe located near the Mozambique

border just north of the Chimanimani mountains. The Eastern Highlands forms a natural barrier

between Zimbabwe and Mozambique, sweeping 300 kilometers from Nyanga in the north, they

include the Bvumba Mountains near the little city of Mutare and the Chimamimani Mountains, the

farming area of Cashel (www.kubatana.net).

The area falls under agriculture region 1 of Zimbabwe3 specialized and diversified farming region.

Maize is the dominating crop followed by forestry, bananas, wheat and other cash crops. This area

receives an average of above 1.050 mm rainfall per year with some rain in all months. Smallholders

occupy less than 20% of the area most of which receives good rains. The area is cooler than most of

Zimbabwe, and the winter months, June and July, are often very cold. The rains come between

November and March and then wildflowers are at their best.

Most people survive on farming, an activity that has always provided people with incomes before

the advent of violent and chaotic land reform in 2000 .

As a result of haphazard settlements and new arrivals of farmers in the area, production has fallen

and the people have suffered from reduced incomes.

In this context, the local authority is introducing a strategy aimed at ensuring that land use practices

do not result in over-utilization of the natural resources, but to follow sound management and

sustainability plans. If the impact of a fire is not calculated in the management for sustainable

utilization of farming areas after such an unplanned event, it could cause a decline in veld condition

and result in degradation of the ecosystem (Everson, 1989). Therefore, it was the objective of this

study to estimate the impact of human induced fire, which is a normal phenomenon in most Sub

Saharan Africa smallholder farming areas providing useful information for the above mentioned

policy design process.

These unplanned events normally take place during the dormant winter period (June to August).

Accidental, runaway veld fires will not only have a short-term influence on productivity of the

3 In Zimbabwe natural regions are classified into five categories. Zimbabwe is divided into five agro-ecological regions, known as natural regions on the basis of the rainfall regime, soil quality and vegetation among other factors. The quality of the land resource declines from natural region (NR) I through to NR V.

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grassland ecosystem, but may also have a major residual effect on the next growing season,

depending on subsequent climatic conditions and post-fire management (Trollope, 1999).

The approach adopted, the Rapid Rural Appraisals (RRA) is the typical methodology of awareness

programmes aimed at educating farmers on the importance of minimising the use of fire as a

management tool in areas where there is high potential for fire damage.

The methodology adopted and results achieved are illustrated after the description of the

phenomena under analysis with a specific attention to the situation in savannah areas that represent

the typical environment of Zimbabwe and are followed by concluding remarks.

2. BACKGROUND

Veld fires are those blazes that get out of control and devastate extensive tracts of forest, grassland,

wildlife and other natural resources as well as injure and kill people and destroy their properties.

In Africa, uncontrolled veld fires countrywide have destroyed hectares of pastures and nature

reserves every year.

Fires are responsible for much destruction in Southern Africa. According to Environment Africa

(2009), some 30 million hectares of savannah and grasslands burn annually in Africa. The area

affected was equivalent to the volume normally harvested over a three-year period.

Human beings are responsible for 95 percent of forest and veld fires (Mkwanazi,2009). Natural fires

(not influenced directly or indirectly by humans) have become rare. Veld fires suspected to have

been started by new farmers and also poachers were destroying pastures and this has negatively

affected the growth and rearing of animals on the farms. Veld fires have destroyed pastures and

forced animals to migrate elsewhere and this is a serious threat to wildlife management. Some

animals have been killed in the uncontrolled raging fires.

The effects of veld fires on the environment may seem temporary but there are long-term impacts

on bio-diversity that may be irreversible. Many farmers are still starting destructive fires and some

have had negative environmental damage.

Veld fires are the most widespread ecological disturbances in Zimbabwe and they are most

pronounced in winter and before the onset of the first rains when the forests would be dry and

highly inflammable (Tsiko,2006). The blazes the result of human-caused factors, such as

agricultural and livestock practices, lighting of fires at roadsides by resting motorists, careless

throwing of burning cigarette stubs and the burning of vegetation by hunters to flush out game.

During the last few years, Zimbabwe lost immeasurable and valuable environmental goods and

services due to veld fires. In certain areas and years the phenomena has been even more severe.

