Muslim conquest of SyriaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, searchMuslim conquest of Syria

Part of the Muslim conquests and Byzantine-Arab Wars

Date 634-638

LocationPalestine, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel and south eastern Anatolia.

Result Rashidun victoryTerritorial

changesLevant annexed by Muslims

BelligerentsByzantine EmpireGhassanid Kingdom

Rashidun Caliphate

CommandersHeracliusVardanThomasJabalah Ibn Al-AihamTheodorus TrithuriusVahanBuccinatorGregory

Khalid ibn al-WalidAbu Ubaidah ibn al-JarrahAmr ibn al-A'asYazid ibn Abu SufyanShurahbil ibn Hassana

[hide] v • d • e

Byzantine–Arab WarsEarly conflictsMutah – Tabouk – Dathin – Firaz

Muslim conquest of Roman SyriaQarteen – Bosra – Ajnadayn – Marj-al-Rahit – Fahl – Damascus – Maraj-al-Debaj – Emesa –

Yarmouk – Jerusalem – Hazir – Aleppo

Muslim conquest of Roman EgyptHeliopolis – Alexandria – Nikiou

Umayyad conquest of North AfricaSufetula – Carthage

Umayyad invasions of Anatolia and ConstantinopleIron Bridge – Kahramanmaraş – Phoenix – 1st Constantinople – 2nd Constantinople – Akroinon

Arab campaigns in Southern ItalySicily – Mainland

Later Byzantine campaignsCampaigns of John Kourkouas – Campaigns of Nikephoros II – Campaigns of John I – Campaigns of Basil II – George Maniakes in Sicily – Damietta

The Muslim conquest of Syria occurred in the first half of the 7th century,[1] and refers to the region known as the Bilad al-Sham, the Levant, or Greater Syria. Arab forces had appeared on the southern borders even before the death of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad in 632, such as the Battle of Mu'tah in 629, but the real invasion began in 634 under his successors, the Rashidun Caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar ibn Khattab, with Khalid ibn al-Walid as its most important military leader.[1]

Contents

[hide]

1 Byzantine Syria 2 Rise of Caliphate 3 Expedition to Syria 4 Muslim conquest of Syria 5 Conquest of Syria under Caliph Abu Bakr

o 5.1 Conquest of southern Syria 6 Conquest Under Caliph Umar

o 6.1 Dismissal of Khalid from command o 6.2 Conquest of central Levant o 6.3 Conquest of Palestine

o 6.4 Battles for Emesa and 2nd Battle of Damascus o 6.5 Battle of Yarmouk o 6.6 Capturing Jerusalem o 6.7 Conquest of Northern Syria o 6.8 Campaigns in Armenia and Anatolia

7 Under Caliph Uthman's reign 8 Administration under Rashidun Caliphate 9 The Rise of the Umayyads 10 See also 11 Footnotes 12 References 13 External links

[edit] Byzantine Syria

Syria had been under Roman rule for seven centuries prior to the Arab conquest and had been invaded by the Sassanid Persians on a number of occasions during the third, sixth and seventh centuries; it had also been subject to raids by the Sassanid's Arab allies the Lakhmids.[2] The region was known as the Iudaea Province of the Byzantine (Roman) Empire and the their Arab client state of the Ghassanids, (symmachos).[3] During the last of the Roman-Persian Wars, beginning in 603, the Persians under Khosrau II had succeeded in occupying Syria, Palestine and Egypt for over a decade before being forced by the victories of Heraclius to conclude the peace of 628.[4]. Thus, on the eve of the Muslim conquests the Romans were still in the process of rebuilding their authority in these territories, which in some areas had been lost to them for almost twenty years.[5] Politically, the Syrian region consisted of two provinces. Syria proper stretched from Antioch and Aleppo in the north to the top of the Dead Sea. West and south of the Dead Sea lay the province of Palestine, which included the holy places of the three Abrahamic religions. Syria was partly an Arab land, especially in its eastern and southern parts. The Arabs had been there since pre-Roman times, and had embraced Christianity since Constantine I legalized it in fourth century. Arabs of Syria were people of no consequence until the migration of the powerful Ghassan tribe from the Yemen to Syria, who thereafter ruled a semi-autonomous state with their own king under the Romans. The Ghassan Dynasty became one of the honoured princely dynasties of the Empire, with the Ghassan king ruling over the Arabs in Jordan and Southern Syria from his capital at Bosra. The last of the Ghassan kings, who ruled at the time of Muslim's invasion, was Jabla bin Al Aiham. Emperor Heraclius, after re-capturing Syria from the Sassanids, set up new defense lines from Ghazzah to the south end of dead sea. These lines were only designed to protect communications from bandits, and the bulk of the Byzantine defenses were concentrated in northern Syria facing the traditional foes, the Sassanid Persians. This defense line had a drawback that enabled the Muslims, who emerged from the desert in the south, to reach as far north as Ghazzah before meeting regular Byzantine troops. 7th century A.D, was a time of quickening military changes in Byzantine empire. The empire was certainly not in state of collapse when it faced the new challenge from Arabia after being exhausted by recent Roman-Persian Wars, but failed completely to tackle the challenge effectively.[6]

