music psychology, musicology, musical practice richard parncutt university of graz winter semester...
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Music psychology, musicology, musical practice
Richard ParncuttUniversity of GrazWinter semester 2006
Aims Cover and analyse interdisciplinary research
between music psychology and musicology music psychology and music practice
that has been done could be done
Focus on the big picture Detail is important but not the main focus
Consider potential areas for future research More questions than answers
Tentative plan (1)date topic11.10.06 Current trends in music psychology:
aims, methods, structure, content
18.10.06 Current trends in music psychology:
Review of ICMPC Bologna (student presentations)
25.10.06 Current trends in musicology:
aims, methods, structure, content
8.11.06 Current trends in musical practice
(including performance and composition)
15.11.06 Music psychology and music theory
22.11.06 Music psychology and musicology
Tentative plan (2)date topic
29.11.06 Psychology, performance, education
06.12.06 Psychology, performance, education: Early acquisition of musical aural skills
13.12.06 Psychology, theory/analysis, performance, education: Aural analysis for performing musicians: The relationship between accents and expression
20.12.06 Psychology, history, theory: Towards a statistical-perceptual history of western tonal-harmonic syntax
10.01.07 Psychology, ethnology: Emotions and associations evoked by unfamiliar music
17.01.06 Psychology, performance, education: Physics, physiology and psychology of piano performance
24.01.07 written examination
Other recent presentations
Disciplines Topic
Psychology, performance, education
Can researchers help artists? Music performance research for music students
Psychology, theory, history
Western music history, pitch salience, key profiles, and the origins of tonality
Musicology, psychology
Interdisciplinary balance, international collaboration, and the future of (German) (historical) musicology
Older presentations and papersPsychology, theory, analysis: Tone profiles following short chord progressions: Top-down or
bottom-up? Perception of musical patterns: Ambiguity, emotion, culture Enrichment of music theory pedagogy by computer-based repertoire
analysis and perceptual-cognitive theory Middle-out analysis and its psychological basis Perceptual versus historical origins of musical materials Tonality as implication-realization: Key profiles as pitch salience
profiles of final triads in Renaissance music Towards a perceptual theory of bebop harmony Perceptual underpinnings of analytic techniques: From Rameau to
Terhardt, Riemann to Krumhansl, Schenker to Bregman Tonal implications of atonal music Critical comparison of acoustical and perceptual theories of the origin
of musical scales
Why music psychology?
Humans spend enormous amounts of time, energy and resources on musical activities that are not directly related to their survival. Why?
Humans identify with the music they hear. How and why?
Music enhances quality of life. How and why?
Aims of music psychology
Description/explanation ofmusical behaviourmusical experience
Applications musicologypsychologymusical practice
Musical relevance of music psychology
Music theory and aesthetics perception of musical structures empirical testing of philosophical theories
Music education and performance applied developmental music psychology musical skills and techniques
Music history history of musical syntax personalities of composers and their music
Ethnomusicology musical behaviours, cognition and experience in
different cultures
Empirical methods of (music) psychology
Quantitative methods Data are numbers Statistical analysis by computer Probability of obtaining result by chance Standard in cognitive psychology
Qualitative methods Data are text Content analysis Exploratory: main themes Bridge between sciences and humanities
Areas of music psychology
Behaviours Skills Development Perception of structure Performance Empirical aesthetics Social psychology Evolutionary music psychology
Musical behaviors
Performing Composing Listening Dancing
Cognitive engagement Emotional responses
Musical skills learning a musical instrument singing in a choir
playing by ear and imagining music sightreading vs. playing from memory improvising and composing
talent – nature or nurture?
Musical development
behaviours abilities lifespan
Perception of musical structure
melody, phrasing harmony, tonality rhythm, meter
Music performance researchThe daily lives and challenges of
professional and amateur musicians who…
perform from scores or by improvising alone or in groups,
compose or arrange on paper with computers
Empirical music aesthetics
Dependence of musical preferences/judgments onmusical structuresocial influences
Social psychology of music everyday music listening
while driving, eating, shopping, reading...
musical rituals and gatheringsreligious, festive, sporting, political...
music and identitypersonal group
Evolutionary music psychology Adaptation or exaptation?