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Uncontrolled Blazes, especially in the Eastern highlands destroyed foreign currency generating

forests and plantations Border Timber Limited, a subsidiary of Anglo American Corporation,

reported, in its six months results to December 2005, undisclosed financial losses in its

Chimanimani Forest caused by arson fires which damaged 300 hectares of timber. The fires were

started by illegal settlers in the estates and, as a result, they will affect the availability of timber in

Zimbabwe (ZimStandard,2006).

Manicaland Province, Zimbabwe's hub of commercial forest, last year lost timer worth 20 trillion

Zimbabwe dollars4 to veld fire.

Pastures necessary for the restocking exercise were also decimated. In 2002, for instance, veld fires

destroyed about 9 percent of the country’s total area. This translates to about 3 500 000 hectares lost

to fires in one season. The years 2004 and 2005 saw the most veld fires, with 10 925 351 hectares

and 11 508 587 hectares of land being destroyed (Environment Africa, 2009)

According to statistics compiled by the Timber Products' Federation, timber covering close to

10,000 hectare, constituting 12 percent of the country's pine plantation, went up in smoke just inside

four months between July and November last year in areas near new resettlement schemes. In 2004,

Zimbabwe's commercial trees declined from 12 million in 1998 to 6.5 million. The annual growth

rate also took a dip to 0.9 percent in 2004 from 3 percent in 2003 in these areas too(allafrica.com,

2006).

According to the empirical literature, cost of veld fires are firstly related to environment and by this

way on the economy and human beings.

Uncontrolled burning leads to a reduction in biodiversity, destruction of flora and fauna, reduction

of soil fertility, increased erosion and soil compaction that increases surface run-off, thereby

decreasing infiltration. All this reduces water needed to recharge ground water sources. The

clearance of basal cover accelerates soil erosion leading to the siltation of water bodies; this in turn

translates to reduced water for livestock and irrigation. Thus, the effects of veld fires are cumulative

and touch the entire biosphere. However, it should be noticed that these negative effects are

strongly dependent on change in the frequency, timing, intensity and extent of burning that is the

problem; in other words, changes in fire regime (Frost,1991). In fact, on the positive side, veld fires

contribute to the regeneration cycle of plants, trees and grasses. New grass provides better nutrition

to livestock. In addition, controlled burning contributes to the fertility of the soil before planting

even though some nutrients may evaporate during burning. There is also the argument that fire is

generally cheaper and easier to use than any other land-management tool, more so if the broader

environmental costs are discounted. Frost (1991) noted that the problem is not usually one of the

4 One U.S. dollar equals about 101,000 Zimbabwe dollars in 2006

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occurrence of fire but rather a change in the frequency, timing, intensity and extent of burning that

is the problem; in other words, changes in fire regime.

While most of Zimbabwe’s rural people depend on natural resources for their livelihood, there is a

lack of knowledge on optimal and sustainable use of these in terms of diversity of uses, value

adding processes and technologies. Currently used fire management approaches are ineffective,

costly and spatially limited. As such, getting people to participate in conserving the environmental

has not been easy (Chenga, 2009). However, fire as a veld management tool can easily be

transformed into a weapon of mass destruction if no proper management procedures are put in place

In this regard, it is thus necessary to desist from engaging in environmentally destructive tendencies

that destroy the environment. According to Tsiko(2006)lack of resources, commitment and political

will by the Government and communities, poverty and lack of capacity by the Environmental

Management Agency to monitor and implement programmes to manage veld fires worsened the

situation, described by some as the worst since Zimbabwe gained independence in 1980. Without a

permanent environmental force to monitor the outbreaks, a sustained awareness programme and the

participation of communities, veld fires will continue to haunt Zimbabwe destroying property,

wildlife, forests and grasslands and other biological resources

The Government, environmentalists and other stakeholders bemoaned the irresponsible and reckless

destruction of Zimbabwe's flora and fauna and called for stringent penalties for the culprits to

prevent the ugly scourge of veld fires. Despite pleas for co-operation and the implementation of

strategies to curb the reckless burning of the forests and grasslands, fires raged on even more

ferociously killing property, wildlife, livestock and the country's biological resources which are

immeasurable.