[edit] Rise of Caliphate

The Islamic Prophet Mohammad died in June 632, and Abu Bakr was appointed Caliph and political successor at Medina. Soon after Abu Bakr's succession, several Arab tribes revolted against in the Ridda wars (Arabic for the Wars of Apostasy). The Campaign of the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned, on March 18, 633, with Arabia united under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina.

Whether Abu Bakr intended a full-out imperial conquest or not is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history, beginning with confrontation with Persian Empire under the general Khalid ibn al-Walid.

[edit] Expedition to Syria

Map detailing Rashidun Caliphates invasion of Levant.

After successful campaigns against Sassanids and the ensuing conquest of Iraq Khalid established his stronghold in Iraq. While engaged with Sassanid forces, confrontation also ensued with the Byzantine Arab clients, the Ghassanids. Tribal contingents were soon recruited to the call from Medinah from all over the Arabian peninsula. Only those who had rebelled during the Ridda wars were excluded from the summons and remained excluded from Rashidun armies until in 636 when Caliph Umar fell short of manpower for the Battle of Yarmouk and Battle of al-Qādisiyyah. The tradition of raising armies from tribal contingents remained in use until 636, when Caliph Umar organised the army as a state department. Abu Bakr organised the army in to four corps, each with its own commander and objective.

Amr ibn al-A'as : Objective Palestine. Move on Elat route, then across Valley of Arabah. Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan : Objective Damascus. Move on Tabuk route.

Shurahbil bin hassana : Objective Jordan. Move on Tabuk route after Yazid. Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah : Objective Emesa. Move on Tabuk route after Shurahbil.

Being unaware of details of dispositions of Byzantine army, Caliph Abu Bakr ordered that all corps should remain in touch with each other so that they could help each other as Byzantines could concentrate their army in any sector of operation. In case the corps had to concentrate for one major battle, Abu Ubaidah was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the entire army.[7] In the first week of April 634, the Muslim forces began to move from their camps outside Madina. The first to leave was Yazid's corps, followed by Shurahbil, Abu Ubaidah and Amr, each a day's march from the other. Caliph Abu Bakr walked for a short distance by the side of each corps commander. His parting words he repeated to the each corps commanders, were as follows:

“ In your march be not hard on yourself or your army. Be not harsh with your men or your officers, whom you should consult in all matters. Be just and abjure evil and tyranny, for no nation which is unjust prospers or achieves victory over its enemies.When you meet the enemy turn not your back on him; for whoever turns his back, except to manoeuvre for battle or to regroup, earns the wrath of Allah. His abode shall be hell, and what a terrible place it is!. And when you have won a victory over your. enemies, kill not women or children or the aged and. slaughter not beasts except for eating. And break not the pacts which you make.[8] You will come upon a people who live like hermits in monasteries, believing that they have given up all for God. Let them be and destroy not their monasteries. And you will meet other people who are partisans of Satan and worshippers of the Cross, who shave the centre of their heads so that you can see the scalp. Assail them with your swords until they submit to Islam or pay the Jizya. I entrust you to the care of Allah. ”

[edit] Muslim conquest of Syria

Runes of Ancient Petra, one of the first cities to fall to invading Muslim armies.

