museum architecture; museum; vol.:xxvi, 3/4; 1974

Museum

Vol XXVI, n° 3/4, 1974

Museum architecture

museum Mtcsetcm, successor to Mouseion, is published by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in Paris. Mastam serves as a quarterly survey of activities and means of research in the field of museography. Opinions expressed by individual contributors are not necessarily those of Unesco.

EDITORS

Chief Editor : Conrad Wise Associate Editor : Anne Erdös

ADVISORY BOARD

Om Prakash Agrawal, India Sid Ahmed Baghli, Algeria Raymonde Frin, France Jan Jelinek, Czechoslovakia iMichael Kustow, United Kingdom Grace L. McCann Morley, Director,

Georges Henri Rivitre, Permanent Adviser

Mario Viisquez, Mexico The Secretary-General of ICOM, ex o@cio

ICOM Agency for South-East Asia

of ICOM

Mz~ceiim quarterly review is available in microform from: Xerox University Microfilms, 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48103 (United States of America).

Each number: 16 F. Annual subscription rate (4 issues or corresponding double issues):

Editorial and publishing offices: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7 Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris (France)

0 Unesco 1975 Printed in Swit-yerland Presses Centrales S.A., Lausanne

5 5 F-

Museum architecture

~ ~

' Editorial 127

Glossary 128

Manfred Lehmbruck Introduction 129

Policy Commissioning authority and master builder

Siting. Study and choice of the site

Sociology. Social context and place of action

Physiology. Factors affecting the visitor I 73

Psychology. Perception and behaviour 191

Conservation. Physiochemistry of the objects

Functions. Space and circulation 22-1

Technology. Flexibility, extensibility

Aesthetics. Laws of form and semantics

Conclusion 267

I 3 I

I 3 5

I 5 7

205

2 3 7

25 I

Appendixes Programming and planning the construction of a museum (Georges Henri Rivière) 268

Climate and museum architecture in South and South-East Asia (O. P. Agrawal and Smita J. Bas) 269

-New museums in the U.S.S.R. (Irina Antonova and V. Revyakin)

The building starts with a programme-but where does the programme end? (J. Carter Brown) 2-77

Bibliographical notes 2-80

I

II

III IV

274

I 26

I MUSEO CAPITOLINO, Rome. Opened in 1734, the Capitol Museum was the first museum of modern Europe. It was founded by Pope Clement XII to house his collection of Roman antiquities and to make Romans aware of the value of their heritage, already threatened by the great collectors of the Renaissance. Architect: Michelangelo Buonarrotti.

Ed.¡ to ri a I

Museum and Architecture: For some time now it has been our intention to devote a special number to this subject which has always been one of vital c0ncern.l

Large numbers of museums are indeed being built throughout the world, while others are taking up their abode in historic monuments that no longer serve their original purpose, arresting their decline and giving them new significance. Yet others, which can barely be classified as museums in the ordinary sense and in fact prefer to be called parks, are occupying sites where nature has been tamed by man or still reigns supreme, and here, the architect’s role is to introduce system and order into the area that is to be visited, a task requiring the utmost tact and sensitivity.

One number would not be sufficient to investigate all the different aspects of such a vast and fascinating subject. We have chosen to begin with a particularly urgent topic-the new museum. Our writer is Manfred Lehmbruck, himself an architect and builder of museums.

Professor Lehmbrucls has given us a well-balanced mixture of theory and practice, explaining the why and the wherefore, without neglecting the important question of how. Where necessary, to give his text more clarity and directness, he has enlisted the aid of ingenious pictorial symbols.

In his desire to make his contribution more relevant and up to date, the author undertook a world study tour, financed partly by himself and partly by the John D. Rockefeller III Foundation. He was thus able to inspect new types of museums at first hand and discuss them with their creators and their users. would like to thank both the foundation which supported his journey and those who were his hosts.

Contributions from other authors are given at the end of the number, each extending the scope of the inquiry in its own way, whether dealing with a different region of the world or a different field of specialization.

If, as a result of this number, fewer museums were to be dreamt up without a programme or knocked together without a plan, something would have been accomplished, and something all the more useful in that we should owe it to a collaborator who is already working actively to this end.

I. This subject has already been brought up several times in Miueiírn. See, in particular: ‘Museum Architecture’, Vol. XVII, No. I, 1964; ‘Museum Architecture: Projects and Recent Achievements’, Vol. XVII, No. 3, 1964; section entitled ‘The Building’ in ‘Exchange of Views of a Group of Experts’, Vol. XXTV, No. I, r g p .

128

'Real things' (Man-made objects, Specimens of nature)

((Chose réelle)) (objet issu de l'homme, spécimen issu de la nature)

Objekt (von Menschenhand); Specimen (von Natur geschaffen)