2.1.Veld fires in savannas areas

The type and intensity of fire, its seasonal occurrence and periodicity make up the fire regime of an

area. Zimbabwe is a savannah area where the phenomena under consideration varies considerably

across the range of savannah types.

In the moist savannas, fires generally occur during the dry season or early wet season, at intervals of

1-5years (Huntley, 1982; Trollope, 1982, 1984a; Hodgkin Son et al., 1984). Most dry-season veld

fires are ignited by man but lightning becomes important at the beginning of the rains (Komarek,

1972; West, 1972).

In the more arid savannas, the interval between successive fires is much longer, 5-50years,

depending on fuel loads and therefore on the occurrence of periods of above-average rainfall

(Siegfried, 1981; Hodgkin Son et al., 1984; van der Walt and le Riche,1984). Due to the general

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aridity of these savannas, fires can occur at almost any time, provided that there is a source of

ignition. However, most natural veld fires occur at the beginning of the wet season when the

frequency of lightning is highest( Siegfried, 1981; Hodgkin son et al., 1984).

In general, the majority of savannah fires are surface fires, burning through the herbaceous layer.

Fire intensity also depends on the amount and type of fuel, its moisture content, and prevailing

climatic conditions, principally air temperature and relative humidity. As savannah veld fires are

fuelled largely by grassfire, intensities vary considerably between seasons, landscape units and

vegetation types. Communities in which there is a high biomass of grass, such as in valley bottoms

or on floodplains, generally experience the most intense and uniform fires. In contrast, in

woodlands and shrub lands, where there is generally a lower grass biomass and more uneven

distribution of fuel, fires tend to be less intense and burn more patchily.

Savannah veld fires are generally not hot enough to cause direct changes in soil physical properties.

However, in the longer term, soil bulk density and porosity can be adversely affected by the

reduction in plant and litter cover, changes in microclimate, an increase in the rates of organic

matter mineralization, and changes in soil fauna activity. Increases in surface soil bulk density

(Trapnell et al., 1976; Webber,1979; Brookman-Amissah et al, 1980), and reductions in moisture

holding capacity (Cook, 1939).

The soil moisture balance on burnt ground is affected by a number of factors including a reduction

in plant and litter cover and subsequent exposure of the soil surface for a variable period of time

after fire, leading to increased evaporation; the physical characteristics of the soil and its

susceptibility to structural collapse; the timing and intensity of subsequent rainfall, and the rate of

vegetation recovery. Infiltration rates on sites burnt annually for many years can be much slower

than on adjacent unburnt sites, largely as a result of changes in soil surface structure(Cass et al.,

1984). These are probably caused by a decrease in soil organic matter levels and a consequent

reduction in soil aggregate stability leading to individual soil particles becoming detached during

rainfall. The particles block soil pores and form a surface crust which inhibits infiltration and

increases runoff. The distillation of aliphatic hydrocarbons from litter and soil organic matter during

fire, and their subsequent condensation on the soil particles, also leads to the formation of water-

repellent surfaces, even on sandy soils (Cass et al., 1984).

The risk of increased soil loss from an area laid bare by veld fires is a major concern in savannah

management. As soil nutrients are concentrated in the surface soil, extensive erosion may result in a

significant depletion of the nutrient status of the soil, as well as in a reduction in soil depth and

water holding capacity. Burning oxidizes organically bound elements in the vegetation and litter

and releases them in forms available to plants. The intensity and duration of a fire, the amount of

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material which is consumed, and its nutrient content, all determine the quantities of nutrients

released. Some of the elements, mainly nitrogen, carbon and sulphur, but including to a lesser

extent phosphorus and potassium, are volatilized and may be lost to the atmosphere. Material which

is not volatilized is either deposited on the soil surface or, in lesser amounts, is removed as

particulate matter in smoke or ash. Material that is deposited on the ground either re-enters the soil,

or is redistributed by wind or through surface runoff. The extent of this depends on topography, the

length of time the soil remains bare after fire, and on the timing, amount and intensity of subsequent

rainfall. Given the amount of organic matter that is burnt, considerable losses might be expected.