Moving to their assigned target beyond Tabouk, Yazid's corps made contact with a small Christian Arab force that retreated after a brush with the Muslims' advance guard, after which Yazid made for the Valley of Araba where it meets the southern end of the Dead Sea. As the main Byzantine defence line started from coastal regions near Ghazahh, Yazid arrived at the Valley of Araba at about the same time as Amr bin Al Aas reached Elat. Facing little resistance from the two forward detachments sent by the Byzantine army to prevent the entry of Yazid's and Amr's corps, respectively, into Palestine, the detachments were defeated easily, though they did prevent the Rashidun forces from reaching their assigned objective. Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil, on the other hand, continued their march, and by early May 634 they reached the region between Bosra and Jabiya.[9] The Emperor Heraculis, receiving intelligence of the movement of Muslim armies from his Arab clients, began to plan countermeasures. Upon Heraculis' orders, Byzantine forces from different garrisons in the North started moving to gather at Ayjnadyn. From here they could engage Amr's corps and maneuver against the flank or rear of rest of the Muslim corps that were in Jordan and Southern Syria. The strength of the Byzantine forces, according to rough estimates, was about 100,000.[10] Abu Ubaidah informed the Caliph about the preparations made by the Byzantines in third week of May 634. In light of Abu Ubaida's lack of experience as commander of military forces in such major operations, especially with the powerful Roman Army, Abu Bakr decided to send Khalid ibn Walid to Syrian front to command the Muslim army. According to early Muslim chronicles Abu Bakr said:

“ "By Allah, I shall destroy the Romans and the friends of Satan with Khalid Ibn Al Walid." ”

[edit] Conquest of Syria under Caliph Abu Bakr

Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn Walid's invasion of Syria.

Khalid was immediately dispatched to the Syrian front. He set out for Syria from Hira, in Iraq in early June 634, taking with him half his army, about 8000 strong.[11] There were two routes towards Syria from Iraq; one was via Daumat-ul-Jandal, and the other was through Mesopotamia, passing though Ar Raqqah. Muslim armies in Syria were in need of urgent reinforcement, so Khalid avoided the conventional route to Syria via Daumat ul Jandal, as it was the longer route, and would take weeks to reach Syria. Khalid avoided Mesopotamia’s route because of the presence of Roman garrisons in Northern Syria and Mesopotamia. To engage them at the time when Muslim armies were being outflanked in Syria was not a wise idea. Khalid

selected a shorter route to Syria, an unconventional route passing though Syrian Desert. He boldly marched his armies though the desert where, it is recorded that his soldiers marched for two days without a single drop of water, before reaching a pre-decided water source at an oasis. Khalid thus entered Northern Syria and caught the Byzantines at their right flank. According to modern historians, it was this ingenious strategic maneuver of Khalid, his perilous march though desert and appearing at the north-eastern front of Byzantines while they were occupied in tackling Muslim armies in southern Syria, that unhinged the Byzantine defenses in Syria.[12]

[edit] Conquest of southern Syria

Sawa, Arak, and historical city of Tadmur were first to fell to Khalid, Sukhnah. Qaryatayn and Hawarin were captured after the Qaryatayn and the Hawarin. After dealing with all these cities, Khalid moved towards Damascus, passing though a mountain pass which is now known as Sanita-al-Uqab (Uqab pass) after the name of Khalid's army standard. From here he moved away from Damascus, towards Basra, the capital of Ghassanid Arab kingdom, a vassal of Eastern Roman empire. He ordered other Muslim commanders to concentrate their armies, still near the Syrian-Arabian border at Busra. At Maraj-al-Rahab, Khalid defeated a Ghassanid army of Christian Arabs in a quick Battle of Marj-al-Rahit. Meanwhile Abu Ubaida ibn al-Jarrah, the supreme commander of Muslim armies in Syria had ordered Shurhabil ibn Hasana to attack Basra. The latter laid siege of Basra with his small army of 4000 men. Roman and Ghassanid Arab garrison, noticing that this might be the advance guard of the larger Muslim army to come, decided to attack and destroy Shurhabil’s army. They came out of the fortified city and attacked Shurhabil, surrounding him from all sides; Khalid reached the arena with his advance guard cavalry and saved the day for Shurhabil. The combine forces of Khalid, Shurhabil and Abu Ubaidah then laid the siege of Basra, which surrendered some time in mid July 634. thus effectively ending the Ghassanid Dynasty.

Geographical Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn Walid's invasion of Syria.