Viewer Individu (visiteur) Individu u m

Space utilization (for example, intensity Utilisation de l'espace Besondere Raumnutzungen of supplementary information) (par exemple, densité de l'information (z.B. Dichte ergänzender Information)

~~~

Lower intensitv

Higher intensity

complémentaire)

Densité plus faible

Densité plus forte

Rel. Dichte 1. Grades

Rel. Dichte 2. Grades Quality of the building (for example, complexity of the air-conditioning

Qualification des surfaces (par exemple, complexité des mesures

Besondere Flächenqualitäten (2.B. Dichte der Klimatisations maßnahmen)

system) .......................... ........................................ ................................................. ................ Lower com~lex i tv ....... %....I..Z ............ asa...! ........... . . Higher complexity

de climatisation)

Premier degré de complexité

Deuxième dearé de comdexité

Rel. Dichte I . Grades

Rel. Dichte 2. Grades usw. - Limits of areas (for example, walls, Raumbegrenzungen (z.B. Wände, partitions, optics, acoustics) Raumteiler Oder optische

Existing limits Délimitation existante Bestehend Begrenzung

Délimitation des espaces (par exemple, murs, cloisons ou moyens optiques et acoustiques) und akustische Mittel)

- - - , - , Solid, non-transparent Massive, opaque Massiv, opak Transparent (for example,glass) Transparente (par exemple, verre) Transparent (Z.B. Glas)

Extension Extension Erweiterung --------- Solid, non-transparent Massive, opaque Massiv, opak - - - - - - - - - Transparent (for example,glass)

Limits of planning zones (for example, space) (par exemple, espace) Konstruktionsachsen

Transparente (par exemple, verre) Transparent (z.B. Glas)

Délimitation conceptuelle ldeelle Begrenzungen Oder

I-.-.-.-.-.- Public II-.-.-.-.-.- Semi-public

Ill--.--.-.-.-.- Semi-private IV--.--.--.--.--.- Private

Public Semi-public Semi-privé Privé

halböffentlicher Museums- halb interner bereich

öffentlicher

interner I Circulation Circulation Wegespuren

e 0, Visitors Visiteur Besucher Personnel Personal Matériel Material

1 o o o OD Staff 3 0 0 OD Material

Air-lock, transition (Light, Climate, Psychological, etc.) climatique, psychologique ...) Klima, psychologisch usw.)

Technique Technique Technik

Sas, zone d'adaptation (optique, Schleusen, Ü bergänge (Licht,

Air-duct Gaine de climatisation Klimakanal

Incident light and reflected light Lumière incidente et lumière réfléchie

Lichteinfall + Lichtreflexion

(Das Gegenteil auf der südlichen Halbkugel)

Lumière du nord l'inverse dans

Lumière du sud Siicllicht

the reverse in the Southern Hemisphere l'hémisphère sud

NV North light

South light I \ I / -,o-

Angle of vision, visual contact Angle visuel, contact optique Blickwinkel, Sichtbeziehung

Lift, elevator, Ascenseur, monte-charge Aufzug- Personen, Aufzug- Frachten goods-lift, freight elevator -

Circulation area Surface de circulation Verkehrsraum Usable area Surface utile N utzraum Raw work: basic building structure Gros Oeuvre Rohbau Light work; mechanical, electrical Second ceuvre Ausbau

Client, commissioning authority Maitre d'ouvrage Bauherr installations and finishes

Master builder Maître d'œuvre Bau beauftragter

Contractor Entrepreneur Bauausführender

architect, design consultant team

Introduction

The relationship between the museum and architecture is an extremely complex subject which can only be considered in a relatively short essay on condition that discussion is limited to common factors and specific problems, and at risk of misunderstandings arising from incompleteness and simplification. Museum work embraces such a wide variety of purposes, approaches and achievements that the common basis could only be satisfactorily defined in a very detailed and Comprehensive survey. We shall therefore concentrate on a few questions which are central to the problems facing museums today.

One feature of modern museum work is a pluralistic approach both to the visitors and to the exhibits. Having traditionally sought their stay and succour in a like environment, men and exhibits must now find their way to a new and constantly redefined relationship with one another. The danger of exhibits becoming mere objects unconnected with the observer, which is built into the Western concept of museum work, must be countered by discovering a connecting link of which architecture forms part.

Another feature of museum work today is the dynamic approach. The exhibits have not been brought together so that they can occupy a quiet little niche in the museum for the rest of time but to begin a new life among new companions, whether these be museum visitors or the other exhibits. Archi- tecture must create condkions which will make it possible to overcome, or, more precisely, sublate, the unfortunate separation of past from present, of the ‘living’ from the ‘dead’.

Both problems arise with varying degrees of intensity in all museums, providing material for conflict and being solved with varying degrees of success. The considerations which follow have therefore been written with particular reference to these two features of modern museum work. Mention may also be made here of a number of other points which will help to indicate the scope and subject-matter of the present essay more precisely. First, the different types of museum are not examined systematically as this was impossible within such a restricted framework: the museum is examined as a species rather than each individual museum being taken separately. Secondly, the special problems of open-air museums, nature reserves, historic buildings or the reconstruction of towns were considered too complex and far-ranging to be dealt with in this essay. Thirdly, problems of a specialized or detailed nature are discussed only when relevant to the general concept. Lastly, special areas such as teaching and lecture rooms, laboratories and offices, to which other architectural criteria apply, are considered only in relation to the whole and not discussed in detail; on the other hand, museum areas set within structures

Manfred Lehmbruck

I ?O Introduction

mainly used for other purposes are discussed in detail, as are cultural activities of every kind designed to further the museum’s work.

As regards the second element in the relationship, namely architecture, this is here understood as comprising the creation and organization of space by static architectural methods, and also the organization of time by the analysis of operational sequences following a pre-arranged pattern. In other words what we are concerned with is the identification and assessment of the different factors affecting the building’s final appearance rather than individual plans and solutions.

The subject-matter is therefore further restricted in the sense that we offer no architectural typology of museums, nor do we enumerate details of construction, interior planning and furnishing or technical details unless they form a vital part of the over-all plan. On the other hand, we do present relevant materials and analyses concerning the basic decisions of principle that have to be taken before a museum is built.

Both museology and architecture are highly academic subjects which nevertheless involve emotional judgements over a wide field: personality, freedom, spontaneity and numerous other imponderables are essential components of the general picture. But in spite of the similarity of their fundamental premises they are substantially different and self-contained systems: transfer of knowledge from one to the other cannot be taken for granted. We have therefore tried in this essay to take our stance neither on the one nor on the other, but on the, as it were, neutral territory afforded by the basic general disciplines. From here our investigations will lead us in both directions but it may sorne- times be possible to subsume them under a single head. The advantage of this approach is that both aspects can be related to a common scientifically established denominator. Our treatment will thus be centred on the fields of sociology, psychology or physics for example, striking out from here on either side in the direction of museology and architecture.

By briefly defining, for each field in turn, the main points at issue, the complexity of the museological and architectural factors is made less formi- dable. As everything is linked together, considerations relating to particular points have to be brought within an over-all view so as not to get out of perspective. The dialectical polarization of attitudes inherent in any purely theoretical discussions is avoided by seeking solutions at a practical level where an additional dimension, the reality of time and space, can be introduced. Study of alternatives and contrasting approaches serves to stimulate discussion and facilitate the solution of problems connected with space.

The chapter order leads from consideration of man as an individual and as a member of society by way of the exhibit with its physical qualities to the building and the functional and technological laws to which it is subject. The discussion then comes full circle with a study of aesthetics as relating to buildings.

Our aim is to throw light on the conflicts which arise in the sphere of museum building and to provide a basis for discussion. An account of the problems involved is all that can be expected at this level, not a collection of formulas for instant application.

As the visual often has a more direct impact than the verbal, a few sketches have been included, reducing superficially complex problems to bare essentials and providing a useful adjunct to the theories outlined in the text. Other diagrams are intended to indicate the kind of specific situation in which the museum architect will be faced with particular types of problem, though here it is not possible entirely to rule out the danger of extraneous factors influencing the decision. This consideration also led us to exclude general descriptions of individual projects or completed buildings. Where examples are given they have been chosen for their relevance to a particular problem rather than for their position on a general scale of values. An effort was made to refer mainly to museums built during the last few years.

Policy

Commissioning authority and master builder

The planning and construction of a museum, as of any other building of public importance, is bound to take on political dimensions. The many interested parties, which each view the problem from a different angle, must be organized and their views co-ordinated. However, as those connected with museum work express their views on this subject in detail in the Appendixes we shall concentrate here on the architect’s view of the problem in his capacity of master builder.

First a short definition of the sense in which the very broad term ‘architect’ is to be used in this essay may be in order. It may be used to refer to an individual or a team, to one or more private architects or to an administrative body. In every case it designates a viable organizational unit, known as the master builder, capable of entering into agreements, and responsible for planning and carrying out a specific building project. As building projects have become more complex and wide-ranging some of the responsibilities of the architect have developed upon new, more specialized professions, such as that of the ‘co-ordinator’ or the ‘programmer’, which are generally interposed between the building owner and the architect or between the architect and the contractor. Some of their activities will be referred to in this essay.

There are many different schools of thought regarding the distribution of the tasks involved in planning and building a museum, but in the main the architect is held responsible for producing a coherent plan based on all the

2 Plan of relationships between the different specialized groups in the creation of a museum. The work of all groups up to and including that of the planning committee must be problem-oriented, whereas design and construction work should be centred on the collection. Co-ordination between the different stages by means of over-all supervision or feed-back is essential.

1 3 2 Policy

different requirements, studies and views expressed. This effectively brings him into the ‘corridors of power’. He may be only a small cog in the administrative wheel but his role can vary from that of a technical assistant carrying out other people’s decisions to that of a personality in his own right, and a genuine partner. Good building can only be done when there is a healthy working relationship between building owner and architect, with the modicum of freedom needed for give and take on both sides.

Public building authorities are often commissioned as master builder as they have the advantage of prior information. But, as we shall see, museum design requires particularly intensive specialized training and a special awareness of the problems involved. If public authorities are made responsible for museum planning these conditions must be fulfilled and complete independence guaranteed.

Although the legal relationship between the customer and the architect may take different forms there are certain rules which should always be observed if the relationship is to be a fruitful one. First, it is desirable that the customer should speak with one voice, at least towards the outside, and assume his responsibilities. Anonymous bodies with no cut-and-dried machinery for reaching decisions have a tendency to compromise which makes it difficult to find a satisfactory architectural solution. Secondly, the customer should have power to push through unpopular decisions as well as justifiable demands. In museum planning it is particularly important that the customer should be able to stand up against entrenched positions and selfish interests. Lastly, he should be so involved in museum planning that it no longer presents any problems to him. However, it is always advisable to consult museologists, museum admin- istrators, etc.

Although there is a distinction to be drawn between States where all initiative and authority stems from the centre and those where political resolves are dependent on majority decisions, the laws of modern technology ensure that very similar procedures are followed in museum planning and building everywhere. The final result is bound to be affected by the extent to which individuals, groups or larger sections of the population are consulted, although how effective their influence will be will depend on the general level of education and public awareness. The participation of the public is particularly valuable in the elaboration of objectives but hardly feasible when plans are already being put into operation.

In general collaboration between all involved in the building process should begin as -soon as possible. Apart from all the organizational and practical reasons for taking expert knowledge into account at the appropriate stage it should never be forgotten that the final objective is the creation of a building of bricks and mortar. It generally falls to the architect to translate words and theories into visual terms. It has therefore proved useful for the architect to convert ‘ideas’ into concrete plans from the beginning, thus establishing the possibilities and limitations of the three-dimensional immediately. Otherwise there is a danger of being saddled with verbal specifications or formulae which give rise to seemingly unending or even insuperable difficulties.

The working party should first work out a general programme in which the underlying objectives of the project are defined. Expert assistance should be enlisted to establish the background of area planning, educational structures, town planning, population structure, economic capacity, etc., against which the museum is to be set.

Some States have had model plans drawn up at national level by bodies on which are represented the various professional and ‘consumer’ groups involved, including not only government departments, museum directors and architects but also a large number of official bodies and private associations as well as independent experts. This model plan lays down guidelines regarding the nature, scope, purpose, special features, site, etc., of existing and future

2. See Appendix I, ‘Programming and Planning the Construction of a Museum’, by Georges Henri Rivière. mUSeUmS.

Commissioning authority and master builder I33

These prescriptions and recommendations should be neither too vague nor too detailed in order to allow the individual museum scope to express and establish its own personality. It would doubtless be desirable in the future to strive also for international co-ordination and establishment of a world- wide plan, but this can only be decided at the political level.

Where a model plan is available, it will be useful at the next stage, wlich consists in drawing up a detailed programme laying down specific objectives, determining the amount of space required and describing its characteristics. The working party to which this task is assigned will work on the lines laid down by the general programme and concentrate on the practical construction problems involved. The optimum requirements laid down in the general programme will have to be adjusted in the light of practical considerations when the various experts concerned bring their specialized knowledge and experience to bear on the discussion. This is the only way to prevent apparently trivial

. specialist problems from being left aside at this stage only to cause serious prejudice to the project as a whole at a later stage.

The specifications and formulae contained in the detailed programme, although clear, should be as broad as possible to allow adequate scope for the creativity of the architect. A programme drawn up on too narrow a basis will increase the risk of a sterile or stereotyped design. The architect should always assist is drawing up this programme or, if the choice of architect is to be made on the basis of a competition, the interest of the architect eventually chosen should be represented by the person who is to judge the competition.

The design stage follows. This is based on the detailed programme and on all other available information, whether obtained from inside or outside the planning machinery. The broader the analytical basis the more comprehensive the resulting synthesis is likely to be. But as the number of possible solutions is theoretically well-nigh unlimited, the design will ultimately depend on the power of the individual imagination.

At the plan preparation stage the basic idea is developed, its implications checked and the project worked out in detail as a single operation, the outstanding feature of which must be continuous contact and consultation between all the planners and advisers involved. At the implementation stage the architect is usually the co-ordinator as he is responsible for bringing all the problems into a single focus. He must therefore be given the customer’s complete confidence and full power to make decisions if he is to be able to put the original idea into practice. All the collaborators and advisers must be in general agreement on this point, which is the key to all successful team-work. Only too often a variety of influences all pulling in different directions reduces the impact of the original scheme and spoils what was originally a good design.

It is always advisable to draw up a ‘master plan’ which looks beyond current requirements to future developments, since later extensions may be seriously hampered or even precluded as a result of short-sighted planning.

Execution of the project itself will require the closest supervision as high aesthetic standards are set for museums and special materials and orders are often necessary. Subsequent alterations to the structure are very seldom possible. For large-scale projects it is important that the building owner and architect should follow the original concept through to its conclusion, even if this takes a long time.