evolutionary parasites protomusic in non-human animals
Individual survival music and non-musical abilities
Group survival music as “social glue”
Music, ritual, spirituality, trance mother-infant communication
Subdisciplines of psychology Biopsychology
neuropsychology Psychobiology and evolutionary psychology
genetic and biological bases of behaviour Perception
sensation, psychoacoustics Cognition
language, thinking, consciousness, learning, memory Motivation and emotion Development
childhood and life-span individual differences
personality skill
talent, creativity, intelligence social psychology and cognition health
stress, coping, therapy, psychological disorders
Music psychology sources
Books Journals Conferences
Recent general books ICMPC Bologna 2006
Abstract booklet; proceedings in internet De la Motte-Haber, Helga
Musikpsychologie Oerter & Stoffer
Spezielle Musikpsychologie Stoffer & Oerter
Allgemeine Musikpsychologie Deutsch, Diana
The psychology of music Bruhn, Herbert
Handbuch Musikpsychologie
Main journals
Music psychology Music Perception (MuWi-IB) Psychology of Music (KUG-UB) Jahrbuch Musikpsychologie (MuWi- IB)
Systematic musicology Musicae Scientiae (MuWi-IB) Journal of New Music Research (MuWi-IB)
Other Psychomusicology Empirical Musicology Review Codex Flores
Journals in related disciplines Psychology
Psychological Review etc.
Neuroscience Nature Neuroscience etc.
Acoustics and psychoacoustics Journal of the Acoustical Society of America Acta Acustica
Computing Computer Music Journal Computing in Musicology
Science in general Nature, science
Music journals Music theory/analysis
Music Theory Spectrum Music Analysis etc.
Music performance, e.g. Music Performance Research Journal of Research in Singing etc.
Applied music journals Music therapy
Journal of Music Therapy etc.
Music education Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music
Education etc.
Music medicine Medical Problems of Performing Artists etc.
Music Psychology conferencesGlobal International Conference of Music Perception and Cognition
Continental European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music Society for Music Perception and Cognition (USA)
Regional Deutsche Gesellschaft für Musikpsychologie Society for Education, Music and Psychology Research (UK) International Symposium on Cognition and Musical Arts (Brazil) Japanese Society for Music Perception and Cognition Australian Music and Psychology Society Asia-Pacific Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music
General information
http://www-gewi.uni-graz.at/staff/parncutt
/musicpsychology.html
Aims, methods, structure and content of modern musicology
25.10.06
Structure of today‘s presentation
Definitions of “musicology” Structure of musicology Musicological interdisciplinarity
Part 1
Definitions of “musicology”
in theory in practice
“Musicology” in theory
(all) scholarship about (all) music?GroveMGGDizionario della musica e dei musicisti
Musicological subdisciplines
Core disciplines performance, composition, theory, analysis
Parent disciplines acoustics, computing, multimedia, sociology, cultural studies,
feminism and gender, history, anthropology/ethnology, psychology, physiology/medicine, education, therapy…
Any academic discipline that is serious and established capable of explaining musical phenomena
“Musicology” in practice
music history of western cultural elites sources: historical documents associated methods and techniques tradition since 19th century
“Musicology” journals Acta musicologica Archiv für Musikwissenschaft Current Musicology Journal of the American Musicological Society Journal of Musicological Research Journal of Musicology Musikforschung Revue de Musicologie Studien zur Musikwissenschaft
... plus many musicology journals of smaller countries
Tacit assumptions of “musicology”
(Obviously) (more) important: history western culture and music music of cultural elites
Eurocentricity?
19th-century colonialism?
Solutions: Journals
Acknowledge problem in preface Change name, e.g.
Western Music
Western Artificial Music
History of Notated Western Music
Change scope of journal
Part 2
The structure of musicology
history of musical thought sciences and humanities the tripartite model the evolution of disciplinary
structures
History of musical thought Ancient civilisations
physics/mathematics (number ratios) psychology (emotion)
Middle ages in Europe quadrivium : arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, “music”
18th and 19th centuries central position of history for national identity
20th century expansion, diversification
21st century All musics, all appropriate questions and disciplines
The relationship between musicological subdisciplines
0
20
40
60
80
100
année
pro
po
rtio
n
1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
systematic
ethnological
historical
Antiquity and middle ages: antecedents of music theory, acoustics and psychology
mathematical philosophy of intervals and scales
19th century: music history plus auxiliary disciplines
historical musicology music theory and analysis
systematic musicology
Now: all disciplinary approaches to all questions about all musics
repertoires and their contexts general phenomena and their foundations
history pop jazz
ethnology ana-lysis
the-ory
socio-logy
psychology
acoustics
physiology
media
aesthetics, cultural studies, feminism and gender studies computing
philosophy
History of musical thought
The central position of historical musicology in the 19th century
Western music: esthetically superior
“Music”: written works of the western canon
The main task of “musicology”: document the artistry of white male genius
Humanities and sciences: differences
The tension between subjectivity and objectivity
1. The object of research humanities: researcher‘s own experience sciences: the external world
2. The distance between researcher and object humanities: close (hermeneutics) sciences: distant (data analysis)
3. The generality of conclusions humanities: complex, specific descriptions sciences: simple, general descriptions
Example : music psychologyThe objective versus the subjective approach
Les sciences humaines et naturelles : les points communs
La recherche de la « verité » intersubjectivité rationalité compréhension par explication
La compréhension des relations causalité prévision
La diversité épistémologique méthodologique
Les sciences humaines et naturelles : un rapport synergétique
sciences humaines sciences naturelles
idées créatives et bien fondées
évaluations empiriques
conséquences académiques,
culturelles, sociales
découvertes
Les sciences humaines et naturelles : L‘histoire de leur relation
XIXe siècle : domination des sciences humaines
XXe siècle : domination des sciences naturelles
XXIe siècle : domination des sciences informatiques ? nouvel équilibre entre sciences humaines et
naturelles… en général? en musicologie?