Here Khalid took over the command of Muslim armies in Syria from Abu Ubaidah, as per the instructions of Caliph. The massive Byzantine armies were concentrating at Ajnadayn to push the invading armies back to desert, early Muslim sources, have mentioned its size to be 90,000, while most of the modern historians doubt the figures, but consider this battle to be the key to broke the Byzantine power in Syria. According to the instructions of Khalid all Muslim corps concentrated at Ajnadayn, where they fought a decisive battle against Byzantine on 30 July 634. Defeat at the Battle of Ajnadayn left Syria vulnerable to the Muslim invaders. Khalid decided to capture Damascus, the Byzantine stronghold. At Damascus Thomas, son in law of Emperor

Heraculis, was in charge. Receiving the intelligence of Khalid’s march towards Damascus he prepared for the defences of Damascus. He wrote to Emperor Heraculis for reinforcement, who was at Emesa that time. Moreover Thomas, in order to get more time for preparation of a siege, sent the armies to delay or if possible halt Khalid’s march to Damascus, one such army was defeated at Battle of Yaqusa in mid-August 634 near Lake Tiberias 90 miles from Damascus, an other army that halted the Muslim advance to Damascus was defeated in Battle of Maraj as Saffer on 19 August 634. These engagements delayed Khalid’s advance and gave Thomas enough time to prepare for siege. Meanwhile Heraculis’ reinforcement reached the city, which he had dispatched after the bad news of Ajnadyn. Before Heraculis’ another regiment could reach Damascus, Khalid had finally reached Damascus. Khalid reached Damascus the 20th August and besieged the city. To isolate the city from rest of the region Khalid placed the detachments south on the road to Palestine and in north at Damascus-Emesa route, and several other smaller detachments on routes towards Damascus. Heraculis’s reinforcement was intercepted and routed at Battle of Sanita-al-Uqab 20 miles from Damascus. Khalid's forces withstood three Roman sallies that tried to break the siege, Khalid finally attacked and conquered Damascus on 18 September 634 after a 30 days siege, although according to some sources the siege lasted for four or six months. Heraculis having receive the news of fall of Damascus, left for Antioch from Emesa. The citizens were given peace on the terms of annual tribute; the Byzantine army was given a three day peace to go as far as they could. After the three days deadline was over, the Muslim cavalry under Khalid's command, attacked the Roman army, catching up to them using an unknown shortcut, at the Battle of Maraj-al-Debaj, 190 miles north of Damascus. Abu Bakr died during the siege of Damascus and Umar became the new Caliph. He dismissed his cousin Khalid ibn al-Walid from the command and appointed Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah the new commander in chief of Islamic army in Syria. Abu Ubaidah got the letter of his appointment and Khalid's disposal during the siege, but he delayed the announcement until the city was conquered.

[edit] Conquest Under Caliph Umar

[edit] Dismissal of Khalid from command

On 22 August 634, Abu Bakr died, having made Umar his successor. Umar's first move was to relieve Khalid from commanding the army and appointed Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah as the new commander in chief of the Islamic army. Relationship between Khalid and Umar were already tense since the incident of Malik ibn Neuwera. There was an air of distrust between Khalid and Caliph Umar, which thus resulted in the dismissal of Khalid from supreme command then and later in 638 from military services. Khalid, rather gave a pledge of loyalty to the new Caliph and keep on serving as an ordinary commander under Abu Ubaidah. He is reported to have said:

“ "If Abu Bakr is dead and Umar is Caliph, then we hear and obey." ”[13] There was inevitably a slowdown in the pace of military operations, as Abu Ubaida would move slowly and steadily. The conquest of Syria continued under him, Abu Ubaidah being an

admirer of Khalid, made him command of cavalry and relyed heavily on his advice during the whole campaign.[14]

[edit] Conquest of central Levant

Map detailing the route of Muslim's invasion of central Syria.