Just as continuous feedback is necessary during the planning stage, it is advisable to refer back to the original expectations once the building is complete. After a reasonable length of time the functions of a museum should be examined, a survey made of visitors, costs compared with original estimates and the results of these and other surveys made available to a wide range of interested parties. These surveys should not be restricted to objective data but should also analyse and assess the more intangible but all the more important sociological, psychological and aesthetic aspects of the museum’s work.

3 MUSEUM OF MODERN ART, New York. Amid the agitation and tension of urban life, the museum may be considered a haven of tranquillity. Here, the inner courtyard. Sculptures by Calder and Moore and in the background one of the old entrances to the Paris Métropolitain. In the background neighbouring buildings. Architect: Philip Johnson.

I3

Siting )

Study and choice of the site3

In the past the sites of museums were generally chosen with an eye to the most impressive location, the final decision often being made by the local prince or municipality. Today the museum has acquired a new importance in society as the level of education has steadily increased. It can now exercise considerable influence on the individual consciousness, provided it is given opportunity to do so. This means, among other things, that a new approach must be adopted to the siting of museums with a view to attracting those who unti1 now have never stepped across their threshold.

Figure 4, ‘General criteria to be borne in mind when choosing the site of a museum’, shows that apart from the interest of a particular subject there are only two ways of attracting ‘potential visitors’ to a museum (and here we have in mind the individual visitor rather than groups of tourists, school outings, etc.): by the installation of additional attractions; by the positioning and layout of the museum (Fig. j).

We shall consider the positioning of a museum in the urban or in the rural area from the point of view of enabling it to carry out its internal and external functions as well as possible. After classifying the various sites which are theoretically possible we shall set out in tabular form criteria for the choice of a ‘macro-site’ (i.e. where there is a choice between different districts, regions or provinces) and of a ‘micro-site’ (where there is a choice between different individual sites or plots).

We shall also indicate two practical methods of quantitative assessment that can be used for comparing different plots.

Siting of museums in urban areas

Most museums are to be found in the centre of cities. Owing to continuous urban spread older museums which were originally built on the edge of the town are now part of the city centre and new museums also tend to be established in central areas.

The question of siting museums in city centres must be considered in conjunction with the provision of other amenities connected with culture, education, science and economic activities with a view to enabling the museum to influence, whether directly or indirectly, as many areas of human activity as possible. The risk of erecting barriers, whether mental or physical, between

.A museum in a city centre, surrounded by office blocks, can hardly expect to

3. Co-author:

Brunswick.

Ing. Bernd Rautenstrauch, the museum and the population in general will then be avoided. assistant to Professor Lehmbruck at the Gebaudelehre

u. Entwerfen Institute, Technische Universität,

136 Siting

lnternal f u n c t i o n s

Preservation of cultural objects for future generations:

I. Collection 2. Research (interpretation) 3. Conservation

4 General criteria to be borne in mind when chosing the site of a museum.

External funct ions

Presentation of exhibits

1. Exhibition 2. Publication 3. Social and educational functions

- - and relationship between them:

Availabil ity o f scientific personnel and equipment

have many visitors, as there is a mass exodus of ofice workers at j p.m. which is in any case the time at which most museums close.

The more one-sided the activities of the city centre, the poorer the mix of offices with living accommodation, shops and cultural activities, the more desolate it becomes and the less justification there is for the existence of a museum in such an area (Fig. 6).

As long as these factors are borne in mind a site in the city centre can nevertheless offer opportunities for the most varied types of communication: open discussions, lectures in rooms attached to the museum, adult education a t evening or day courses, further education in the museum library, music evenings, art ‘happenings’, refreshment in museum restaurants or cafés, child- minding services providing painting and other classes including a carefully planned introduction to museum facilities, together with many other arrangements for leisure activities. It should also be borne in mind that city-dwellers avail themselves of leisure facilities offered by the city most intensively on weekdays and then in the main in the evenings. If it is to survive the museum must induce city-dwellers to use the whole range of its facilities. For this purpose, a ‘micro-siting’ study can be very useful in eliminating, on the basis of a list of criteria, sites or plots which are in one way or another unsuitable.

Discharge o f museum‘s functions

for discharge of

Proximity to university

(section ot the public which feels little inclination t o visit museums)

[Exhibitions designed to attract visitors

4

Study and choice of the site

useum

~

Museums in urban areas r 1. Installed in a terrace house 2. On a town square 3. Next to a park . 4. In a park 5. With a cultural centre 6. Museum in a city area

Museums in the countryside

1. Museum with no accessory

2. Museum with facilities for activities

recreation and leisure activities

Museums attached to a particular site

I I I I I

J The main categories of museum sites.

Apart from the opportunities afforded by a site in the city for communication at various levels and the advantage of being readily accessible for visits undertaken on the spur of the moment, the structure of the city itself offers little encouragement for the creation of leisure and recreation facilities around a museum. Shortage of space or the high price which it commands in a city makes it impossible except in very rare cases to allow a museum the extra space it needs for many purposes, unless technical devices such as roof terraces or sunken basements are used as a last resort.

Siting of museums in rural areas

Alongside the tendency to establish museums in city centres there is a trend which could be described as ‘back to nature’. The city with its restless activity is left behind and another type of museum emerges outside the town-often, if a choice is available, in a scenically attractive area popular for holidays and other leisure activities. The transfer of such an important cultural facility as a museum leaves the town still further impoverished, and the museum itself

138 Siting

may suffer too as it risks being divorced from other cultural and educational facilities and becoming a victim of its own ‘splendid isolation’, particularly if the site chosen is a long way from the city. But in Europe and America at least the advent of the motorcar has made it possible to speak of a mobile society for which distance is of little consequence. Indeed it is often welcomed as an excuse to drive out to the countryside at weekends. A museum in a rural area will therefore receive most of its visitors at weekends and public holidays in general. In addition to its traditional functions, such a museum must also endeavour to preserve an atmosphere of informality and give the visitor a feeling of freedom, at least from the routine and stress of everyday life. It must offer the harassed city-dweller mental and spiritual recreation and renewal. It could even induce the individual man-in-the-street to become a pilgrim for the sake of art, seeking out a place where he will not be surrounded by city traffic or need to be supplied with artificial air and light. In the countryside, where peace and stability reign and the sun’s rays are not filtered through a haze of exhaust fumes, an encounter between man and art can take place which will enable man to rediscover his own true nature.

Modern man sees recreation as an escape or respite from the strains and stresses of everyday life and work, a means of countering the tension they generate by doing the opposite of what he is obliged to do in his daily round. In short, he tends to cultivate whatever faculties and skills are furthest removed from those he uses in his everyday environment in the course of a normal day or year. This would all seem to indicate that some distance should separate the museum from the town. A survey carried out in the Fedeml Republic of Germany has shown that the average motorized city-dweller is looking for an easily accessible area within a radius of 50 kilometres. Once this distance is exceeded enthusiasm rapidly declines. Factors quoted as encouraging a visit were good traffic connexions, a good road network, scenery of exceptional beauty and recreational facilities. These factors should therefore be taken into consideration when choosing a museum site in a rural area.

The third type of museum is one which is linked with a particular site. It may have been built in the area in which the exhibits originated (for example on the site of excavations) or be linked by its nature with a particular area or town (for example a salt museum in a salt-mining area).

Valuable ‘finds’ are often kept on the site of the excavations in order that they should be made accessible to the public in their original surroundings. The visitor will then be able to view them in their context and, by his seeing where they originally came from or were used, his imagination will be stimulated to fill out the visual impressions he receives.

A museum linked with a particular site may be built in a locality where there are no built-up areas nearby. This facilitates the building process as there are no legal or technical difficulties to be overcome, though there may be some problems connected with the preservation of nature and the landscape.

The main problem is, then, to attract visitors to such an isolated site. This can be done: by making the museum easily accessible to traffic; by presenting unusual exhibits; by exceptionally beautiful natural surroundings; by adjoining facilities for recreation and leisure.

The objectives of a comparative study 0% museum sites

The founding of a new museum, like that of all major scientific or cultural

I39 Study and choice of the site

establishments, calls for an appreciable outlay of funds, and the subsequent upkeep of the museum is always a considerable burden on the public finances. It is therefore the duty of those responsible for museums to ensure that the smallest possible outlay of funds secures the optimum operating conditions, which means discovering a site which meets these basic requirements.

The ‘macro-site’, that is the town or rural area in which the museum is to be situated, should be in every respect suited for the purpose and should afford a basis on which the museum can discharge its internal and external functions satisfactorily.

When a new museum is to be built which is not linked by virtue of the nature of its collections to a particular site or area a ‘macro-siting’ survey should be carried out.

Vital matters such as the powers of the local authorities should be checked on first. It is also important to determine the financial situation of the region, that is the revenue which it derives from rates and taxes, as the running costs of a museum will be an extra burden on the rate and tax-payer. New roads may have to be built and new püblic transport services arranged and thought should also be given to the question of earmarking adjacent land for possible extension.

The cultural interests of the inhabitants of the potential ‘macro-site’ and the cultural and intellectual outlets already available to them should also be investigated. An area which offers a wide range of facilities with secondary schools and possibly a university forms a very favourable background for a museum. Those attending such institutions are likely to be favourably disposed towards museums and the university’s scientific equipment and facilities could greatly assist the research work in which all museums engage.

The opposite approach is to establish a museum in a part of the town which hitherto has been educationally and culturally deprived. In such cases the social and educational role of the museum comes to the fore. ‘Neighbourhood’ museums of this kind have been founded in the United States by the Smith- sonian Institution which provides the fund and the educational expertise r eq~ i red .~ Their task is to work with and alongside the inhabitants of the district as an integrating force, assembling a kaleidoscope of activities, enriching the cultural life of the neighbourhood and encouraging a rational use of the leisuretime with which shorter working hours have endowed our society. 2

The museum can turn the flight from urban areas to its own advantage if it chooses a site in the countryside, possibly connected with a recreation centre.

Another important factor is the cost of the project. The nature of the site, in conjunction with the cost of purchasing it and of any necessary improve- ments to reduce existing limitations on its use, can give a rough idea of the probable cost.

To sum up, the proposed study should seek to elucidate the following points: I. Decision: town or countryside. 2. Choice of basic objective: (a) to raise the cultural and educational level of

an area; (b) to be a centre for research and publication; (c) to be a centre for leisure activities.

3. The best possible technical conditions for the work of the museum. 4. The best possible set-up within the urban or rural area. 5 . Determination of the population structure. 6. Minimum expenditure. In comparing different sites, precise quantifiable data (type of soil, climate, traffic, etc.) are considered together with more nebulous factors which will also determine the future ‘image’ of a museum and its ability to attract visitors. But since the response of the visitor is determined partly by the building itself and as neither internal organization nor the relationship established between visitor and exhibit enters into a comparison of sites, the final result can only be considered as a guide.

When seeking the best site it is important to examine the basic requirements

4, See: John R.

VOL XXIV, NO. 2, 1972. P. 103-9.

and Nighbert, ‘The Anacostia Neighborhood Museum, Smithsonian Institution, \Vashington, D.C.’, in: A h e w n ,

Id0 Siting

and the different conditions separately before applying a single method of optimization to both spheres.

Some factors, however, resist exact quantification by statistical or mathematical analysis. To take but one example, a museum’s decision to adopt an educational approach to its work has an effect upon the visitor which it is impossible to measure or even to demonstrate with any degree of certainty.

The factors which help to put a museum in the ‘top division’ for productivity are very difficult to determine and they can perhaps only be identified by comparative analysis of existing museums-in so far as a museum’s ‘output’ is indeed capable of clear definition (Fig. 7).

aero-siting‘ survey fo r 8 museum in 8118 urban area

The town in which the museum is situated must be capable of providing a sound basis upon which the museum can carry out its activities and its inhabitants must be able to supply the necessary encouragement for its work. A macro-survey will be needed only in the case of large museums covering more than one region (e.g. national museums) or museums which are not tied to a particular area (Table I).

A basic requirement is that the ‘macro-site’ should have the economic and financial resources necessary to support a museum, and the administrative status of the town or region is also important, as it determines the speed with which administrative decisions can be reached. The closer at hand the competent authorities are, the keener they will be to give both direct and indirect support and to follow up matters of general concern to the museum. The simplest way to assess an area’s suitability in this respect is to take the population figures as a guide.

F I N A N C I A L C A P A C I T Y

The cost of building a reasonably-sized museum, although often met partly or wholly from outside the region (by the State or by a private benefactor), can be a severe strain on a local authority’s budget. This is quite apart from the question of running costs, among which the cost of maintenance must be counted a permanent item of expenditure. Non-recurring expenditure involved in road construction, and development, land purchase and the alteration or extension of local public transport systems must also be financed.

E C O N OM Y

The economic resources of an area are directly dependent on its financial resources, if they do not determine them. In order to finance unscheduled purchases or research missions museums are often obliged to turn for assistance to outside organizations, the most affluent of which are obviously most likely to be found in heavily populated industrial areas. The best guide to an area’s economic resources is the gross product per head of population.

P O P U L A T I O N S T RU CTU-RE

In the first place the age structure of the population and movement of families in and out of the area should be thoroughly investigated. It is important to know, for example, whether the population is composed mainly of industrial workers, of office and administrative staff or of retired people. The level of education as ascertained by a statistical survey of school-leavers will also be a good guide to the possible number of visitors and careful questioning of visitors to other museums could give an indication of the number of visits to be expected from the different socio-occupational groups. The younger generation

Study and choice of the site 141

TABLE I. ‘Macro-siting’ survey for a museum in an urban area

~~

Type of criteria Criteria Factors to be taken into account Characteristics of the ‘macro-site’

General factors Administration

Finance

Economy

Population structure

Supporting facilities

Inclination to visit museums

Cul ture

Education

Science

Influence on or remote- Population ness of the responsible authorities, speed of authorities their decision-making, ability to take independent decisions

Assessment of the finan- cia1 resources of the town (or region) from Debts the point of view of supporting the cost of founding and running a museum

Assessment of economic resources (directly per inhabitant dependent on revenue from rates and taxes)

Determination of social Self-employed strata (or attitude Academic towards museums) as Office workers an indication of num- Manual workers ber of potential visitors Schoolchildren and

students Unemployed

(housewives and pensioners)

Age structure of population

Tourists

Type of facility

Powers of the local

Annual budget Taxable capacity

Average total product

Assessment of cultural facilities available in the Number region; evaluation of Capacity local authorities’ Frequency of cultural willingness to spend ‘events’ money on culture Public expenditure on

culture per inhabitant

School visits organized Type of institution Number of institutions Future outlook

on a regular basis now accounting for a large proportion of museum visitors, educational institutions must be taken into consideration

Scientific institutions in Type of institution the surrounding area, Number of institutions seen partly as a pool of Future prospects potential visitors and Further scientific partly as assisting the museum’s research work ning stage

centres at the plan-