Les sciences humaines et naturelles : importance rélative
Les sciences humaines : rôle central de la culture
identité qualité de la vie
Les sciences naturelles : rôle central de la technologie :
qualité de vie quotidienne guerre et environnement
l’autodestruction de l’humanité
Repertoire-based musicologies: Trends
Source: Jonathan Stock , Current Musicology, 1998
“Musicology” Ethnomusicology
“music” score part of culture
readership “musicologists” interdisciplinary
repertory lost disappearing
focus composer, score performance
concepts individual, idiosyncratic, history, development, musical autonomy, formal unity
culture, typical, tradition, change, social function, cultural uniqueness
authority scholar informants
Tripartite model: USA
“musicology” / theory / ethnomusicology
Problems: “musical sciences” are not “musicology” too little communication between
musicology/theory and ethnomusicology
Tripartite model: Germany
historical systematic ethno-
(tacit) def.
western cultural elites mus contexts
sciences, abstract, interdisciplinary mus. phenomena
non-western, non-elite mus. contexts
modern
content
analysis; periods, genres;
cult. stud.
acoustics, psychology, sociology; aesthetics, philosophy, physiology, media, computing...
elite, popular, folk; continents, regions, genres, subcultures
prob-lems
(none) remainder? auxiliary? larger and more diverse fewer professorships?
(German) Tripartite model: Problems
not justified: central position of history of western cultural elites
not integrated: musical practice
not classified: theory, gender, jazz/pop, prehistory
not enough: communication among subdisciplines
not unified: musicology
A personal apology
I love the “western bourgeous canon” History is not less important!!! Aim: new balance
Systematic musicology
Humanities“cultural musicology”
Sciences“scientific musicology”
“Cultural musicology” epistemologies and methods of humanities
subjective introspective, intuitive, intersubjective
philosophical logical, aesthetic, epistemological, ethical, metaphysical
paradigms and subdisciplines philosophical aesthetics music criticism theoretical sociology semiotics hermeneutics deconstruction postmodernism cultural and gender studies
“Scientific musicology”
scientific epistemologies and methods empirical and data-oriented prediction of future data by means of models
subdisciplines physiology and neurosciences empirical psychology and sociology cognitive sciences computing and technology
Evolution of disciplinary structures
top-down regulate categorize authoritarian
bottom-up explore quasi-random „natural“
Musicology: Alternative structure A
specifically musical
theory, analysis, composition, performance
humanities history, cultural studies, philosophy
sciences acoustics, psychology, physiology, media, computing
mixtures sociology, anthropology, prehistory
practice education, medicine, therapy
Musicology: Alternative structure B
status focus examples
core “music itself” theory, analysis, composition, performance
central musical contexts and phenomena
acoustics, anthropology, cult.stud., history, psychology, sociology
peripheral support of core and central
computing, psychoacoustics, philosophy, physiology, prehistory
neighboring non-mus. culture & communication
art, literature, linguistics
practical individual needs education, therapy, medicine
L’unité de la musicologieLa musicologie est devenue très fragmentée.Comment la (ré-)unir ?
Existe-il… des méthodes et des « lois » générales en musicologie ? une épistémologie unifiée de la musicologie ?