Soon after the appointment of Abu-Ubaidah as commander in chief, he sent a small detachment to the annual fair held at Abu-al-Quds, modern days Abla, near Zahle 30 miles east of Beirut. There was a Byzantine and Christian Arab garrison guarding that fair, and the size of the garrison was mis-calculated by the Muslim informants. The garrison quickly encircled the small Muslim detachment, before it would have been completely destroyed, Abu Ubaidah, having received the new intelligence sent Khalid to rescue the Muslim army. Khalid reached there and defeated them in the Battle of Abu-al-Quds on 15 October 634 A.D and returned with tons of looted booty from the fair and hundreds of Roman prisoners. With central Syria captured, Muslim has given a decisive blow to the Byzantines. The communication between Northern Syria and Palestine was now cut off. Abu Ubaidah decided to march to fahl, which is about 500 feet below sea level, and where a strong Byzantine garrison and survivors of Battle of Ajnadayn were present. The region was crucial because from here the Byzantine army could strike eastwards and cut Muslim’s communications with Arabia. Moreover with this large garrison at their rear Palestine could not be invaded. Thus Muslim army moved to Fahl. Khalid commanding was commanding the advance guard and reached there first and found the plain being flooded by Byzantines by blocking the River Jordan. The Byzantine army was eventually defeated at the Battle of Fahl on the 23rd of January 635 A.D.

[edit] Conquest of Palestine

Byzantine temple in Idlib.

Muslim armies next consolidated their conquest of the Levant as Shurhabil and Amr went deeper in to Palestine after the decisive Battle of Fahl. Bet She'an surrendered after a little resistance followed by the surrender of Tiberias in February 635. Caliph Umar, after getting the intelligence of disposition and strength of the Byzantine army in Palestine, wrote detailed instructions to corps commanders in Palestine and ordered Yazid to capture the Mediterranean coast. The corps of Amr and Shurhabil accordingly marched against the strongest Byzantine garrison in Ajnadyn and defeated them in the 2nd Battle of Ajnadyn after which the two corps separated, with Amr moving to capture Nablus, Amawas, Gaza and Yubna in order to complete the conquest of all Palestine, while Shurahbil thrust against the coastal towns of Acre and Tyre. Yazid advanced from Damascus to capture the ports of Sidon, Arqa, Jabail and Beirut.[15] By 635 A.D, Palestine, Jordan and Southern Syria, with the exception of Jerusalem and Caesarea, were in Muslims hands. On the orders of Caliph Umar, Yazid next besieged to Caesarea, which was lifted but resumed after the Battle of Yarmouk until the port fell in 640.

[edit] Battles for Emesa and 2nd Battle of Damascus

After the battle, which proved to be a key to Palestine and Jordan, Muslim armies split up. Shurhabil and Amr’s corps moved south to capture Palestine. While Abu Ubaidah and Khalid with a relatively larger corps moved north to conquer northern Syria. While Muslims were occupied at Fahl, Heraculis, sensing an opportunity quickly sent an army under General Theodras to recapture Damascus, where a small Muslim garrison was left. Shortly after Heraculis dispatched this new army, Muslims having finished the business at Fahl, were on their way to Emesa. The Byzantine army met Muslims half way to Emesa, at Maraj al Rome. During night Theodras sent half of his army towards Damascus to launch a surprise attack on the Muslim garrison there. Khalid's spy informed him about the move, Khalid having received permission from Abu Ubaidah, galloped towards Damascus with his mobile guard. While Abu Ubaidah fought and defeated the Roman army in the Battle of Maraj-al-Rome, Khalid moved to Damascus with his cavalry and attacked and defeated Theodras in the 2nd battle of Damascus. A week later, Abu Ubaida himself moved towards Heliopolis, where the great Temple of Jupiter stood. Helipolis surrendered to Muslim rule after little resistance and agreed to pay tribute. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid straight towards Emesa. Emesa and Chalcis surged for peace treaty for a year. Abu Ubaidah, accepted the offer and rather than invading districts of Emesa and Chalcis, he consolidated his rule in conquered land and captured Hamah, Ma’arrat an Nu’man. The peace treaties were enacted however on Heraculis’s instructions to lure the Muslims and to secure time for preparation of defenses of northern Syria. Having mustered sizeable armies at Antioch

Heraculis sent them to reinforce strategically important areas of northern Syria, like Emesa and Chalcis. With the arrival of Byzantine army in the city, the peace treaty was violated; Abu Ubadiah and Khalid thus marched to Emesa, a Byzantine army that halted Khalid’s advance guard was defeated. Muslims besieged Emesa which was finally conquered in March 636 A.D after two months of siege.