142 Siting

---I--- Museum installed

Residential area

Museum next to a park

6

6 Siting of museums in urban areas.

7 Block diagram of micro-siting survey operations within the context of over-all town-planning.

Study and choice of the site Id?

Museum planning

(aged 16 to 3 j ) would seem to show most interest in museums, and tourists, whether from abroad or from the home country, should not be forgotten, although their support will depend on the other attractions offered by the surrounding area.

Town plan

S U P P O R T I N G F A C I L I T I E S

Museologists

Czdtaral. These embrace theatres and concert halls and also museums, as the case for establishing another museum in an area already well provided with such institutions must be very carefully weighed. A museum may on the other hand be a very welcome addition to a range of other types of cultural institution. The seating capacity of the theatres and the frequency of performances, the number of concerts and of performances by visiting artistes all provide numerical data which can usefully be brought together and interpreted in this connexion. Another important factor is per capit'z public expenditure on culture, which will demonstrate the authorities' willingness to spend money on cultural activities.

Town planners Visitors

7

t ~ ~~

General goals of museum planning, over-all plan for the museum

General goals of urban or regional planning

+ Specific aims on Analysis of the 'micro-site' --t the region

Formulation of aims in local museum planning

+ f Analysis of Specific aims of space +- town planning on utilization the 'macro-site'

1 Formulation of aims in local town planning 4

t t I Harmonization of the interests of the various parties involved I

I l I 1 + 1.

4

Preliminary selection of 'micro-sites'

Evaluation of sites on basis of various criteria

Comparison of sites and recommendation

1

Review of criteria and goals-possible modification of recommendation

Final decision

I44 Siting

Editcational. As all schools, whether primary, secondary or technical, organise compulsory visits to museums and as young visitors form the largest proportion of those who visit museums on their own initiative, the number of schools in the area must also be determined.

Scientijìc. As almost all museums have a very active research department, a nearby university with all its scientific equipment and facilities can be very useful and a brisk exchange of staff and expertise may ensue. Modern research work offers many opportunities for division of labour and particular aspects or stages of a research project are often farmed out to different specialized institutes. This makes for greater sophistication and refinement of research methods. The best results are obtained when communications between the different research institutes are good, and particularly if research programmes can be co-ordinated. When one considers the opportunities offered by such co-operation the advantages of siting a museum close to other scientific establishments, such as institutes, libraries or archives centres, become obvious.

i

Macro-survey dos a ~ U S B M ~ in a rural area

The competent authorities must first decide whether the museum should be established in a rural or an urban area, basing their decision on the specific problems involved. The two possibilities should be considered equally valid as it is almost impossible to find a rational justification for preferring a rural to an urban area, or vice versa. This is a case where irrational factors which cannot be assessed either on a qualitative or on a quantitative basis play a very important part. If it is decided to establish the museum in a rural area the next step should always be a macro-survey, which will have to be followed by a micro-survey where alternative sites are available within the area chosen.

Goals Criteria for Evaluation Correction phase eva I u atio n phase

r r-!

c i

ICorrectionl OP 2 by 4

and revision

I----- of goa Is

- Evaluation of site

R Method of constructing a ‘micro-siting’ survey.

Study and choice of the site 141

TABLE 2. ‘Macro-siting’ survey for a museum in a rural area

Type of criteria Criteria Factors t o be taken into account Characteristics of the ‘macro-site’

Scenic Adjacent to woods and water

Use of space

Relief

Climate

Supporting Cultural facilities

Leisure and recreation

Pattern of Population settlement centres and future outloolr

Inhabitants

Visitors will be attracted ‘ b y a varied landscape containing woods and stretches of water or riverside

Extent of adjoining woodland and seashore or lake-

The site is analysed in Uses to which the land order to establish the different possibilities it affords for leisure activities. Determination of the different types of ground cover, wooded areas and open spaces

The suitability of an area for leisure activities is also related to the irregularity of the terrain

The effect of climatic

is or can be put

Differences in altitude

Atmospheric analysis conditions on the Sunshine exhibits and general Temperature range assessment of the (and retentive climate from the point capacity) of view of rest and recreation (days per annum)

tourist traffic in areas attraction of cultural interest Number

Distribution Image Number of visitors Timing of visits Future outlook

Type of facility

Distribution

Timing of visits Future outlook

Rainfall

The concentration of Type of cultural

Location of main centres for leisure and recrea- Number tion in relation to the ‘macro-site’ Number of visitors

Location of heavily popu- Number of housing lated areas or develop- units ment areas Density

Future outlook

Profile of the leisure-time Number of short and weekend activities excursions of the local population Distance covered

Preferred time for excursions

Siting

ASSESSMENT O F T H E S C E N I C Q U A L I T I E S O F T H E AREA

Emotional descriptions such as beautiful, interesting or ‘wild’ should not be the only criteria used to determine the attractiveness of an area. A quantitative assessment of the area’s features must also be made.

It would of course be impossible to draw up a complete inventory of the qualities of any landscape as this would involve consideration not only of its configuration but also of its external appearance. In order to avoid becoming too bogged down only the most important features should be taken into consideration at the preliminary stage (see Table 2) .

The area’s major assets must, basically, be identified and assessed. For example, if an area is to attract large numbers of visitors factors connected with recreation and leisure activities will be decisive.

The extent of adjacent forests and lake- or riverside could be measured and compared as one way of gauging the relative attractiveness of the different areas under consideration. Another method would be to draw up and compare schedules showing different ways in which the land is or could be used.

The impression conveyed by a landscape also depends to a large extent on its relief.

Vegetation and relief together give a fairly clear picture of the landscape and of its effect on visitors.

It is also important to decide whether or not the climate is suitable for a museum. A survey of climatic factors, including atmospheric analysis, should therefore be the next step, and areas judged unsuitable on climatic grounds will be eliminated or special counter-measures envisaged for incorporation in the design.

S U P P O R T I N G F A C I L I T I E S

The area under consideration may already contain a number of centres of interest. A distinction should however be drawn between centres of cultural and historical interest such as castles, palaces, historic towns and villages and centres for such activities as winter sports, sailing and swimming or fell- walking, camp sites and villages popular for holidays and weekend excursions.

Surveys conducted among museum visitors have shown that often more than half are tourists. Museums sited in holiday areas can therefore expect large numbers of visitors in the holiday season, if at no other time.

V I S I T O R S

If such centres of interest are not to be found in the area the analysis of potential visitors will have to concentrate on neighbouring towns and villages. Surveys carried out in the Netherlands indicate that those in search of leisure at weekends are seldom prepared to travel more than 3 0 kilometres, while German motorists will not willingly drive for over three-quarters of an hour. In view of the unattractiyeness of public transport over short distances, private transport is generally used for short holidays and weekend excursions.

The annual holiday is of course another matter: it is almost impossible here to set any limit on the distance people are willing to travel.

There are therefore two possibilities if a museum is to be sited in the countryside and expect a reasonable flow of visitors: (a) the edge of a large industrial area; (b) a holiday or recreation area.

D E V E L O P M E N T T R E N D S

Development trends for the area under consideration must be ascertained, as rhe future growth of towns and villages will affect the accessibility of certain areas. Plans for recreation and leisure areas must also be obtained in good time

Study and choice of the site I47

so that museum planning can be integrated with the over-all plans for the area. In the same way plans for the development or extension of recreation areas already in existence should also be taken into consideration.

The landscape, the distribution of visitors, the climate and development plans are all considerations of a more general nature. But each individual recreation area has its own peculiar qualities and attractions which will have to be assessed by means of a ‘micro-survey’ so as to determine the advantages and disadvantages of the actual site and also the ‘image’ of the immediate surroundings (Fig. 8, Table 3).

TABLE 3. Over-all goals and criteria for the evaluation of a museum site

Goals Category and criteria for evaluation

A Optimum conditions for carrying out internal functions

B Optimum conditions for carrying out external functions

C Optimum position and layout for reaching the public

D Study of the attitude of inhabitants towards visiting the museum

E Minimum costs of implementing the project

I Criteria relating to the internal activities of a museum

II Criteria relating to activities directed towards the public

III Criteria relating to positioning and layout

IV Criteria relating to the structure of the population

of the project V Criteria relating to implementation

Eva I uat i on

To determine the site of a museum, a large number of rational and irrational factors have to be identified, examined and taken into account. Consequently a siting survey must be regarded as a problem of optimization rather than an exercise in maximization (see Table 4).

Characteristics of the site

Site specifications must be formulated; in the ideal case these requirements will correspond to the characteristics of the site. In other words: I. For the optimum site there exists only one set of relationships which is the

product of the sum total of requirements for the museum under consideration.

2. These optimum requirements can now be considered in isolation from the geographical location and expressed as an as yet unknown mathematical function, for which the geometrical representation will be sought. What must be found is the sum of conditions which will yield the optimum set of relationships.

3. We cannot exclude the possibility that, in the absence of a ‘best fit’ between requirements and conditions, several sites will offer similar conditions, with the result that several optimum sites are available. This would make it necessary to repeat once again the optimization process under more rigorous conditions or to draw up more detailed requirements for the site.

Since it is impossible to quantify precisely all the factors determining the choice of a site, the optimum requirements corresponding to the goal: ‘Where can a museum best fulhl its task?’ must be formulated in more general terms. On no account should it be expected that conditions and requirements will match perfectly; consequently we can rule out the possibility of an absolute

148 Siting

TABLE 4. Investigation of the ‘micro-site’ for a museum in relation to over-all goals

Characteristics. of the site Group of criteria Criteria Factors to be taken into account

H

2 M 8 9

Pvailable Urban site Space requirements, etc. Size surface Rural site Shape

Museum Building plot attached to a Vegetation particular Legal restriction on use site

lestrictions Environmental Environmental conditions Climate on use

Co-ordination

Environ- ment

ment

dangers must suit the nature of Noise the collection, its Vibration restoration and con- Atmospheric pollution servation Smells

Building Functional and archi- Architect’s specifica- technique tectural constraints tions

Gradient Building plot Building category Gradient

Provision of Constraints limiting the Existing amenities amenities provision of suitable Present use

amenities Estimated delay for completion of the amenities

Restrictions on use

With scientific Relations with scientific Number of institutions institutions institutions of all kinds Type

(frequency, propinquity, Capacity etc.) Development potential

Distance by public transport

Accessibility for pedestrians

Influen 2 on Possible u of the Topography design environment to the Neighbouring uses

architectural design for Agricultural factors the arrangement of Industrial factors open spaces for the Risk of spoiling the museum view for other

residential areas

With cultural ins titutions

With leisure and recreational facilities

Influence of nuisance factors

Distance (accessibility) or Number of institutions connexion with cultural Type institutions Capacity

Distance Travel time:

by public transport on foot

Future development

Number of facilities Relations with such facilities TYPe (accessibility, frequency, Capacity etc.), maximum avail- Distance ability in the immediate Number of visitors vicinity of the ‘micro- site’ ing amenities

Possibility of develop-

Effect of nuisance factors Climate on the attractiveness of Noise the ‘micro-site’ to Dirt visitors Smells

Vibration

Study and choice of the site I49

Group of criteria Criteria Factors to be taken into account Characteristics of the site

Environ- Unfavourable ment factors

Urban Accessibility situation to visitors

Co-ordi- With central nation institutions

Catchment Boundaries area

Population

With educational institutions

cost

Factors which do not encourage visitors, which are unattractive

Evaluation of the ‘micro- site’ from the standpoint of attracting visitors most effectively to the museum

Relations between central institutions of the ‘macro-site’ and the proposed ‘micro-site’

Present boundaries of the potential catchment area of the ‘micro-site’

Possibility of defining a catchment area by analysing the popula- . tion structure in order to ascertain public willingness to visit the museum

Relations with schools and other educational institutions (frequency, distance, etc.)

Estimation of the time

Industrial zone Railway Airport Cemetery

Street site Park site Pedestrian flow Traffic flow Neighbouring build-

Image

Number of institutions

Attractiveness Proximity to the centre Travel time:

by public transport ~ on foot

Amenities

Hills Rivers Rail connexions Miscellaneous

ings

Type

Educational level of

Purchasing power Number of inhabitants Age structure Housing density Social stratification Image Cultural interests Leisure activities Development trends

Number of institutions Type of ownership Capacity Age structure Distance from ‘micro- ’ site’:

by public transport on foot

inhabitants

Number of owners required to free the site Type of ownership

Present use Natural constraints on

Legal constraints on use

use

Calculation of costs Purchase cost Cost of freeing the site Cost of providing

Building costs as a amenities

function of the specific features of the site

Other subsequent costs

1 5 0 Siting

optimum and make do with the formula: ‘The optimum site for a museum may be defined as the set of relationships which, in the light of the assigned goals, offers the closest possible match between site conditions and site requirements.’

Collection of data

To determine the optimum site for a museum, the largest possible amount of relevant information is required. An effort must also be made to ensure the closest possible correlation between long-term requirements and conditions. For this purpose a siting survey involving investigation of the present context is insufficient; on the basis of the present context, research must produce projections for the future.

An exhaustive siting survey implies both theoretical and practical knowledge of development planning methods and specialized knowledge of the different aspects of museum management. The quantitative diversity, qualitative multiplicity and vaied goals of a given type of museum’s activities require the siting survey to be as rational, thorough and methodical as possible.

To determine the optimum site, factors and conditions must be compared, with the result that in collecting data the need for both types of information must be taken into account.

The siting survey will begin with the establishment of a vast ‘data field’. Since the collection of data on relevant site factors may present difficulties, systematic recourse must be had to all appropriate sources, for example, official statistics, surveys by research institutes, communications in specialized reviews, architectural planning and surveying departments, cultural organixa- tions, museum associations or institutes, housing services, building regulation offices, architects, estatk agents, municipal authorities and so on.

Bart i ci patio w

For the investigation of requirements the same list can be used as that employed by museum specialists, architects, town planners, sociologists and ordinary users. Thus, in addition to specialists, the general public is consulted and hence laymen participate in the decision-making process.

Participation means taking part in, rather than initiating, a process. Parti- cipation begins only when a planning process is under way and when it may be anticipated that people will be so deeply affected by the consequences of the process that they will take action to protect themselves against any adverse consequences.

The meaning of participation must be to exert a moderating influence on a process in cases where decisions have to be taken or converted into action.

The factors which determine the choice of a site are too heterogeneous to be uniformly expressed by the same mathematical quantities.

Many factors can hardly be quantified at all, but only expressed qualitatively: for instance, good-will, attractiveness to visitors, the quality of staff, the grace of the architecture, that is the over-all design (on which the optimization of the site has no influence).

It must also be borne in mind that site factors never operate in isolation but have a combined effect, which again stands in the way of a precise mathematical quantification, particularly as there is often no logical connexion between the various factors.

Study and choice of the site 1 5 1

The fact that these quantities cannot be precisely determined might lead to the conclusion that no scientifically indisputable solution can be found and that the search for an optimum site should be abandoned as unattainable. A subjective evaluation, based on no firm evidence, would take its place.

It is impossible to undertake a mathematically precise deduction on the basis of a single scale calibrated in whole numbers. Therefore suitable auxiliary scales must be developed, so as to arrive, by means of secondary values, at comparable numerical material from which site decisions can nevertheless be derived.

Methods