Dans un programme de musicologie : peut-êtreEn réalité à long terme: peu probable
Proposition: L’unité de la musicologie résulte plutôt de sa diversité intrinsèque :
Objet : les musiques diverses Méthodes : les sciences « mères » diverses Approche : la collaboration interdisciplinaire
Part 3
Interdisciplinarity
in musicology in general
Musicae Scientiae Special edition 2006
Thème 1e discipline 2e discipline
Improvisation interactive avec ordinateur
éducation musicale intelligence artificielle
Psychologie culturelle de la musique psychologie musicale anthropologie culturelle
Échelles non occidentales psychoacoustique ethnomusicologie
Modernisation de la musique turque sociologie ethnomusicologie
Isométries dans la musique de Ciurlionis
histoire de l’art théorie musicale
Analyse de style par ordinateur dans la musique du XVe siècle
musicologie historique
extraction de données musicales
Composition a partir de l’acoustique des étoiles
physique composition
Bases neuronales de l’harmonie psychoacoustique neurophysiologie
Expression en multimédia musicologie informatique
Aphasie musicale psychologie musicale linguistique
Interdisciplinarity
boundaries of disciplines are fuzzy disciplines are more or less established disciplines are more or less distant not whether ID, but how much degree of ID is a matter of opinion role of collaboration motivation, flexibility, curiosity, daring
Interdisciplinarity in musicology
sciences humanities practice
content object subject action
methods empirical intersubjective trial and error
Interdisciplinary challenges: content and method boundaries content-method combinations
Conséquences
Nécessité de promouvoir l’interdisciplinarité de façon
directe développer des stratégies spécifiques
CIM: The Conferences on Interdisciplinary Musicology Aims
Promote human interdisciplinary interaction Reunite musicology
Themes (General) (Graz 2004) Timbre (Montreal 2005) Singing (Tallinn 2007) Structure (Thessaloniki 2008) Monophony versus polyphony (Paris 2009) Culture (Sheffield 2010)
Current trends in musical practice
including performance and composition relevant for music psychology
25.10.06
Introduction
This lecture surveys current themes is limited to western music and subcultures makes few specific claims postpones music psychology aspects
Terminology “classical” = “notated music of western cultural elites”
Rationale
Central role of performance in music(ology) Music does not exist unless performed Performance changes the music
Music psychology and musicology traditionally focus on perception than performance basic rather than applied research
Music performance research is multi- and interdisciplinary theory and practice ethnomusicology, music history, psychology, sociology, acoustics, cultural
studies, economics
Main themes
Technology Styles and subcultures Authenticity Skills Professional issues
Technology
Recording media: CDs Recording techniques and studios Electronic media in performance
Recording media: CDs
CD revolution in 1980s and 90s more compact, easier to use overwhelming diversity of available music
Overloads consumers’ memory only remember the few main stars CD labels market only few main stars authenticity backlash (see below)
Recording techniques & studios
Sound quality most important for classical and acoustic
Creativity of studio engineer Tonmeister as musician
Electronic media in performance
Classical and jazz small subgroup of composers and performers strong identity media strongly affect musical content discourse on technology and aesthetics
Pop/rock: traditional relationship between media and content strong interest in developing technologies
Styles and subcultures
“Classical” Pop/rock Jazz fusions
Classical music: performance
Labels market only famous names even in ensemble music
The second-highest level very high standard strong competition
Mobility performances at distant venues masterclasses with eminent performers
Classical instruments and voice
Separate subcultures Voice: Opera versus lied versus early music Piano: solo versus accompaniment Melody instruments: solo versus orchestral
Pop: Styles
Musicians identify with
substyles: rock, soft rock, pop/rock, R&B, soul, hip hop, trip hop, punk pop, dance ethnic: Brit, Arab, Indi-, C-, J-, K-, Latin, Calypso, Reggae techno: electro, future, noise, synth, Country, easy listening, muzac other: Bubblegum, Christian, Operatic, Sophisti, Turbo-folk
stars and periods (1980s…)
Pop: functions
Continues to create teenage identities musicians are role models
Originality considered important but level is low revival of oldies, cover versions, cover bands
Media fascination with celebrities no matter whether musicians of film stars? sexiness more important than art?
Jazz
Discussion of musical elements: harmony, tonality, blue notes syncopation, polyrhythms swing, feel call and response, improvisation
Musicians identify with genres blues, trad, Dixieland, swing, bebop, hard bop, cool,
free, avant-garde, Latin, modal, acid, electronica
Style fusions
Many combinations of classical, jazz, pop, traditional music plus substyles
“Authentic”? New combination may be original Authentic partial styles may be undermined
Authenticity
Performance Composition Classical Pop Jazz
Authenticity in performance
In spite of musical diversity and mediocrity: maintenance of personality, spirit, character, identity creativity from within
Difficult and worthwhile sheds new light on music, life, values
Important for musical “counter cultures” opposition to mainstream
Compensation for lack of financial success only the successful are corrupted?
Promoted by informal, destroyed by formal learning?
Authenticity in composition
“Postmodern” goes beyond violation of compositional standards and expectancies
Coherent (or incoherent) style Expression of personality Regard (or disregard) for listener Minimalism versus complexity Apparent lack of composer models
Authenticity in classical music
Revival of old instruments repertoires
Relation to historical research modern technology and hifi performer’s intuition and emotion the playing and listening experience
Authenticity in pop subcultures
independence from commercial forces the musical experience common identity of performers and
listeners intolerance of other styles
Authenticity in jazz
Jazz as symbol of spiritual freedom Originality Personality Building on and deviating from models (Adorno: a false representation that gives
the appearance of authenticity)
Authenticity - overview
Conceptual diversity classical: revival of original experience rock: honest communication of identity and values
Common thread identification of “genuine” rejection of “fake” specific criteria
Why important? music as personal identity
Skills
Talent Technique Practice Improvisation Sight reading Memorization Expression and interpretation
Talent
Talent versus hard workrelative importanceperformers’ identity
Talented childrenHow teachers recognize and nurture them
Technique
Body posture (e.g. Alexander technique) Hand positions Fingering Optimal age of acquisition Relationship to other musical skills Importance relative to interpretation
Practice
Takes a lot of time! How to improve efficiency?