[edit] Battle of Yarmouk

Main article: Battle of Yarmouk

Muslim and Byzantine Troop Movements before the battle of Yarmouk.

After capturing Emesa, Muslims moved north to capture whole of the northern Syria. Khalid’s acting as an advance guard took his mobile guard to raid northern Syria. At Shaizer Khalid intercepted a convoy taking provisions for Chalcis. The prisoners were interrogated and informed him about Emperor Heraclius's ambitious plan to take back Syria. They told him that an army possibly two hundred thousand (200,000) strong would soon emerge to recapture their territory. Khalid stopped there. After his past experiences Heraculis now avoided pitch battle with the Muslim army. He planned to sent massive reinforcements to all the major cities and isolate Muslim corps from each other and thus separately encircle and destroy Muslim armies. In 635 Yazdgerd III, the emperor of Sassanid Persian Empire, sought an alliance with Heraclius. Heraclius married off his daughter (according to traditions, his grand daughter) Manyanh to Yazdegerd III, an old Roman tradition to show alliance. While Heraclius prepared for a major offense in the Levant, Yazdegerd was suppose to mount a counter-attack on its front in Iraq. This was supposed to be a well coordinated attacks by both emperors, Heraclius in Levant and Yazdegerd in Iraq, to annihilate the power of their common enemy Caliph Umar. However, it was not meant to be. Umar probably had intelligence of this alliance, and engaged Yazdegerd III in peace negotiations, apparently inviting them to join Islam. When Heraclius launched his offense in May 636, Yazdegerd, probably owning to the exhausted conditions of his government, could not coordinate with the Heraclian offense and a would be decisive plan missed the mark. While Umar won decisive victory at Yarmouk against Heraclius, Yazdegerd III, was being engaged and trapped in deception tactics by him. Yazdegerd III lost his imperial army at Battle of Qadisiyyah in November 636 three months after Yarmouk, ending Sassanid control west of

Persia. Five massive armies were launched in June 636 A.D to roll back Syria. Khalid, sensing Heraculis’s plan, feared that Muslim armies will be isolated and destroyed. He thus suggested Abu Ubaidah in consul of war to draw all Muslim armies at one place to give a decisive battle to Byzantines. As per Khalid’s suggestion, Abu Ubaidah ordered all the Muslim armies in Syria to evacuate the conquered land and concentrate at Jabiya. This maneuver of Khalid gave a decisive blow to the Heraculis’s plan. As he wish not to engage his troops in an open battle with Muslims, where Muslims could use their light cavalry effectively. From Jabiya, on Khalid’s suggestion Abu Ubaidah ordered Muslims to withdraw on the Plain of Yarmouk River, where cavalry could be used effectively. While Muslim armies were gathering at yarmouk, Khalid intercepted and routed Byzantine advance guard. This was to ensure the safe retreat of Muslims from conquered land. The Muslim armies reached there in July 636 CE. A week or two later, around mid July, the Byzantine army arrived. Byzantine commander in chief, Vahan sent Christian Arab troops of Ghassanid king Jabala to check the strength of Muslims, Khalid’s mobile guard defeated and routed the Christian Arabs; this was the last action before the battle started. For next one month negotiations continues between the two armies and Khalid went to meet Vahan in person at Byzantine camp. Meanwhile Muslims received reinforcement sent by Caliph Umar. Abu Ubaidah in a consul of War transferred the command of Muslim army to Khalid, who acted as a field commander in the battle and was master mind behind annihilation of Byzantine army. Finally on 15 August Battle of Yarmouk was fought, that lasted for 6 days and ended in a devastating defeat for the Byzantines. Battle of Yarmouk is considered to be one of the most decisive battles of history. It was the historic defeat that sealed the fate of Byzantines, the magnitude of defeat was so intense that Byzantine could never recover from it. It left whole of the Byzantine Empire vulnerable for the Muslim invaders. The battle was the greatest battle ever fought on Syrian soil till then and was a tactical marvel of Khalid.