3. METHODOLOGY

The empirical analysis refers to veld fire risk in the Cashel Valley farming community of

Zimbabwe, a moist savannah area (Figure 1).

Figure 1 – The area investigated

The methodology adopted is the Rapid Rural Appraisal that is aimed ensuring wider coverage of the

area and participation of research subjects to increase information base on veld fire risk, previous

damage, cause and control strategy to address the noted limitations (Pratt,2001; McCracken,1988).

RRA is a set of techniques that can be applied as a preliminary stage when embarking on surveys of

farmers. The technique essentially involves an informal, rapid, exploratory study of a specified

geographical area designed to establish an understanding of local agricultural conditions, problems

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and characteristics. It can be used to quickly obtain basic information specifically to aid the

generation of hypotheses and the design of questions for a questionnaire The appraisal can produce,

at a minimum cost, a rich description of life in the farming community and an understanding of

local agricultural characteristics that will be invaluable in ensuring that the right areas and people

are surveyed and that appropriate questions are asked It can also provide basic information on the

feasibility of beginning a survey project in an area, particularly when one is intending to survey an

area about which little is known.

In our analysis, this methodology has allowed us to ensure the participation of the community in

the identification of fire causes, its damage to the environment and how this could be mitigated so

as to achieve ecological sustainability in Cashel Valley .

In this area two typologies of farms prevail. They are the so called A1 and A2 farms.

The A1 model farms are based on the village concept, with communal, residential and grazing

areas, but separate farming areas. These are designed to alleviate pressure on the communal lands.

A2 farms are much larger than the A1 farms and are self-contained and the owners are expected to

engage in commercial agricultural operations. This study makes reference to the A1 farmers only as

the impact of veld fires was mostly pronounced on their smallholdings. RRA provided the

opportunity to gather data in a short space of time of about four weeks and formed the basis for

survey sampling, in-depth interviews as well as field observations. A random questionnaire sample

survey of A1 farmers was used to select 100 respondents to provide responses on maize crop yield,

causes and frequencies of fire, previous damage suffered, and suggestions on the control strategy on

their plots. The selected farmers represented a third of total A1 farmers with plots measured a four

hectares each and maize crop had been planted. Table 1 shows the questionnaire submitted.

The empirical analysis triangulated results from RRA with key informant in-depth interviews with

one local chief, five village heads, a police officer, Forestry Company and an agricultural extension

officer. Interviews were used to extract information of veld fire risk, previous damage suffered, veld

fire frequency, existing methods of veld fire control and fire fighting capacity as well as the

community’s suggested fire control strategy. Key informants were targeted because they provided

technical, scholarly and informed analysis of the causes of veld fire and related matters.

The collected data were synthesized and sequenced through tabulation of community fire risk, fire

damage, causes, frequency and suggested solutions to fire problems.

Data were pruned to check on trends, similarities, differences, exaggerations and recurrences. Data

collected through questionnaires were summed up calculating frequencies and percentages on all

the questions asked. It was then presented as graphs and tables to make meaning of the large

volumes of raw data.

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Table 1 – The questionnaire

4. RESULTS

Agricultural activities are the major responsible causes of veld fire outbreaks in Cashel Valley from

2000 up to 2007. On the causes of veld fires, 60% of the respondents agreed that it was due to

careless burning. 10% of the farmers suggested that most veld fires were due to improve grazing

land. Only 8% noted that veld fires were due creation of firebreaks the cause of fire are illustrated

by Figure 2.

This clearly illustrates that most of the veld fires are man made and only a paltry 1% has been due

to natural causes such as lightning.

The frequency of veld fire outbreaks as from 2000 up to 2007 depicts a rise from 12 occurrences up

to 14 incidences in 2001 as illustrated in Figure 3.