Improvisation
In all styles: connected to authenticity Role of practice, vocabulary, ice breaking Classical music:
revival of tradition that died in 19th century example of modern musician’s flexibility
Sight reading
Central for many musicians who constantly learn new repertoireOrchestralPiano accompanists
Memorization (classical)
Specific instruments e.g. piano not organ piano solo not ensemble solo singers
Methods auditory, kinesthetic, visual memory score analysis
Effect on interpretation and reception
Expression and interpretation
Importance relative to technique Whether and how to teach it Analytic versus intuitive approach Role models versus individuality Role of body movement Developing a personal voice
Professional issues
Medicine Anxiety Education Career path Gender
Music medicine
Mainly an issue for classical musicians Taboo status is weakening Few musically qualified doctors Role of stress and repetition Specific ailments for specific instruments Psychological, neurological, muscular,
orthopedic (musculoskeletal), dental, dermatological, audiological
Performance anxiety
Mainly an issue for classical musicians Taboo status is weakening But few musically qualified therapists
Education (classical)
Conservatory culture Cultural differences (oriental versus western students) Music and non-musical skills Practical versus academic courses Technique versus interpretation Individual versus group teaching Analytic versus intuitive teaching styles Practice routines and durations Solo versus ensemble performance Performance versus teaching Listening to recordings, mental practice Selection and evaluation procedures; musicality Career preparation
Career paths
A high risk, undervalued profession Low social status (not a “serious” profession) Wide range of incomes Dependency on free market and lucky breaks Dream of full-time reality of part-time Effect on mental and physical health, relationships etc.
Classical: many study performance then teach
Pop, jazz high dependence on free market
Gender issues
Classical Women in Vienna Philharmonic? Female conductors, composers, jazz improvisers Acceptance of androgeny e.g. counter tenors
Rock/pop Musicians esp. singers (male/female) as sex objects
music video clips as soft pornography Girl bands – strong women, sex objects or both Implications for musical identity
Music psychology and music theory
15.11.06
Music-theoretic traditions Mathematical approach since antiquity
Aim: “understand” music and the cosmos Mystic philosophy of string-length ratios
Humanities approach since 19th century Aim: understand works of western canon Subjective-empirical, logical-systematic
approach Linked to compositional and analytical practice
The role of music psychology
Regard music theories as interesting hypotheses
Test them experimentally Use results to inform modern music
theory, analysis the theme of CIM08 in Thessaloniki
Theory/analysis of structure
Specific structures: scales, melody, voice leading, harmony/tonality,
rhythm, timbre Structure in general:
motivic, formal, reduction, accentuation, temporal development
Musical meaning emotion, aesthetics
History History of syntax
Cultural studies Social and musical structures
Scales in general
Scale steps categorical perception of pitch
Scales as pitch collections memory limitations for no. of scale steps
Western scales
Pentatonic, diatonic, chromatic melodic/harmonic octave/fifth relationships JND and smallest practical interval size
Major-minor key profiles and statistical learning key tracking perception of triad-scale relationships
Non-Western scales
quarter-tones e.g. Middle East, Persia…
equal-interval e.g. Indonesian slendro
quasi-chromatic e.g. Indian classical traditions
physical vs psychological measurement e.g. African oral traditions (Arom)
Melody and phrasing
Pattern recognition, Gestalt principles similarity proximity good continuation etc.