A siting survey method based on a points system, in which five levels (o to 4, 4 being the highest) are distinguished, has proved its worth for higher educational establishments in the Federal Republic of Germany. A higher degree of differentiation might give an illusion of precision which cannot in fact be attained.

Each separate characteristic of the site is classified on a five-level scale in order to obtain comparable values for each characteristic. In view of the great diversity of the various characteristics the process of obtaining an aggregate value by simply adding the points together is certainly open to question, but it does provide something to go on for evaluating the sites under consideration, particularly when the scatter is pronounced. Table j illustrates the application of the method in four stages.

The polarity prof ¡le

Another method, which avoids most of the difficulties attached to the first two, uses a similar procedure which once again has as its basis a comprehensive list of characteristics comprising the absolute value of all factors (or related characteristics) present on the site in question. These absolute numerical values can then be converted by means of a polarity profile into values which can first be used to assess whatever characteristic is being considered but can also be used as a basis for other calculations.

To use this method one proceeds as follows: A pair of antitheses is postulated for each characteristic of the site, for example:

Fuctor: Ground. Characteristic: Firmness. Antitheses: good-poor.

The scope of the attribute under consideration is then defined in such a way as to ensure that the absolute value, once its position on a graduated scale has been established, clearly reflects the importance of the characteristic in question in relation to that of other aspects of a site. The antitheses are then entered in the polarity profile with the negative-positive gradation leading from left to right.

This method makes it possible to take the time factor into consideration as well. Instead of the values merely representing the situation at a single moment of time, a trend towards improvement of a particular aspect could be expressed by pushing the corresponding value up the scale, while the reverse action would be taken if a change for the worse were anticipated. However, this expedient .should be used with great discretion and values altered only when the changes are relatively certain to take place, for example on the basis of traffic plans, municipal development plans, changes in population structure, etc.

TABLE 5 . Imaginary example showing the use of a point system in assessing alternative sites for a museum

First stage: Evaluation of individual characteristics

Category of criteria: III

Third stage: Calculation of aggregate index for a given category of criteria by summing the indices for the relevant groups of criteria.

" <

Group of criteria: urban situation Characteristic: distance from city centre. Category of criteria: I to V Site

A B C D E -.

4 points Easily accessible on foot (I 5 minutes walk) 3 points Accessible on foot (15-30 minutes walk) 2 points Easily accessible by local transport (I I minutes drive) I point Accessible by local transport (15-30 minutes drive) o points Over 3 0 minutes drive

Group of criteria I 0.37 0.28 0.70 1.00 0.72 Group of criteria 2 0.30 0.20 1.00 0.80 0.45 Group of criteria 3 0.23 0.74 1.00 0.78 0.11

Group of criteria 4 0.37 1.00 0.44 0.g8 0.22

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . site A B C D Score I O 3 2 Group of criteria

Sum of the indices 1.27 2.22 3.34 3.16 1.50 Ranking J 3 I 2 4

Second stage: Calculation of total score gained in a given group of criteria and establishment of an order of precedence on the basis of index figures. For comparison of the various sites on

whole numbers are converted to index figures, the highest score counting as 1.0 and the others expressed as fractions.

~ Category of criteria I 7.18 22.13 14.30 34.12 17.28 Category of criteria II 25.60 33.40 28.40 24.13 22.16 Category of criteria: I to V

Category of criteria IV 22.16 24.80 21.14 18.70 14.13

Characteristic 2 I I 3 2 I Sum of the indices 77.76 100.17 90.j4 78.50 69.82

This method of assessing the different sites available enables the most suitable site to be identified by establishing a series

Characteristic n of index figures after systematic comparison of the alternatives. Score J 8 7 11 3 I t does not: permit the determination of site requirements (to be Index rating 0.45 0.73 0.63 1.00 0.27 compared with the results obtained at a later stage).

Fourth stage: Calculation of aggregate index for all categories of criteria so as to give a final ranking.

the basis of their different qualities the points awarded in site

A B C D E

Site

Group of criteria : I to n A B C D E Category of criteria III 14.88 12.73 17.40 15.15 12.07

Characteristic I O 2 2 4 o Category of criteriaV 8.14 7.13 7.30 6.40 4.18

Characteristic 3 I I 2 3 I Final ranking 4 I 3 2 J Characteristic 4 3 4 O 2 I

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Study and choice of the site 1 5 3

E S T A B L I S H M E N T O F A SCALE

The absolute values obtained in this way for the different characteristics are converted into ordinal numbers and plotted on a scale rising in whole numbers from one to seven. Each characteristic of the site under consideration has been given a rating which can be read off the scale of polarity as an ordinal number, and a profile of the site in question can be obtained by joining up all the individual points.

According to its importance, each factor has a different number of characteristics associated with it which indicate its valence within the general structure of the site. The number of characteristics associated with each factor will also affect the results when different profiles are compared at a later stage.

The purpose of establishing a scale is to make it possible to compare the value of the different characteristics and use them as a basis for arithmetical calculations, for if they are left as ordinal numbers there is no way of comparing their content.

M E T H O D

We shall now attempt to illustrate the method without going into the detail involved in taking a practical example (see Table 6 and Fig. 9).

The profile makes it possible to show graphically whether or not the requirements laid down in respect of each characteristic have been met. A first approxi- mative choice can be made on the basis of the totals, as profile X (requirements) represents a minimum beneath which profiles A, By etc., should not drop. Only sites for which the sum of the conditions is equal to or higher than the sum of the requirements can be expected to be found satisfactory.

This method provides a fairly rough assessment of the site. We do not intend to describe the general method of calculation in detail,

for all mathematicians and statisticians are familiar with it and it can be looked up in any handbook of statistics. Graphic representation of the polarity profile has the advantage of showing the score awarded for each characteristic in relation to the minimum requirement.

It also makes it possible to see at a glance the general outline of the profile of minimum requirements (profile X) in relation to the profile of conditions (profiles A, By Cy etc.), and to contrast those areas where minimum requirements are exceeded with those where they are not met.

Concluding remarks

Once the site offering the optimum conditions has been mathematically determined, it is time to consider whether an even closer correlation between requirements and conditions can be attained either by dropping some of the requirements or by scaling them down. If the survey indicates, for instance, that a noteworthy shift away from young couples is taking place in the age structure of the town or area, this will have repercussions on the museum’s action programme. If it reveals that the building plot is of poor quality, expensive foundations will be necessary, the high cost of which will affect other budget lines and possibly lead to a reduction in the over-all size of the building. Thus the whole set of site requirements must be most thoroughly checked and if necessary revised.

In practice, the optimum museum site will always be a compromise. How- ever many specialists are called upon, each with masses of data, factors and determining quantities, there are too many influences and interdependences, with the result that only those partial relationships which manifest themselves fairly clearly can enter into the forecast.

114 Siting

TABLE 6. Imaginary example showing the use of a polarity profile in assessing alternative sites for a museum. First stage: Examination and assessment of the different characteristics of the site.

1 9 Imaginary example showing the use of a polarity profile in assessing alternative sites for a museum. (See also Table 6.)

Category of criteria: III Group of criteria: urban situation Characteristic: Number of pedestrians passing a site in the central area of the town from 4 to 7 p.m. Monday to Friday

7 points 6 points j points 4 pofnts 3 points 2 points I point Site Passers-by Score

More than 1,700 passers-by 1,300 to 1,700 passers-by 1,000 to 1,300 passers-by

750 to 1,000 passers-by joo to 7 jo passers-by 250 to joo passers-by

Less than z j o passers-by A B C D E F

400 600 1,400 900 600 I , j O O

2 3 6 4 3 6

Interpolation is possible but it is doubtful whether much is to be gained by such accuracy.

I

II

III

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15 5 Study and choice of the site

Moreover, provided one is not blinded by figures, the methods used for site investigation allow adequate scope for intuitive judgement. Since the data governing the choice of site cannot be fully quantified, there are consequently no ‘objective probabilities’ that expectations will be fulfilled, so that decisions concerning sites are necessarily taken to some extent on faith. In view of the importance of the site for the museum’s future, the choice made may properly be termed a ‘management decision’. Even so, a rigorous siting survey must always precede the decision, for a museum that is not fully self-supporting is an institution living on charity, whic:l, once it is established, can hardly change sites for the next fifty years.

IO MUSÉE DES CIVILISATIONS NÈGRO- AFRICAINES, Dakar. This museum programme, which is at present in the project stage, was initiated by the President of the Republic of Senegal. The museum will be part of a cultural complex to be constructed on a magnificent site overlooking the sea. Architects: Pedro Ramirez Vaquez, Jorge Carnpuzano and Thierry Melot. Museologist: Jean Gabus.

~

II MUSÉE DE L’HORLOGERIE, La Chaux-de- Fonds. In one of the underground rooms of this museum of man and time, the public watches a team of experts repairing cloclrs and watches.

I j 7

Sociology

Social context and place of action

Sociological questions today lie at the heart of intellectual debate; they influence and modify the museum’s view of itself and consequently its architectural structure.

The museum is ,particularly well suited to serve as an experimental sociological model, since it is, on the one hand, a place where individuals develop an awareness of self and society, a feeling of togetherness, while on the other it exerts a three-dimensional effect within a verifiable and limited framework. It can also serve as a sociological model because in a society regulated by the division of labour it is one of the last free spheres of existence.

Since sociology deals with all human relationships, which are almost as difficult to grasp in their complexity as reality itself, all we can attempt to do is to formulate a few major points sufficient to trace the outline of pragmatic spatial models. A familiar difficulty arises here since the sociologist speaks a generalizing analytical language while the architect speaks a pragmatic lanl guage incorporating spatial and material images, which means that specific scientific concepts have to be accommodated within an over-all conception forming a representational whole.

As stated earlier, this paper will deal with the complex web of problems surrounding the modern museum largely owing to its pluralistic nature-as regards both the content of the collection and the sociological composition of visitors. It stands to reason that the smaller, more homogeneous and specialized a museum is, the easier it will be to solve the problem of co-ordination, even though it thereby loses something of its specific character.

The museum’s position in relation to the public can be defined as an interaction between sociological self-representation and self-realization. The museum curator here acts as a catalyst.

He and his few fellow-workers have to cope with a phenomenon of extreme and baffling complexity.

It is therefore desirable that, whenever a museum is built, a systematic sociological study should be carried out, including an analysis of structures and trends and the formulation of value systems, leading to scientifically based forecasts. The most difficult part of this task-the preparation of pragmatic models-can be accomplished only by an interdisciplinary team which is capable of evaluating accurately and sufficiently far in advance the repercussions on the spatial representation.

The starting-point will be an analysis of the circle of people participating in the museum-event. On account of his paramount importance, the visitor will be the main object of discussion here, museum workers, scientists and so on

158 Sociology

being mentioned only in so far as they enter into contact with the visitor, as informants or guides for instance.

From the sociological point of view a distinction can be drawn between actual and potential visitors. Statistics should be collected on both groups, including demographic characteristics, origin, occupation, education and ecological data. The question of catchment area should be studied in detail, for, unlike schools and hospitals, a museum does not cater mainly for local users but for widely-scattered groups, including tourists merely passing through.

Equally, a museum will not have the same features in an industrial society as in an agricultural society. If the latter is progressing towards an industrial society, its future sociological development must be thoroughly studied.

Research into potential visitors has an important part to play whenever a new museum is built, giving rise to theories, hypotheses and forecasts. How- ever desirable it may be to attract the largest possible number of people (in theory, everyone) to the museum, the task of the sociologist consists in recognizing limits and defining the circle of people who are likely to be involved in view of their capabilities, attitudes or geographical circumstances.

In addition to determining the sociological set-up it is also necessary to carry out an inquiry into the needs of visitors, who could, for example, be questioned on the following points: I. Interests and level of awareness. 2. Premises and expectations in regard to education. 3. Personal activities and self-discovery. 4. Human relations: (a) with groups of visitors or (b) with the museum worker. j . Emotional needs. 6. Attitude to the environment. It is extremely dificult to make a scientific evaluation of these needs, since surveys are highly problematical (‘No man can see himself objectively’) (see Cameron) and must as far as possible be worked in such a way as to transcend the conventional museum framework and be valid irrespective of any preconceived and known models.

It is, however, possible to site museums in their present-day setting empiri- cally or on the basis of the development of knowledge and to deduce the sociological trend to the point where this can be expressed in the form of theses. On the assumption that these are widely accepted, they will not be discussed further but are merely listed as follows: I. The museum event is no longer regarded as the antithesis of everyday life,

but is integrated in the social and urban structure. As far as possible the dividing barriers will be broken down.

2. The areas of contact will be extended in relation to the sociological and museum event. The extent to which they induce communication depends on individual readiness and appreciation. They should give rise to productive rather than consumer attitudes.

3. Two-way communication should be encouraged: (a) with the content, through an effective system based on knowledge of the psychology of perception and behaviour; (b) with other persons and groups, who participate in an intellectual exchange via the language of the object; and (c) with the museum worker, whose task it is to supply the key to understanding.

The main aspects of relations with the public, which will be briefly illustrated by means of examples showing how these find concrete expressions in the architectural environment, are accordingly as follows:

P U B L I C I T Y

Formerly the museum was based on a belief in values, whereas today’s museum helps in the search for values. It therefore stands open and inviting to the outside world, and tries to avoid giving the visitor the impression of crossing a threshold. This could find concrete expression in the adaptation of existing

Social context and place of action I j 9

buildings, a transparent ‘display-case’ architecture or semantically symbolic forms.

I N F O RIvI A T I O N

Formerly the museum conveyed information solely through the dumb language of the object to educated middle-class citizens prepared to receive it. Nowadays, the unprepared visitor, who may be from any social group, expects to be offered information which he can call upon at any time. In concrete architectural terms this may mean providing special rooms or additional space for information purposes. In the extreme case this can develop into a type of museum which presents information only, and is thus more concerned with breadth than depth.

I N T E R P R E T A T I O N

. Formerly, the visitor interpreted the object subjectively whereas nowadays the object comes complete with interpretations ready to hand. Emphasis is placed on the intellectual viewpoint. The problem lies in the danger of dental maspu- lation. The architectural expression may consist in the creation of additional surfaces for libraries, lectures, discussions and audio-visual media.

E V A L U A T I O N A N D C R I T I C I S M

Since no universally recognized scale of values is available, it is necessary to focus attention on certain key images, justified on technical or artistic grounds. These images are presented for debate and ‘judgement’. The individual can compare, evaluate and assimilate them. The conflicts which arise in the process serve to clarify matters and to prevent ‘alienation’. In architectural terms this can find expression in the various spatial possibilities offered by an ‘agora’.

A C T I V I T Y

Not only should the individual abandon consumer attitudes and achieve self- realization through action; the sociological structure of society itself should be reinforced through communal activity.

Extra experimental rooms and technical workshops, open to the public, help the individual to identify with his work by their specially designed spatial qualities. They can also help to bring together the public and the artist in the creative process.

C O N T E M P L A T I O N A N D E M O T I O N

Whereas in former times the content of the collection tended to be over- emphasized, the tendency nowadays is to underplay it. Surveys have revealed, however, that there is still a need for undisturbed dialogue with the object. This need can be met by, for instance, creating a special circuit with additional surface qualities and rest areas.

P A R T I C I P A T I O N

The visitor considers that the museum is his affair and that he has a certain right to see into its inner workings. This can be given architectural expression by allowing the visitor a look behind the scenes, at some of the restoration rooms, laboratories and technical installations, as is done for example at the Capodimonte museum (overhead lighting design) (Fig. II).