[edit] Capturing Jerusalem

With Byzantine army shattered and routed, Muslims quickly recaptured the territory that they conquered prior to Yarmouk. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high command officers, including Khalid to decide of future conquests. They decided to conquer Jerusalem. The Siege of Jerusalem lasted four months after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to caliph Umar Ibn Al Khattab in person. Amr-bin al-Aas suggested that Khalid should be sent as caliph, because of his very strong resemblance with Caliph Umar. Khalid was recognized and eventually, Caliph Umar Ibn Al Khattab came and the Jerusalem surrendered on April 637 A.D. After Jerusalem Muslim armies broke up once again. Yazid’s corps came to Damascus and captured Beirut. Amr and Shurhabil’s corps went to conquered rest of the Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid ahead of 17,000 strong army moved north to conquer whole of the northern Syria.

[edit] Conquest of Northern Syria

Map detailing the route of Muslim's invasion of northern Syria.

With Emesa already in hand, Abu Ubaidah and Khalid moved to wards Chalcis, which was strategically the most significant fort of Byzantines. Though Chalcis Byzantine would guard Anatolia, Heraculis’s home land Armenia and their Asian zone’s capital Antioch. Abu Ubaidah send Khalid with his cavalry elite, the mobile guard, towards Chalcis. The fort was guarded by the Greek troops under their commander Menas, who is reported to be of high prestage, second only to Emperor himself. Menas, diverting from conventional Byzantine tactics, he decided to face Khalid and destroy the leading elements of Muslim army before the main body could join them at Hazir 3 miles east of Chalcis. The battle thus fought is known as Battle of Hazir, which even forced Caliph Umar to praise Khalid’s military genius. Umar is reported to have said

“ "Khalid is truly the commander, May Allah have mercy upon Abu Bakr. He was a better judge of men than I have been." ”

[16] Abu Ubaidah soon join Khalid at virtually impregnable fort of Chalcis. The fort surrendered some time June 637. With this strategic victory the territory north of Chalcis laid open to Muslims. Khalid and Abu Ubaidah continued their march northward and laid siege to Allepo, which was captured after fierce resistance from desperate Byzantine troops in October 637 A.D. The next objective was the splendid city of Antioch, the capital of Asian zone of Eastern Roman empire. Before marching towards Antioch, Khalid and Abu Ubaidah decided to isolate the city from Anatolia. They accordingly sent detachments north to eliminate all possible Byzantine forces and captured a garrison town of Azaz 30 miles from Allepo; from there Muslims attacked Antioch from eastern side. In order to save the empire from annihilation a desperate battle was fought between Muslim army and that of defenders of Antioch, popularly known as Battle of Iron bridge. The Byzantine army was composed of the survivors of Yarmouk and other Syrian campaigns. After being defeated, Byzantines retreated to Antioch and Muslims besieged the city. Having little hope of help from Emperor, Antioch was surrendered on 30 October 637 A.D upon the term that all Byzantine troops will be given safe passage to Constantinople. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid towards north and him self marched south and captured Lazkia, Jabla and Tartus and coastal areas west of anti-lebonan hills. Khalid moved north and raided territory up to as far as Kızılırmak River in Anatolia. Emperor Heraculis had already left Antioch for Edessa before the

arrival of Muslims. He arranged for necessary defenses in Jazirah and Armenia and left for his capital Constantinopole. On his way to constantinopole he had a narrow escape when Khalid after capturing Marash was heading south towards Munbij. Heraculis hastly took the mountainous path and passing though Cilician gates is reported to have said

“ Farewell, a long farewell to Syria, my fair province. Thou art an infidel's (enemy's) now.

Peace be with you, O' Syria - what a beautiful land you will be for the enemy.[hands ”[17]

Temple of Jupiter, Lebanon.

Devastating defeat at Yarmouk his empire was extremely vulnerable for Muslim invasion. With few military resources left he was no longer in a position to attempt a military come back in Syria. To gain time for preparation for the defense of rest of his empire Heraculis needed Muslims occupied in Syria. He thus sought help of the Christian Arabs of Jezerah who mustered up a large army and marched against Emesa, Abu Ubaidah’s headquarter. Abu Ubaidah withdrew all his forces from northern Syria to Emesa, and Christian Arabs laid siege to Emesa. Khalid was in favor of an open battle out side fort, but Abu Ubaidah rather sent the matter to Caliph Umar, who brilliantly handled it. Umar sent detachment of Muslim armies from Iraq to invade Jazerah, homeland of the invading Christian Arabs, from three different routes. More over another detachment was sent to Emesa from Iraq under Qa’qa ibn Amr, a veteran of Yarmouk who was sent o Iraq for Battle of al-Qādisiyyah. Umar him self marched from Madinah ahead of 1,000 men. Christian Arabs when received the news of Muslim’s invasion of their home land, abandon the siege and hastily withdrew to Jazirah. At this point Khalid and his mobile guard came out of fort and devastated their army attacking them from rear. This act of Jazirah's Christian Arabs was followed by fierce measures from the Caliphate, and Jazirah, the last base of the Eastern Roman empire in the Middle East was captured the same year.[20] On the orders of Caliph Umar, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, commander of the Muslim army in Iraq sent an army under Ayadh bin Ghanam to conquer the region between the Tigris and the Euphrates up to Urfa. Most of Jazirah surrendered peacefully and agreed to pay Jaziya.