Auditory scene analysis (Bregman) segmentation and grouping nature vs nurture
Hierarchical structure andvoice leading compound melody and streaming neighbor tones and melodic fusion tonicization and pitch salience diminution and generative grammar key as prolongation of tonic triad Ursatz as schema
(Schenker, Lerdahl & Jackendoff)
Contrapuntal conventions
Writing melodies pitch proximity (stepwise motion streaming)
Prevalence of chord types promote fusion ( consonance) avoid roughness ( consonance)
Prevalence of harmonic intervals avoid fusion ( independence of voices)
Voicing of chords doubling: exaggerate differences in pitch salience interval size: masking and roughness
(Huron)
Harmony and tonality
Harmony: perception of pitch of complex tones (Terhardt)
Tonality: profiles of stability of scale steps (Krumhansl)
Computer tests: root and tonality tracking algorithms
Rhythm and meter
Categorical perception of rhythm Pulse perception Perceived versus notated metre
Computer test: beat tracking
Timbral structure
Theory Relation of timbre to:
familiar environmental sound sources human voice and phonemes
Stream segregation: each stream has a timbre
Method Quantitative approaches
similarity judgments and multidimensional scaling Qualitative approaches
timbre description using everyday language
Motivic/thematic structure
Central importance for music analysis “first subject”, “second subject”, leitmotives development and recapitulation of motives
Complex models of the similarity of melodic motivescategorical boundary between “same” and “different”
difference between repetition and variation
Formal structure
Formal functions of musical segments start, middle, end exposition, development, recapitulation
Perception of jumbled music experimental finding: order doesn’t matter (!) conflict between philosophical and empirical
aesthetics
Reduction
Schenkerian reduction foreground, middleground, background background is supposed to comprise the most important events largely irrelevant for music performance
accentuation (salience) immanent
grouping, metrical, harmonic, melodic performed
agogic, dynamic, articulatory, timbral This kind of analysis can inform music performance
Structure: Temporal development
Local music perception lasting a few seconds Predominates in music psychological experiments
Tension/relaxation dissonance, loudness, pitch range, tonality
Expectation melodic, harmonic… expections and emotional connotations
Prolongation primary and subordinate chords of a progression implied harmonies of a melody
Structure: Emotion and meaning
Immanent structures specific structures: appoggiatura, sudden harmonic
change, repeated falling fifth progression (Sloboda) analysis by semiotics and hermeneutics
The performer’s contribution structural communication
expressive timing and dynamics (Repp, Desain, Drake…) emotional communication
specific structural cues (Juslin)
Philosophical aesthetics Elitist and abstract
explores the experience of experts emphasis on absolute music emphasis on unity of the art work
Emphasis on deep meaning cultural identity
Emphasis on long-term temporal relationships thematic and tonal
Empirical aesthetics
Non-elitist and concrete typical concert audiences, CD listeners role of social and psychological function personal identity
Emphasis on local, surface events complexity and familiarity
Emphasis on short-term temporal relationships thematic and tonal
Structure: History of syntax
History of musical syntax (Eberlein) Process of cultural evolution (Dawkins) Perception develops in parallel with syntax
Elements of musical culture (e.g. cadences) are “memes”
Syntax develops under combined influence of conventions (e.g. voice-leading rules) perception (e.g. pitch pattern recognition) social constraints (e.g. the church)
Structure: Sociocultural aspects
Does hierarchical structure reflect hierarchical society?
Interesting for historical, cultural and ethnological musicology as well as music theory
Music psychology and musicology
Interactions between music psychology MP and ethnomusicology EM
historical musicology HM cultural musicology CM
22.11.06
Today’s aim
Explore (possibilites for) fruitful interaction between MP and HM, CM, ME The topic of an ÖGMw conference in Salzburg 2008
Focus mainly on western “classical” music , since more MP research to refer to affords interesting comparisons with HM
MP versus HM, EM, CM
Similar aim: description/explanation of musical behaviour musical experience
Contrasting methods: subjective versus objective approaches own versus other culture
Divergent academic traditions surprisingly little contact considerable potential for productive collaboration
Today’s topics
Dance Emotion Personality Talent Composition Creativity Preferences
Dance in musicology EM:
Dance and music linked in every known culture – why? Relationships among
dance movements and gestures musical meaning (e.g. ritual functions) musical structure
HM: Western history of dance forms, genres, structures Aesthetics: Movement character of dance music
Dance in music psychology
Relationship between sound & movementPerformance gesturesEmotional expression
Rhythm as virtual movementCognitive neurosciences, mirror neurones
Emotion in musicology
HM: Researcher’s own experience Emotionality of specific repertoire Historical changes in verbalisation of emotion Philosophy of emotion and meaning Hermeneutic approaches
EM: Reliance on informants’ reports of experience Role of cultural background including language functions of music
social, religious, psychological, healing
Emotion in music psychology
Avoided after the “cognitive turn” in the 1960s “Hot topic” since 1990s, e.g. Juslin & Sloboda book
Musical versus everyday emotions Everyday: happy, sad, angry, afraid… (“basic”) Musical: nostalgia, magic, moving, excited…
Methods Global vs local
Questionnaire versus real-time tracking Qualitative descriptors
emotions versus associations; slippery linguistic labels Quantitative measures
Similarity judements, MDS, dimensions: arousal, valence, salience Bipolar rating scales, semantic differential
Personality
MP: dimensions of personality as cause/effect of
musical activities and preferences HM:
understanding of composers’ personal styles
Is a unified musical work a virtual person with specific character traits?