The extent to which these trends can be put into practice, and the form they will take, must be examined afresh in every case.

I Go Sociology

12 The visitor-exhibit relationship seen as a quantitative problem. The smaller the ratio of visitors to exhibits the more opportunity for concentration and for each individual to enter freely into a relationship with the exhibit.

e t

13 Group viewing an exhibit. Close contact with the exhibit is no longer possible without disturbing other members of the group. Visitors must arrange themselves around the exhibit keeping an equal distance from it.

14 A large number of visitors viewing an exhibit. The quality of contact with the exhibit decreases with each succeeding semi-circle of viewers. The spacing of exhibits may be determined by the extent to which the ‘spheres of influence’ of the different exhibits tend to overlap.

schitectaa sal expression

We have indicated by a small selection of examples the extent to which the architecture of the museum can give appropriate spatial expression to certain sociological trends. Further examples of actual spatial situations will be selected as models of sociological behaviour and examined from the point of view of the relation between ends and means.

The point is to achieve the most harmonious balance possible, that is the greatest possible compatibility, between the architectural environment and the needs and tendencies of the users.

The actual construction phase brings to light the diametrically opposing nature of sociological-psychological requirements and of scientific requirements in regard to the individual exhibit or object. The realm of sociological- psychological requirements is characterized by constant evolution and change. Since man has only a limited capacity to assimilate experience in consciousness, tensions arise in the course of time within the individual and also within society, for instance in the form of the generation gap. This inherent plasticity . of the mental realm is fundamentally and irreconcilably opposed to the dura- bility in the material realm stemming from the inert character of building materials.

It is the task of the architect to take decisions which will harmonize a large number of contradictory requirements. The sociological position of the architect is that of a ‘servant’ of society, who must know his ‘master’ very intimately in order to create a proper framework for his peculiarities and wishes, even though unconscious and inarticulate.

The architectural consequences of the museum’s new ‘open’ character vis-à-vis society consist in: (a) a need for additional space by comparison with museums devoted solely to objects; and (b) an ‘open’ architectural structure which can be more readily modified.

The first is a surface problem, the second a construction problem. The areas devoted to the sociological presentation of objects can be: (a) dis-

persed throughout the collection; (b) set aside for subsequent use in this way in the plans; (c) built in as special sections.

The problem consists in integrating these sections in the ‘world of the object’ without disturbing its specific laws. Divergences in space requirements are often considerable, depending on such factors as, for instance, optical distraction, acoustic disturbance, security measures, visiting hours, etc.

Since these special sections can be included in other types of building not specifically of museum character, they will be discussed here only to the extent that they compete with the ‘world of the object’ by virtue of their position, the purpose they are designed to serve or the technical equipment they necessitate.

Attention should also be drawn to the danger of allowing these sociologically oriented installations to expand to the point where they risk undermining the original and irreplaceable justification for the museum’s existence as the guardian of authentic objects.

Exhibition 8

D I IvI E N S I O N S

The so-called ‘open museum’ has introduced new standards of presentation, which result from the large influx and varied composition of visitors. The consequences of this situation, whether an individual, a group or a community takes up position in front of the original, are primarily problems of space. The necessary space and the distance from the object increase with the number of

Social context and place of action IGI

observers, that is the number of visitors per unit of surface area is inversely proportional to the number of objects.

The individual observer and the small group can come as close to the original as they wish, in order to study and experience it to the full. The sociological pre-requisite for effective contact is a high level of culture and awareness, corresponding to an equivalent social attitude. The historical model of private collections of works of art and curiosities shows that the objects can be crowded closely together, since it is possible to concentrate attention on the object, regardless of the surroundings. The psychological importance of a unique encounter with the original is preserved. The space required can be reduced to the objects’ own ‘living space’ (Fig. 12).

The larger group must stand at a certain distance from the object, which makes it more difficult to ‘enter into possession’ of it. Dialogue with the object is still possible, but has all the advantages and disadvantages of a ‘round- table’ discussion. The centre of gravity is necessarily displaced from contemplation towards information. Security measures and consequently the separation of the object from the observer assume greater importance. Viewing space and distance from the object increase (Fig. 13).

Large groups visiting as such have no longer virtually any opportunity of entering into close contact with the original, for the space they occupy is too large and the restriction of movement makes observation in depth impossible. The unique character of the encounter with the original is nevertheless still observable, although noticeably less marked. There is a danger of superficiality and disappointment, since each individual-of ,whom the mass is composed- came to the museum in the hope of making personal contact with the original (Fig. 14).

This is a pressing problem wherever there are large numbers of visitors to exhibitions or museums, in industrial countries and developing countries alike.

If this trend continues, intensive contact with the original becomes more and more difficult or else the museum visitor is obliged to adopt an élitist behaviour. In some countries (China), experiments have been made using excellent copies which cannot be distinguished from the original, and the original itself is kept in store, where it benefits from optimum conservation conditions. It is possible to regulate psychologically and physiologically the contact with the copy substituted for the original, to dispense with security measures and barriers, and to eliminate to a large extent the opposition between consumption and conservation. The question whether such a solution is acceptable is a philosophical rather than a technical one, depending on the value which is attributed to the human observer and to the object in all its uniqueness and on the possibility of reaching a generally binding social consensus on this matter.

This stringent yardstick can only be applied, we would recall, to precious objects such as belonging mostly to archaeological and fine arts museums (Fig. I/).

Another proposal must be mentioned in this connexion which has already been made on several occasions with a view to establishing contact between a large group of visitors and a single object. In order to obtain satisfactory viewing, the kinetic man-object relationship is reversed. The object is presented in dynamic fashion, on a kind of podium, to visitors who remain immobile in an auditorium. Apart from the fact that in many cases questions of conservation may arise, mobility of the object often runs counter to the creative intention and what we know from the psychology of perception. This applies especially to art galleries, whereas such a formula could be considered for specimens in science and technical museums. In this case architecture ceases to act as an aid to interpretation (Fig. 16).

These considerations lead logically to the use of other communication media such as the cinema, television, etc. It would doubtless be an advantage if the main museums had their own television studios where informational activities

El

I,. Division of groups among several exhibits by means of copies. Copies of the original can be scattered over a large area and the relationship of a large group to the original replaced by the relationship of smaller groups to copies. The opportunity for closer contact with the exhibit must be weighed against the fact that the exhibit in question is now only a copy, the original of which is kept in the museum store.

16 A way of dealing with the problem of laige amounts of information and large numbers of visitors. The exhibits are brought to the visitor rather than the visitor himself moving from one exhibit to another. The advantages of presentation of the exhibit with appropriate audio- visual effects must be weighed against the need to restrict the amount of information and the passivity of the viewer.

I- l /

Co-ordination of exhibits and supplementary information areas. Parallel arrangement. The exhibits are accompanied by information areas of varying intensity. Exhibits are placed along the main circuit and information areas along a parallel circuit. If this arrangement is readily comprehensible to the visitor it makes for a varied and evenly paced museum visit.

162 Sociology

18

:

20

2I

18 Intercalation of exhibits and information areas. The disadvantage is uncertainty as to whether information should precede or follow presentation of the exhibit. The exhibit-information axis is identical with the main circuit. Difficulty in understanding the arrangement of the subject-matter may, however, oblige the visitor to retrace his steps.

‘9. Dispersal or grouping of exhibits. Exhibits and information are not arranged in a systematic way but information is related to each exhibit separately. The ‘highway’ from one exhibit to the next is clearly discernible but there are ‘byways’ through information areas as well. The flexibility of this type of arrangement can, however, result in visitors getting in each other’s way as they follow different itineraries.

could be carried on regularly with the collaboration of specialists who have received scientific training so that their influence may be felt not only inside but, even more, outside the museum.

As a television studio constitutes a special sector, and as its planning does not form part of the specific functions of a museum, we shall not pursue the matter further here.

A R T I C U L A T I O N

The incorporation of information areas in the layout of a museum also raises an architectural problem. The models are based on the assumption that the layout will be determined by high aesthetic demands. If an arrangement of objects is to be fully satisfactory as regards the psychology of perception, much space is required, and it is therefore impossible to apply this formula to the whole of a large museum’s collection. For the purpose of displaying the exhibits the museum must be divided into areas of varying density.

Differentiated displq and interpretation areas

A number of points of special interest are thus placed along separate circuits, to attract groups of visitors with varying tastes. Consequently the architecture has not only to adapt to the various different spatial qualities, but also to emphasize these differences. An effort must be made as it were to lead the visitor on from one area to another (the pleasure of ‘discovery’ must be preserved, for example), this having a direct bearing on the extent to which the architectural structure is of the open type (see Figs. IOI and 119).

Integrated informtion areas

This formula is intended to ensure, in accordance with the sociological trend, an even greater interpenetration between the visitor and the object. The possibilities which it offers for the co-ordination of the three elements: (a) display; (b) visit circuit (in the sense of a guiding axis); and (c) information sectors, are as follows: parallel arrangement (Fig. 17), rhythmic intercalation (Fig. I¿’), dispersal in relation to the exhibits (Fig. IS) and special sector-in proximity to the exhibits (Pig. 20).

Reconcilitg the optimam m e of space with the need for information areas

The problem raised by the increased amount of information provided must be considered in conjunction with the need to make the most economical use of space for technical reasons of conservation as weal as on psychological grounds. As regards the distribution of space, there is a series of possible variants according to whether preference is given, in the relationship between display and information, to providing information in greater quantity or in greater depth (Fig. 21).

P R O B L E M S O F T H E R E L A T I O N S H I P B E T W E E N D I S P L A Y

A N D I N F O R M A T I O N

The spatial qualities of the information sectors differ in many ways from those of the display sectors. When the requirements in regard to display are very high-as in the case of archaeological and fine arts museums-the interference caused by information media and their installation are a source of conflict.

I/erbal ilzformation. The difficulty of providing discreet but useful inscrip-

Social context and place of action 163

22

tions is a well-known problem everywhere. Inscriptions take on architectural dimensions when they are presented in the form of large panels which serve as a background to the object or counterbalance it. As the transition from the visual sphere to the intellectual sphere requires a psychological effort, the eye often sees panels from an aesthetic point of view (that is they must tone in with the object or, where this is not possible owing to the nature of the object, be set apart).

Three-dimem-ional models. Although these generally remain in the visual sphere they must be clearly distinguished from the original and set apart from it.

Aadio-visual media. Media such as cinema or television require physiological and psychological adjustment (to darkness, noise, etc.) which may cause widespread irritation in the display sector. In such cases, separation must be achieved at the level of perception and measures taken to isolate these sectors architecturally (cubicles, etc.).

The installation of integrated information sectors may be an important factor in architectural design, in the form of a fixed spatial element specially equipped, or an element which may be moved around in the available space (Figs. 22, 23).

20 Linkage and separation of display areas. Grouping of exhibits and separation of display and information areas. The path to be followed by the visitor must be clearly indicated. Under this system the visitor is still free to decide whether or not he wishes to inspect the information area.

21 Isolation of information areas. An ‘open plan’ effect is created and the visitor can be sure of not being distracted in the information areas, but the feeling of continuity is lost. The substantiality of the information cubicles may indeed have an adverse effect on appreciation of the exhibits.

22 METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, New York. Lipchitz Exhibition. Example of integrated audio-visual information. Art exhibition featuring a videotape interview with the artist. In a glass booth set in one corner of the room the visitor can concentrate his attention on the audio-visual information. The booth does not spoil the over-au effect of the exhibition due to its transparency.

164 Sociology

24. ROMISCH-GERMANISCHES MUSEUM, Cologne. Here the audio-visual information is presented outside the field of vision containing the works of art and therefore does not interfere with it. Architect: Heinz Röcke.

Original

A Q Familiar

24 The form in which information is presented must strike a balance between originality and familiarity. It must teach the recipient something new without being so unfamiliar as to be incomprehensible. Such are the basic dialectics of communication. (From: Males, Information Tlleoiy a n d Aesthefir Perception.)

The entrance to a museum is specially significant as a zone of sociological contact. Since it plays an important part in providing a bridge between the public and the collection, it should be designed as an independent but closely integrated architectural element, drawing, from a sociological and psychological standpoint, on the fruits of experience with similar zones of contact in central urban areas.

A museum should be so organized as to exert the greatest possible influence on the surrounding community and at the same time afford the public the freest possible access to it. Following on an analysis of the behavioural motiva- tions to the community-which vary from case to case-a flow-sheet should be drawn up indicating successive stages or levels of contact with the museum, and this in turn will be transposed into a succession of architectural spaces.

In order to determine what this succession in space and time should be, we can turn first to psychology, which tells us that innovation should be accompanied by what is already familiar, that is assimilation is made easier by a blend of old and new (Fig. 24).

In this context the three most important stages are: I. Enhancing the vicinity of the museum by providing appropriate additional

amenities such as shopping malls, recreational facilities and places for people to meet (not necessarily designed as a single sociological structure but in keeping with the environment).

2. Exploiting these amenities on behalf of the museum by using psycholo-

Social context and place of action 1%

gically-based techniques to gain wide publicity for, and interest in, the services of the museum (‘transparency’, action programmes aimed at the public).

3. Psychological preparation by abolishing distance and gradually changing the layout into ‘harmonious space’ (Fig. 21).

In country districts (for example, for site museums), the town-planning approach is replaced by contact with nature, which may have the opposite psychological effect. Peace and solitude make the museum more attractive; in other words, the same stages hold good, but in the reverse order.

The way in which not only the immediate vicinity but also the museum building itself is presented to the psychological perception of the visitor acts as publicity in spreading information about the works in the collection and making it widely known to the community. Thus a show window for a temporary exhibition epitomizes the principle of the open museum; on the other

Sorting principle Collection on show Study collection Storehouse

Temporary exhibition Special visitors Action

Administration

Object Information Contemplation

Third transition zone Museum

/1 Sorting principle Educational material Conferences

- Loop Second transition zone Administration - -

Restaurant

Reception

- - Seated groups -

Action - Wall surfaces (’do-it-yourself‘ - crayons and paints) Conversation corners Day nursery Painting school

Outside advertisement Films Sculptures

Meeting-point News-stand Seated groups Play area

Shops Offices

Main street or square

Signs and direction indicators (in town) Posters Sculptures

- Information - Sale of tickets - - - - First transition zone

Liaison with other cultural institutions

Open area or green for leisure activity

space

Access to the park

a to the environment 0 Activities corresponding

n Il U -

O ’Surface of contact‘ - with town life - Influence extended on wider urban area

2J. Diagram showing the possibilities of integrating a museum in a town. Strategy for introducing visitor to museum.

Sociology I 66