[edit] Campaigns in Armenia and Anatolia

Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn Walid's invasion of Syria.

After the battle Umar ordered the conquest of Jazirah which was completed by late summer 638 A.D. After the conquest of Jazirah Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid and Ayaz ibn Ghanam (conqueror of Jazirah) to invade Byzantine territory north of Jazirah. They marched independently and captured Edessa, Amida, Malatya and whole of Armenia up to Ararat and raided northern and central Anatolia. Heraculis has already abandon all the forts between Antioch and Tartus to create a buffer zone or no man land between Muslim controlled areas and main land Anatolia. Caliph Umar for the time being stoped his armies from further invasion deeper into Anatolia and rather ordered Abu Ubaidah, now governor of Syria to consolidate his rule in Syria. At this point Caliph umar is reported to have said

“ I wish there was a wall of fire between us and Romans, so that they could not enter out territory nor we could enter theirs ”

.

Thanks for the dismissal of Khalid from army and consecutive drought and plague next year that kept Muslim armies away from invasion of Anatolia. The expedition to Anatolia and Armenia marked end of the military career of Khalid.

[edit] Under Caliph Uthman's reign

Rashidun Empire at its peak under third Rashidun Caliph, Uthman- 654      Strongholds of Rashidun Caliphate

During the reign of Caliph Uthman, Constantine III, decided to re-capture the Levant, which had been lost to the Muslims during Umar’s reign.[1][18] A full-scale invasion was planned and a large force was sent to re-conquer Syria. Muawiyah I, the then governor of Syria, called for reinforcements and Uthman ordered the governor of Kufa to send a contingent, which together with the garrison of Syria defeated the Byzantine army in northern Syria. Uthman gave permission to Muawiyah, the governor of Syria to build a navy. From their base in Syria, Muslims used this fleet to capture Cyprus in 649 and Crete and then Rhodes and the launching of annual raids into western Anatolia thwarted the Byzantines from making any further attempts to recapture Syria.[18] In 654-655, Uthman ordered preparation of an expedition to capture the capital of Eastern Roman empire, Constantinople, but due to unrest in the empire that grew in 655 and resulted in his assassination, the expedition was delayed for decades only to be attempted unsuccessfully under the next dynasty of Ummayad rulers.

[edit] Administration under Rashidun Caliphate

The new rulers divided Syria into four districts (junds): Damascus, Hims, Jordan, and Palestine (to which a fifth, Qinnasrin, was later added)[1] and the Arab garrisons were kept apart in camps, and life went on much as before for the local population.[1] The Muslim's adopted a policy of tolerance towards other religions, resulting in a positive effect on the new subject people, especially the Nestorian and Jacobite Christians and Jews (People of the Book), who had been previously persecuted under Byzantine rule.[1][18] The loyalty of his new subjects was paramount to the success of Muslim rule in the region, therefore excessive taxation or oppression was avoided.[18] The taxes instituted were the kharaj - a tax that landowners and peasants paid according to the productivity of their fields - as well as the jizya - paid by non-Muslims in return for protection under the Muslim state and exemption from military service. The Byzantine civil service was retained until a new system could be instituted; therefore, Greek remained the administrative language in the new Muslim territories for over 50 years after the conquests.

[edit] The Rise of the Umayyads

When the first civil war broke out in the Muslim empire, as a result of the murder of 'Uthman and the nomination of 'Ali as caliph. Rashidun Caliphate was succeeded by the new dynasty of Umayyad with Syria as its core and Damascus its capital, for the next century.