General personality factors Long lists such as
warmth, reasoning, social stability, dominance, liveliness, rule consciousness, social boldness, sensitivity, vigilences, abstractedness, privateness, apprehension, openness to change, self-reliance, perfectionism, tension (Cattel & Kline, 1977)
“big five” (cf. “basic emotions”) neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeables,
consciensciousness (Costa & McCrae, 1985)
(Kemp)
Personality of musicians Commonalities of (classical western) musicians
Introspection inner world of music Independence musical originality Preference for complexity classical tradition Sensitivity emotional nature of music Trait anxiety performance anxiety Androgeny creativity
Differences Strings: reserved woodwind: confidence Brass and singers: Extraversion Keyboard: shyness Composers: reserve, dominance, sensitivity, spontaneity, openness, low self control, radicalism,
independence, persistenc
Nature or nurture?(Kemp)
Personality and HM
Character of…music versus other artsmusic played by different
instruments Did Mozart and Strauss write so well for
sopranos because they understood the personality of typical sopranos?
Talent and MP
Nature-nurture problem “Nurture” aspect well documented “Nature” aspect difficult to investigate
Evaluation of talent Difficult to predict future performance
musicality tests primarily test hearing skills Difficult to evaluate composed or performed music
aesthetic norms tend to be arbitrary
Musical talent and non-musical factors
Inborn (?) factors Intelligence, creativity, social competence, hearing skills…
Environment Family, individual and classroom teachers, critical experiences
Personality Coping with stress, motivation, learning strategies, performance anxiety…
Non-musical skills Sciences (maths, technology, computing…), arts (painting…), languages,
sport
(Heller, 2004)
Talent in humanities musicology
HMmusic of western cultural elites: music of the
talented?HM: study of the products of musical talent? Implications of MP talent research for HM
EMconcepts and roles of talent (or absence thereof)
in specific cultures
Composition in MP
Difficult to study since very intuitive processarbitrary evaluation of musical quality
Contemporary compositional process McAdams case study of Roger ReynoldsAre the principles specific or general?
Composition in HM
Processcomposers’ sketches letters and reports of contemporaries
Personalityhistorical recorddoes music reflect it?
Creativity in MP
Definition: production of novelty: new structures of old elements value: aesthetic value, usefulness, pleasingness
Both concepts are difficult to operationalise!
Origin: Interaction culture-society-individual
“Genius” Has excellent musical skills Knows both culture and society intimately Questionable as a distinct category
Creativity in HM
Novelty and value Both concepts are central to HM and
philosophical aesthetics of music
Genius depends on historic, social, cultural context
Development of creativity
Exposure Part of general enculturation, socialisation Confined to specific styles
Gender differences Socialisation (main effect) Genes: Hormones (Hassler) (controversial)
Motivation Persistence, hard work Independence
The creative process
Four phases (Poincaré 1913): Preparation
Musical and life experience Skill acquisition
Incubation Perception and analysis of problems
Illumination Exploration of solutions Synthesis of approaches
Verification Social and cultural realisation
HM: application to compositional process of individuals MP: difficult to investigate contents of “black box”
Preferences: Listener typologies
Adorno (1962) Expert Good listener Art consumer Emotional listener Jazz Pop Unmusical
Explanation: socialisation and evolution
HM: relation to style classification
(Gembris)
Alt (1968) Sensitive- emotional Aesthetic (cf. Hanslick) Spiritual-romantic
Preferences: Life-span
Open-eared childhood acquisition of varied stylistic knowledge
Intolerant teens: a creative phase beginning of preferences, emotionality creation of individual identity, peer pressure HM: wellspring of creativity and originality for most composers
Open-eared adulthood Less interest in music (time spent, emotion, function) Continuing preference for music learned in teens (socialisation) HM: composers develop the style that they established in teens
(Kemp)
Preferences and musical content Structure
MP: Tempo and tonality but not form HM: why is form important? MP: cannot answer this question
MP: Complexity HM: historical increase in complexity MP: Berlyne’s curve shifts toward higher optimal complexity
Musical meaning MP: Universals related to motherese
EM: question of universals MP: Association with specific experiences
HM: romantic tradition and aesthetic
Familiarity Own versus foreign music
EM: main subject matter HM: implied superiority of western culture
Preferences and gender
Cliches exist! Females tend to prefer softer more romantic music Males tend to prefer louder, stronger, active, sensational music
Explanation Socialisation Evolution
HM: gender associations
classification of styles, periods, national character etc.
Preferences and class
“Classical” music owning and upper-middle classes?
“Popular” music working and lower-middle classes?
Explanation: socialisation familiarity, identity
HM, art history etc: class-conscious disciplines?
EM Attempt to cover all classes: elite, popular, traditional…
MP Started like HM, now trying to emulate EM
Psychological and educational research in music performance
Source: Parncutt & McPherson (Eds.) (2002)
29.11.06
Today’s aims
Summarize performance researchMusical development and skill acquisition
Implications for education
Everday performance issues Implications for professional musicians
Music psychology and music education
Often similar research themesE.g. intonation
Often little or no contactUniversity / disciplinary structures
(conferences, journals)
Talent and potential
Considered elsewhere in this file
Motivation and talent
Is talent based on hard work? Do motivated students
work harder, acquire more skills, and therefore appear more “talented”?