26. VICTORIA ARTS CENTRE, Melbourne. The plain façade, set behind a moat which adds greater mystery, osers no clue as to the museum’s contents and arouses curiosity. The opening of the entrance and the single bridge over the moat create a suggestive effect. Architects: Roy Grounds and Alan B. Nelson.

L/ REUCHLINHAUS, Pforzheim. The entrance and approaches to the museum complex, which consists of a number of separate buildings, are designed to attract the visitor. Note the use of a variety of materials connected with the museum’s contents. Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.


hand, a treasure-house locked up on all sides can also be made to tell a story, provided it is in keeping with its contents.

The use of materials, the choice of proportions and the juxtaposition of configurations can convey ‘messages’ which are perceived subliminally and evoke associations with the contents of the museum, before one ever enters it (Figs. 26, 27).

The same process is repeated in the entrance hall, with a wider range of indications as to what is on show. Here a system of signs such as the display of typical works, which convey visual information, is preferable to the use of written panels or texts (Fig. 28).

Special areas

The new trend towards opening up museums vis-à-vis society is aimed at the integration of the greatest possible number of activities. But its translation into terms of architecture produces divergent requirements, which may give trouble both as regards the space devoted to such activities themselves, and more specially as regards the relationship between it and the space needed for display purposes. In most cases -it has proved necessary to adjoin or append these zones for conservation, study, etc., as special areas so as to ensure that they are fully designed to meet their purpose (as regards acoustics, technical equipment, etc.). Frequently too they are so organized as to have a life of their own (use for several purposes, at different times, etc.), which makes independent access desirable.

It is symptomatic of open museums that such areas-which might be described as ‘parasitic’ from the point of view of the museum as purely a place for exhibits-tend to keep on growing. They have however proved to be of great importance in making museums come alive, provided that their relationship with the display area remains perfectly clear. Their purpose is to ‘process7 the contents of the collection, in the widest sense of the term, and above all to experiment with the resulting artistic, scientific or technical possibilities. And it is not conducive to this purpose if they are used for activities that are no longer related to the collection itself. For this reason it is desirable that visitors should be able to move freely around them; easily handled mobile partitions should be used which can be assembled or dismantled as necessary. A feature of the architecture of these special areas will be its adaptability.

T E M P O R A R Y E X H I B I T I O N S

Each temporary exhibition forms part of a series of widely differing events, calling for rapid improvization and the possible use of all available facilities. The diversity is such that there can be no question of providing different areas for each event; the only possible solution lies in the direction of maximum flexibility. The architect must thus give way to the civil engineer. We are no longer dealing so much with a museum as with a trade fair or exhibition building, with related but specific requirements such as neutral spaces, areas clear of pillars, a modular system for the fixed and variable parts, and elements which can be assembled-all commonplace features of contemporary building practice.

The dif3culty is that for philosophical and psychological reasons, the museum must remain as far as possible in natural surroundings. This means that daylight should also be used flexibly, hence it should ideally be admitted from all sides under the best possible conditions. The necessary regulating and protective devices, such as slatted blinds and variable elements, together with air-conditioning, are typical of the architecture of temporary exhibitions and distinguish it from that of theatres or department stores, with their artificial light and ventilation-which are relatively easier to provide.

A 28 A series of attractive vistas in the entrance hall. Simplified ground-plan. From the hall one can see objects represent2tive of each section.

I68 Sociology

Thus the ‘museum’ type of flexible architecture represents a particular form which requires a certain financial outlay, but one which can be fully justified by the philosophy of the museum. Its architectural value can be measured by the extent to which it succeeds in incorporating the great quantity of technical equipment required without obtruding on the visitor’s psychological perception or competing with the exhibits.

For these reasons temporary exhibitions tend to adopt the principle of free arrangement in three-dimensional space, and are exceptionally well suited to serve as a ‘show window’ opening onto the outside world (Fig. 29).

A R E A S F O R C O M M U N I C A T I O N A N D A C T I O N

These areas are designed to free the visitor from a passive consumer role and encourage creative action. It is here also that a deliberate attempt is made to come to terms with the conflict inherent in communication. These areas should enable the visitor to experience this conflict and formulate it.

A salient feature of the architecture is its ‘absence of order’, which should break down inhibitions and stimuIate ‘participation’.

A special problem is that of ‘artist’s studios’ (Fig. 14j). In practice, the architecture is much the same as for temporary exhibitions,

but less attention is paid to the requirements of aesthetic perception and more to the solidity of the construction. Communication is not only visual but also acoustic and haptic. Sociological surveys and forecasts suggest that the over- all flexibility of a large area can be replaced by a series of different types of spaces leading into each other (big-small, light-dark, angular-round, etc.). These can be used to serve the purpose of studios, stages, play areas or amateur workshops, as required.

The criterion is the wide range of possibilities and easy adaptability. Depend- ing on the type of museum, technical equipment will be needed approximating in part to that found in a television studio (for example a battery of projectors), in part to that associated with a workshop (a travelling crane, running water, etc.). A comparison can also be made with a modern experimental theatre, where the actors intermingle with the audience. Daylight is desirable, less for aesthetic than for practical reasons; also access to a workshop.

The plans for communication and action areas (as also for temporary exhibitions) should take into account the need for suitable ‘backstage’ premises and large store-rooms, which should be located as near as possible to the scene of action.

Access should also be provided for delivery vans. Experience has shown the value of separate work-rooms and rooms for

painting, for both adults and children, in this category of premises. Rooms for conducting experiments are specially worthwhile in technical museums.

E D U C A T I O N A N D R E S E A R C H

While the special areas set aside for communication are oriented towards the sphere of action and emotion, those designed for education place the emphasis on analysis and reasoning. The individual contents of the museum are approached scientifically and transposed into other media (writing, slides, sound); for instance with an art gallery, vision becomes thought. There is a social obligation to make accessible to the widest possible public the educational potentialities which each exhibit possesses, both as a process and as a result. This determines the location of the education area in the over-all plan, which should also take account of the various groups of users: I. Everyday visitors: easy access (lecture and reading rooms). 2. Special visitors, such as schoolchildren, students and research workers:

special classrooms should be provided where possible, with easy access from the official entrance.

Social context and dace of action I Gc,

3. Outside visitors for activities external to the museum (publicity value). In

The spatial requirements are appreciably different from those of the areas set apart for exhibits and action, being primarily peace and quiet, with little need for flexibility (as much as in an office building): The lecture room is designed in the light of its special functional requirements,

with stepped rows of seats, a projection booth, etc. Putting it to several different uses gives rise to technical difficulties and is rarely satisfactory. As it is much in demand for congresses and school activities, daylight is desirable, in addition to essential lighting and ventilation installations.

The library and reading room are needed equally by the public and research workers, and this determines their accessibility.

Classrooms and study rooms should not be designed solely with teaching requirements in mind, but should also be fitted up with some degree of comfort, so that those who spend some time in the museum may find it an agreeable experience. For schoolchildren, this will be fundamental for their subsequent identification with the museum.

The research premises and laboratories are variously designed and equipped for each individual programme.

The research museum can be defined typologically by the high proportion of ofices and laboratories. When the great bulk of its work is research, it loses some of the specific features of a museum, and at the same time has fewer multipurpose areas of sociological ~on tac t .~

There is a tendency to make the research function independent, and to regard the museum as a ‘collection of materials’ belonging to an educational institution.

this case a special entrance is desirable.

Scboo I and zm’versity ?nuseutns

29 WILIXELM LEHMBRUCK MUSEUM, Duisburg. Temporary exhibition used as a ‘shop window’ at the museum entrance (right). As they approach, visitors have further views of the sculpture section and a glimpse of the sculpture courtyard. Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.

Without going into a detailed study of the problem, it should be noted that in these cases the museum loses much of its general multipurpose character, and thus falls outside the scope of this paper. Sociologically speaking it ceases to be an ‘open museum’, and runs the risk of becoming a special museum for an élite public. 5 . See Appendix IV, page 277.

170 Sociology

Furthermore, as far as architecture is concerned, classrooms and research premises come within the category of educational buildings, and are subject to their special requirements.

30 FORESTRY MUSEUM, Gävle (Sweden). The restaurant area is in a central position. It may be used as a meeting-place, a recreation area within the museum or an external area. There are several points of contact with the circuit of the display area. Access is therefore easy and a variety of possibilities offered. Close dependence on the museum’s activity. Underground plan: I. Exhibition area; 2. Cafeteria; 3 . Reserves; 4. Store-rooms; j. Corridor; 6. Cloakroom; 7. Unloading area; 8. Laboratory; 9. Workshops; IO. Archives; I I . Offices. Architects: Sven H. Wraner, Erik Herlöw and Tormod Olesen.

n- The sociological effectiveness of the museum depends on its attractiveness, that is to a great extent on the well-being of the individual visitor, which can only be achieved if his physical and mental characteristics are together taken into account. Hence the museum should physiologically perform the task of catering for the visitor’s needs, and psychologically extend him an invitation to linger and enjoy himself. The fact of finding himself ‘at home’ in familiar everyday surroundings helps him to assimilate the ‘novelty’ of what he en- counters there (Fig. p i ( b ) ) .

Thus a blend of ‘private’ and ‘public’ should be offered, a place where the visitor forgets both the ego-relationship (of the home) and the feeling of being lost (of the agora), and is transported to a psychological equilibrium which enables him to enter into contact with people and objects.

In specific architectural terms, these functions may be performed by: rest rooms for brief relaxation within the display area (see chapter on physiology), refreshment areas (a cafeteria, restaurant, etc.). As the architecture of refreshment areas is not specific to museums, we shall here refer oniy to their location within the museum complex: I. In the centre of the collection. Here the advantage is that they can be reached

quickly from any point of the museum circuit; the drawback is that they are closed in on themselves and do not take the visitor out of the museum atmosphere. In addition, problems of conservation may arise in the case of fragile exhibits (Fig. 30).

2. At the entrance. Here the advantage is that these areas constitute an added attraction and create a lively, sociologically diversified atmosphere; the drawback is that usually they can only be visited at the beginning or end of the tour. The question of access facilities is thus particularly important: whether these areas should open only on to the outside, for the general public, or be accessible only from the museum visiting area. The optimum solution is undoubtedly to provide dual access from both the outside and the inside, but special attention may then have to be paid to the checking of tickets

It should be possible for tradesmen to have access to the kitchen premises (Fig. 3 44).

without going through the museum.

The lofty tone of museums and their disregard of relations with other spheres of life in the first half of this century made it difficult to extend their action on the sociological plane. The trend today is to discard the functional separation typical of the past and to create the largest possible number of ‘surfaces of contact’ with other fields. As the points of contact with other cultural institutions are specially numerous, it is a short step to the idea of bringing people together in a (cultural centre’. This somewhat ill-formulated but by now well- recognized concept should be defined and delimited in this context, as a form of collaboration on an equal footing between different cultural activities, in which each activity is represented over its full range, not merely associated incidentally with another range of functions (for example a small exhibition in the foyer of a theatre). It thus entails the interpretation of spheres of culture such as: (a) education, libraries, archives; (b) theatre, cinema, music; and (c) museums and the visual arts, with their numerous related fields.

171 Social context and place of action

31 LOUISIANA MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS (Denmark). (a) The restaurant is situated at the end of a linear circuit and commands a fine view. Communication with a reading-room heated by an open fire makes for a relaxed atmosphere; rest, reflection or discussion will form the conclusion to the museum visit. Ground-floor plan: I. Entrance from pre-existing house; 2. Connecting corridors (side-lit); 3. Two- storey high gallery; 4. Lantern-lit galleries; 5 . Kitchen; 6. Library; 7. Cafeteria; 8. Sea. (b) The glass wall eliminates any sense of separation between the tree outside and the visitor inside. Children enjoy an enriching game as they discover the work of art (Tingndy exhibition). Architects: Jörgen Boe and Vilhelm Wohlert.

172 Sociology

A distinction should be drawn between organizational and inteuectual problems. The organizational and functional advantages are numerous: a common reception point with a large contact area, use of the parking area, a multifunctional entrance hall with a variety of facilities (serving at the same time as a foyer), grouped areas for relaxation, catering facilities, conference rooms and action areas, ofkes, store-rooms, studios, etc. Care will have to be taken to ensure that the right balance is struck between communal and independent facilities: particular attention should be paid to the arranging of time- tables (day and evening use).

From the intellectual point of view there are also many advantages. Integra- tion provides both a stimulus and additional possibilities. Understanding can be developed and extended through the interpretation of other realms of perception. The differing conditions under which the various activities are carried on do however give rise to problems which call for adjustment of the sensory faculties and may’ cause disturbances, such as noise and other transient factors which drown the ‘silent language’ of the exhibits, or an undesirable coming and going, etc. From the sociological point of view the accumulation of contacts makes it possible to reach many different groups and interests, but there is also the danger that too close an integration of different cultural spheres may frighten away those who are interested in one sphere alone (Fig. 32).

It will thus be for the architect to find a balanced solution to these problems, along the following lines: An advantage of the cultural centre is that cultural activities are given a definite

and identifiable setting in the context of the town. The visitor should be made fully aware of this by the location and design of the buildings.

The degree of independence of the different sectors and their special connexion with each other must be worked out in each individual case.

The specific requirements of scientific, visual, acoustic and verbal activities must be taken into account and integrated with the architecture.

Provision must be made for an adequate number of transition zones, with ‘lock chambers’ permitting physiological and psychological adjustment.

The plan should provide for flexible zones which allow free passage from one sector to another, though it must be possible to shut them off hermetically when necessary.

On account of the complex organization involved (control of visitors) it is recommended for all activities that ‘on stage’ and ‘backstage’ activities should be clearly separated.

To be successful a cultural centre should therefore leave room for both the selective differentiation and the integration of activities.

Three models may be envisaged: I. A system of pavilions. A loose grouping of sectors with the dimensions,

independence and potentialities of an identifiable single-function style of architecture. Each pavilion can be extended irrespective of the others. Spatial and functional integration is however practically impossible on account of the distances involved (Figs. 32,33).

2 . A system of pavilions with a central entrance hall. A central grouping of largely independent, architecturally identifiable sectors with flexible arrangements for close inter-sector contacts via intermediate zones and limited possibilities of extension (Fig. 34(a), (b)).

3. A single block building. Limited independence of the different sectors, non- optimal functional design (public sector), sectors identifiable only by the interior architecture. The maximum amount of ‘contact surfaces and flexibility (the type of the ‘information’ museum) (Fig. 3 ~ ) .

BnvoBvemewt w i t h the surrounding area

As already noted more than once, the museum’s new open stance vis-à-vis society leads naturally to the so-called ‘open museum, and an open-plan


I

Activity Information 1 I I 1 1 Publicity

32 NICOSIA CULTURAL CENTRE (Cyprus). Different cultural activities gradually merge in a carefully structured central contact area. Simplified ground-plan. Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.

Theatre

33 NICOSIA CULTURAL CENTRE (Cyprus). Pavilion system with central entrance hall.. I. Entrance court; 2. Library; 3. Open-air exhibition and performing arts; 4. Exhibition gallery; 5 . Theatre. Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.

I74 Sociology

34(a)

34(a), (6 ) Loose grouping of buildings devoted to various cultural activities: I. Information: 2. Opera house; 3 . Opera studio; 4. Exhibitions; 5 . Museum; .6. Art gallery; 7. Garden restaurant; 8. Restaurant; 9. Parking. Model of a cultural centre in Cairo. Architect: Fritz Bornemann.