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Figure 2 - The major causes of veld fires in Cashel Valley (2001-2007)

1

60

5

10

8

3

6

7

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Lightning

Burning during land preparation

Smoking out bees

To improve grazing

Creating fire breaks

Cooking

Carelesness

Hunting

%

Figure 3 – Frequency of veld fire outbreaks (2000-2007)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Year

N. outbreaks

12

This was the period within which most land invasions began and thus most people were moving in

and settling in the area haphazardly thereby causing a steady rise in fire outbreaks. From 2002 only

10 incidences were recorded and in this period was a steady decline until up to 2004 when 8 cases

were observed. This was due to the fact that most of the arable land was almost taken up and

occupied by the new farmers. As from 2005 only six cases were noted further going down to four

recoded in 2007. This marked decline is largely attributed to awareness campaigns by the extension

officers of both adjacent commercial timber company as well as Ministry of Agriculture.

It was also noted during interviews carried out with the farmers that some of the causes of veld fires

were also attributed to the type of farming techniques that were employed particularly during the

initial stages of settling in on the new pieces of land. 46% of the interviewed farmers stated that as

from 2001 up to 2007 field clearing using burning only as the mostly widely used technique as is

shown by Figure 4.

Figure 4 - Land preparation techniques mainly used (2001-2007)

46

11

38

5

0 10 20 30 40 50

Field clearing using

burning only

Ploughing

Controlled burning

and ploughing

Minimum tillage

%

This was because most of the land was occupied towards the onset of the rainy season in October or

November. 38% of the respondents practised controlled burning and 11 % to ploughing and 5% to

minimum tillage practices only. This illustrates that most of the farmers were ill prepared for

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farming as they had no or little equipment and knowledge and were thus bound to cause

environmental damage.

Maize crop farming is a very important activity in Zimbabwe as it is a staple crop. In 2001

harvesting season only an average of 200 tonnes were harvested as is shown by Figure 5.

Figure 5 – Maize Crop Yield (2001-2007)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

tones

This was due to the fact that most farmers were new and had not fully readily established in the

area. Moreso they lacked draught power and inputs. Maize crop yield steadily rises to 300 tonnes in

2004. This was because of extension workers intervention with sound agronomic advice as well as

that most of the arable land was now fully occupied. Land invasions during this period had also

subsided and hence proper farming was taking place as evidenced by the further rises in yield from

above 300 tonnes in 2005 up to more than 350 tonnes in 2007. Information dissemination as well as

availability of required inputs on time led to the increase in maize yield mostly from 2003 up to

2007.

Table 2 showing the suggested control veld fire measures.

On the control and management of veld fires the respondents tentatively agreed on ways and means

of solving the problem of veld fires.

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Table 2 – Suggested control veld fire measures

Activity Solution

Burning fields at end of rainy season This was to be done at end of April and May

Firebreaks These should be constructed around the resettled areas and fields to protect crops, livestock, people and other variables.

Early controlled burning November to December. This must be done after the first rains.

Education Always. It is necessary to keep farmers informed on the importance of controlling and erecting fire guards.

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Veld fires are an important aspect in farming. Firstly they can be used to clear in a short space of

time vast tracts of land for farming purposes. However, if veld fires are not controlled very low

agricultural output is realised as is the case with Cashel Valley. Secondly coupled with little or no

education on veld fire management and control including few or no agricultural inputs, the

magnitude of damage on the environment is obviously great. This is why maize crop production and

yield were low during the height of land invasions from 2001 up to 2003. Lastly fires whatever

cause but mostly human error can diminish vast swathes and tracts of important land and markedly

reduce availability of natural resources such as water. Thus maize crop production was greatly

reduced within the height of land invasions from during the early years of 2001 to 2004.

Extensive education, sound agronomic practices can markedly help in minimising environmental

damage, increase crop productivity and yield as exemplified by the period 2004 up to 2005. Not

only is this important for the above reasons but also reduced, well timed controlled burning has led

to crop yield increases coupled with proper farming techniques. Of late, the Government of

Zimbabwe has removed illegal settlers in areas bordering timber estates in the eastern districts of

Zimbabwe such as Cashel Valley but not until the damage to the land had been experienced.

Another strategy is to engage legally settled farmers around timber estates into forestry so as to

make them participate in fire prevention. From the gathered information it was evident that control

of veld fires required participation of the whole vulnerable community. The respondents suggested

various methods, which they thought, were suitable for the control of veld fires in the area. from

which a veld fire control and prevention strategy was formulated.

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