Kinds of motivation
Extrinsic Dependent on specific rewards Appropriate for children learning music
Intrinsic Acquired gradually Imitation of parents, teachers, peers? An inborn component? Identification with music and with instrument Associated with persistence Necessary to enable long hours of practice
How to motivate music students
Balance between: Praise for genuine progress
extrinsic motivation Open, helpful discussion of problems
train ability to set goals, solve problemsconfidence, independence, self-efficacy
intrinsic motivation
Persistence
A matter of attitude: Problems are expected and normal Challenges are interesting Ability depends on practice
Attributions
Private explanations of success and failureRealistic or exaggerated Incremental or static
Thinking affects musical progress!Not just hard work and talent
Implications for music education
Goal orientation
Children who plan to become musicians are more likely to succeed intrinsic motivation, persistencehours of practice
Performance anxiety
Common but still taboo Most musicians suffer and do not seek support
Causes trait anxiety degree of preparation perceived audience reaction pessimistic self-talk, “catastrophization”
Treatments Relaxation training Anxiety inoculation – developing realistic expectations Cognitive restructuring – changing habitual attitudes Hypnotherapy, Alexander technique
Music-medical problems
Common but still taboo Most musicians suffer and do not seek support
Causes Instrument: performance technique Repertoire: technical problems Individual: physique and psychology Practice routines: Repetition, duration, stress History: increasing competition
Music-medical problems
Kinds of problem orthopedic (muskuloskeletal), psychological, dermatological,
audiological, dental, neurological
Prevention Music-medical knowledge Avoidance of excessive repetition
Treatment rest, exercises, therapy to prevent re-emergence…
Example: Focal dystonia Symptoms
loss of voluntary control in specific trained movements Incidence and consequences
about 1% of professional musicians can terminate a musical career
Associated with fine motor skills and perfectionism overlap of cortical regions
Causes acquired and hereditary
Treatment medication, retraining, ergonomic changes to instrument partially successful
(Jabusch & Altenmüller 2006)
Brain mechanisms
Each musical subskill Widely distributed brain areas (neural networks) Individually variable
Areas involved in music all motor, somatosensory and auditory areas
Plasticity: regions are bigger if used more often used earlier in life musical practice stable structural changes
Learning music notation
Language acquisition model strict temporal sequences:
exposure sonic experimentation lexical vocabulary
basic skills start to read and write
active learning both perceiving and doing
improvisation in a social context reading and writing confined to known material
Learning music notation
Implications for music educationDon’t start too earlyDon’t start too late
Sight reading
Component skills Visual perception, recognition, memory Motor control Auditory imagination Stylistic knowledge (guessing)
Training Hours of practice with given style
Improvisation
Hidden processes - difficult to investigate
Practice Aims
Improve technique Learn repertoire Develop interpretations Memorize
Methods Physical and mental practice Metacognition – goals, planning, organisation Analyse scores and recordings Take breaks Intrinsic motivation
Memory
Why perform from memory? Tradition Expression
How to memorize In practice, focus on expression and meaning Understand structure (score analysis) Combine sense modalities Practice improvising in same style
Intonation
Subskills Pitch discrimination and matching Instrument tuning Internal tuning – melodic and harmonic Simple versus complex context
Every intonation is a compromise Harmonic versus inharmonic complex tones Pitch shifts due to intensity and masking Just frequency ratios are inconsistent Varying intonations in ensemble Deviations are expressive
Structural communication
Structure Phrasing, grouping Meter Melody Harmony and tonality
Performance parameters Loudness, timbre, duration of each tone Timing of IOIs
Broad definition of “accent” Communication of structural accents through interpretative
accents
Structural communication
Emotional communication
Specific emotions in music and speech are expressed by redundant combinations of physical cues:
Tempo Articulation Loudness Timbre Attack durational contrast Microintonation Vibrato Variability of all of the above
Can be learned!
Body movement Roles in music performance
Construction Execution Perception
Aspects Technical control Expression through gesture
communicate structure and emotion show what is important
Non-musical origins Motherese Physical movement, running etc.
Conclusion
Psychological research in music performance could make a considerable positive contribution to music education at all levels. The main problems:Teachers often don’t know itStudents often don’t have time to learn it
Examination
Written examination
Last week of January 2007
Answer 5 out of 10 questions
Language questions in English answers in English or German
Examinable material contents of the lectures literature cited in the lectures
Tip: answer each question directly!
ICMPC Question
One of the 10 questions will be: "Identify three thematically related papers from the ICMPC in Bologna for which full papers are included on the proceedings CD in the abstract booklet (Handapparat Parncutt). Summarize their main results and implications."