JI CENTRE GEORGES-POMPIDOU, Paris. Compact system. Model. Architects: Piano & Rogers; Ove Arup & Partners.


architectural structure. As an initial hypothesis it can be assumed that bringing action areas geographically closer together (or merging them) and breaking down spatial barriers are conducive to social contacts and facilitate the psychological approach to exhibits. This is so only up to a certain point, however, since complete openness is bound up with a loss of definition. This in its turn results in a levelling of scales of value, which may lead to the museum’s losing some of its drawing power. It is a question of proportion.

Even if ‘openness’ is a relative concept, it is still at the present time the justified aim of sociological analysis to sublate distance intellectually and spatially (‘bring down’ what is ‘too high’) and integrate the museum in the structure of the town.

Three models are suggested: I. Elements of street architecture (shops, public and private installations of

all kinds) are brought into the approaches to the museum and intermingle with or overlay the museum building. This gives a false impression of integration, even though the museum remains organizationally unaffected within its own separate climate. The aim is to make people feel at ease, but the result may be that the museum does not stand far enough back to be noticed (Fig. 36).

2. The street passes through the museum, that is a pedestrian way (foot- path, split-level passage, etc.) is cut through it, climatically apart from it, in the hope that this wider view of what the museum has to offer will encourage the ‘man in the street’ to visit it. The museum itself remains organizationally intact, but the glimpses passers-by have of it produce a psychological effect of publicity. There is, however, a danger of internal disturbances

3. The museum as a street: public spaces and thoroughfares pervade the museum. The advantages of this solution are operative only if it is possible to walk through the museum, in other words when there are several entrances and exits. The problem is a security one, which only a few types of museums can afford to ignore. Here audio-visual surveillance systems and electronically controlled transport facilities (e.g. to and from cloakrooms) offer new possibilities, though their practical implementation still calls for critical study. A further matter calling for consideration is whether: (a) visitors and exhibits can do without air-conditioning; (b) exhibits can be adequately protected by individual localized air-conditioning (e.g. in showcases); or (c) general air-conditioning is necessary. In the third case, the chambers leading into .the air-conditioned areas again detract from the complete openess which is aimed at (Fig. 38).

I

(Fig. 37).

I N T E G R A T I O N I N T H E S T R U C T U R E O F T H E T O W N

( P R O S P E C T S F O R T H E F U T U R E )

The museum ceases to be a separate building which is more or less on its own, and becomes an urban area among others, without any special town-planning emphasis. Any particularly frequented part of the town structure is used temporarily or permanently for the purposes of a museum, and can be changed at will. Public transport services come right into the district in question, which is identified by flexible architectural ‘furnishings’. Conservation problems are similar to those in 3 above, though even greater. If carried to the extreme, this conception necessitates either a very effective system of surveillance and conservation, or a social order which has abolished material values. How far either of these is desirable is a philosophical question.

This prospect is however typical of present trends, and indicates the line of demarcation between intellectual discourse and architectural achievement (Figs’ 39, ‘fol 4’).

TI L

0.aw.e r 1 1 37

1 r L

36 Combination with other buildings. Possibilities for integration in the urban scene. External surfaces may be overlaid with shops or similar urban enterprises and windows set in external walls on the ‘shop-window’ principle.

37 A pedestrian way or bridge through the museum gives the public a visual impression of the museum’s attractions and method of presentation. Problems involved are the positioning of the only entrance and the co-ordination of museum areas located on different levels.

38 Extension of public thoroughfares into the museum implies long opening hours. Security is a problem which can, however, be overcome technically, perhaps by taking measures to protect each object individually. The provision of cloakroom facilities is another problem which can only be satisfactorily dealt with by installing automatic transport systems.

Sociology 176

39 Integration in, the urban environment in a large modern city. As a general rule motor transport is allowed to run alongside the museum. Pedestrian ways can be integrated into the museum. Entrances will be positioned to exploit the possibilities of external features such as underground stations, squares and footpaths. On a large site individual town-planning features can be amalgamated in the internal connexions. The museum complex can be integrated into the urban scene, provided that its architecture is in keeping with the character of the town.

40 HISTORY MUSEUM, Amsterdam. A new street has been given a glass roof and heating system and can thu parr of the museum as well as being public thoroughfare.

s form a

Road

Street reserved for pedestrians

Social context and place of action I77

4' ECOMUSEUM OF THE URBAN COMMUNITY OF LE CREUSOT-MONTCEAU-LES-MINES. The fragmented museum covers an entire region. It inspires various activities in different places, for example: St Sernin- du-Bois, 1974-75, field trip; The Forest; Couches, summer I 972, exhibition-inquiry Folk A r t and Traditions; and summer 1973, exhibition-inquiry The T 4 z e and the IVine; Le Creusot, February-May 1973. Companions in Bnrgz& and Work and Invention; June-November 1973, The Tree, from Prehistoric Tinies t o the Present; November 1973-February 1974, Fossilsfi-om the Blanqy Coal Basin; December 1973- March I 974, The Factory, Work and Architectnre; January-February I 974, Mexican Folk A r t ; April-May 1974, Le Corbzisier; summer I 974, The Dogons, opening of the evolutive exhibition The Space of the Urban Comnzmity throtgh the Ages; first stage of the adult education programme on housing Lìuing in Le Crensot in 1974; conservation and development of one of the large industrial markets and of the crane and engine construction shop at Creusot-Loire; and 1975, Children and Images; Le Breuil, 19 75, Restoration of the Traditional Home; Montcenis, summer 1973, exhibition-inquiry From Bailliage t o Chief Coztnt/y Town; Ecuisses, 1974- 75 , field trip The Canah Les Bizots, summer 1974, Donzestìc Animals and their Wild Coil"% paris; etc.

42 However many great works there are to be seen, and however splendid the presentation, the visitor may still feel his attention and his curiosity waning, and may eventually begin to suffer from what the museologists call ‘visitor fatigue’.

I79

Physiology

Factors affecting the visitor

When someone visits a museum, there is tension between the two poles formed by human nature and the object. While conservation is based on the creation and stabilization of a state, physiology is aimed at the activation and variability of life. Nevertheless, since conservation and physiology both raise unconditional demands, a relationship must be established between them. Physiology and psychology are closely linked and function according to the principle of biological balance, manifest in rhythmical wave movements. As an exact science, physiology comes within the sphere of what is measurable, whereas psychology leaves greater room for interpretation. For this reason, despite their close interdependence, they must be considered separately.

The point of departure is the physiological constitution of the visitor which, in accordance with the pluralistic tendency, may and must show extraordinary hversity in respect of age, race, sex, state of health (motor handicapped, blind, étc.). However, the bodily functions of all human beings have a relatively small margin of fluctuation, if one considers factors such as temperature or humidity, which may serve as a basis for planning. Differences in capability and temperament from one group of people to another must also be taken into account. We shall therefore limit our discussion here to general criteria based òn the hypotlieses of occupational psychology.

Difference between suitable conditions for visitors and for objects

The museum demands a high level of concentration and sensitivity which implies optimum conditions. Psychosomatic factors can only come into play once 'the body is forgotten'. The stimulus afforded by the heightening of the awareness and the emotions in a museum exercises a basically vitalizing effect, but this is often outweighed by physiological phenomena. The latter must therefore be compensated by an above-average degree of comfort (Fig. 42).

This is where the conflict between the object and the visitor may be seen most clearly, for other demands for comfort, which the curator must define with the greatest precision, may be formulated in connexion with the object. This incompatibility may be more or less pronounced depending on the ideology of the museum, but it is always present in a latent state. The function of museum architecture is to help to find a solution through spatial differentiation. Both the visitor and the curator must understand fully that this can only be a compromise within a certain margin of tolerance.

A I R - C O N D I T I O N I N G

As geographical and demographic differences are considerable, it is impossible to establish an abstract and generally valid definition of optimum conditions. But the fact that the vasomotor regulation of the human body only

I 80 Physiology

43 Multilayer wall with automatic air conditioning.

Protective outer covering-humidity/erosion Ventilation-humidity/heat I nsulation-heat/oold

Wood covering Temperature gauge and air-conditioning control

Hygroscopic balance maintained by wood covering

External rot-protection Internal rot-artificially from natural climatic controlled atmosphere factors

covers a range of 2-3' C shows the difficulty of the task. Above this zone of comfort, the excessive warmth provokes lassitude, and below it the cold reduces the powers of concentration. Moreover, the appropriate relationship must be maintained with the hygrometric level which differs according to climatic area, season, etc. In a museum, special attention should also be given to the relationship between light and temperature.

The temperature gradient between the outside walls and the centre of the museum is especially important because fragile objects (paintings, etc.) may be exhibited on the outside walls. As there is generally a difference in temperature between the rooms and the connecting partitions, the same room may have a different value for the object and for the visitor. Differences in temperature due to radiance (heat or cold) should not exceed 2-3 O C. It is recommended that outside walls should be of multilayer design (Fig. 43).

Moreover, the renewal of air by the induction of sufficient fresh air and humidity, which is essential to the human being, is often contrary to conservation requirements. Just as the intensity of the lighting and the number of lux are constantly increasing, there is a tendency in industrialized countries for the temperature regarded as comfortable to become steadily higher. The gap between the ambient conditions for the object and for man is constantly widening.

These few examples are not exhaustive and are only mentioned to give an idea of the problem.

Effort required fo r the visit

A number of attempts have been made to measure the effort which the visitor may reasonably be expected to make (total length and duration of the visit, distance covered per hour). This relationship between distance and time, based on the study of the place in which the effort is made, cannot be used to establish the general dimensions of exhibition surfaces in a museum, since the diversity of the content of collections makes generalization impossible. Accord- ing to circumstances it is less tiring to cover 3 kilometres in one hour, at a brisk walk, while visiting an exhibition of sculpture in a park, than to spend half an hour visiting an exhibition of jewellery which extends over 3 0 metres and where the visitor is standing still most of the time. The programming of exhibition buildings would certainly be facilitated if absolute figures could be

Factors affecting the visitor 181

estimated for optimum surface and duration of visit, but this method is impossible to put into practice and must be replaced, for each case, by a calculation of empirical values. The principle of a straight line being the shortest distance between two points cannot be applied in a museum; on the other hand, the waste of energy represented by having to go back over one’s tracks is perceived more or less consciously and is therefore indefensible.

Man does not move continuously like a machine, but with interruptions which follow a biological rhythm. Long distances in straight lines or in a circle (regular spirals for example) should therefore be avoided. The standard circuit demands a sustained effort which makes the visitor less willing to react. Con- sequently, the architecture should not only offer visual diversity, but should suggest a rhythmic variation of movement, such as slow and fast walking, sitting down and, if possible, also lying.

It is doubtful whether the radical proposal involving kinetic presentation of the object to the visitor who remains immobile6 would bring any real physiological relief. The success of this formula will depend-among many other factors-on the question of whether the visitor requires movement or rest as a contrast from normal fatigue.

Vertical movement between two or three floors should present no problem for visitors in good health. The architectural solution to this problem is, however, important. It is a demonstrable physiological fact that psychic stimulation, the cpromisey, reduces the subjective expense of physical energy; in other words fatigue depends on motivation. A move to another floor should therefore always take place in stages and a glance at the next floor should convince the visitor that it is ‘worth the effort’. In museums with two or three floors it is impossible to prove that lifts-which are necessary for other reasons -increase the normal visitor’s physiological capacity for assimilation. In the display area there should be the same effort to consider the visitor’s needs for vertical movement as in regard to horizontal movement. Ramps provide favourable conditions in this respect, but their slope should not exceed 6 per cent, in other words they will, seem intolerably long unless broken by exhibits.

Visual stimuli

D A Y L I G H T

In a museum it is the organ of sight which plays the determining role. Through the epiphysis, visual stimuli exert a deep influence on the vegetative visual system and consequently on the over-all efficiency and general state. In terms of museum architecture, this means that the lighting of the exhibition influences the visitor’s readiness to react and may induce activity or fatigue. Although the eye has an extraordinary faculty for adjustment, it has been shown that a rough adjustment from brightness to darkness requires only five minutes, whereas complete adjustment requires about one hour. This may be taken as proof of the fact that the physiological effects-intense and rapidly varying luminous contrasts for example-are very persisent and soon provoke ocular or nervous fatigue. We shall now examine a few of the innumerable problems of daylight in museums.

The eye is capable of seeing clearly and selectively in lighting ranging from a few lux to over IOO,OOO lux. Luminosity is as important here as intensity. A conflict arises because, on the one hand, a relatively strong light intensity is desirable in order to bring the exhibits to life but, on the other hand, the eye’s sensitivity increases rapidly if the intensity of the lighting is reduced. The luminous interpretation must therefore be chosen in terms of the contents of the collection (leaving conservation requirements out of account). The level of general lighting must be such as to avoid excessive contrasts: balance does not necessarily mean a levelling out but rather a rhythmic modulation avoiding 6. See the chapter on sociology.

I82 Physiology

44 The principle of an entrance-hall air-lock. Simplified cross-section.

41 Incidence of light, Vertical light is approximately twice as bright as horizontal light and is generally 'diffused by means of a special covering suspended beneath and screening the outer roof covering. Simplified cross-section.

' Collection Entrance hall with air-lock Air trap Moving door-mat

extremes. The stronger the light intensity, the better the object will stand out. In the cases where there is a sharp increase OL decrease in lighting, an intermediate adjustment (or transition) zone should be provided so as to enable the visitor to become accustomed to the new level of illumination as it were in two stages (Fig. 44).

For physiological reasons preference must be given to daylight wherever conservation requirements aIIow this (for sculptures for example). In most cases, however, a device should be interposed so as to subdue the light (e.g. screens). The question of whether diffused light or moving projected shadows are acceptable will depend on the aim of the presentation.

Similarly, the direction of the light should be determined first by the object. Areas of light coming from the side or from above blend with one another according to the latitude and there is no longer any question of a fundamental choice, as was the case for many decades (Fig. 41).

\ I

llD - = Sunshade CI 0

Light which is mainly horizontal may be better controlled from the climatic point of view if one faces away from the sun. There is a great psychological advantage in letting the light penetrate the rooms unchanged and unhindered; care must be taken onIy to avoid reflection from the environment (houses, trees, etc.).

Vertical light, especially when used to illumine surfaces, must usually be subdued by sun-blinds, and therefore only reaches the exhibition area as diffused light. The choice is thus not merely a matter of lighting techniques and organization, but also evinces a philosophical and aesthetic preference for simplicity and natural affects. A combination of diffused vertical light, as basic ambient lighting, and oblique or horizontal light in order to pinpoint the


object, has proved satisfactory from the physiological point of view since it is relatively balanced.

The direction of the light has a great influence on the over-all architectural design. If overhead lighting is chosen, the exhibition' sector can cover only one floor. When side-lighting is chosen, the depth of the buildi7g from back to front i s limited and if a north light is preferred it is impossible to avoid a

. stereotyped positioning of the building. From the initial stage onwards, therefore,'it is necessary to study the content of the collection in order to examine the various possibilities for lighting techniques.

In this respect, the angle of incidence of the light should be studied. As a general rule: light directed along the same axis as the line of vision gives no contrast and makes perception of space more difficult; light coming straight from above projects heavy shadows and distorts perception; light coming

46 The angle of incidence of light must he carefully adjusted to the relief of the exhibit. Simplified cross-section.

obliquely from above and from the side in relation to the line of vision facilitates perception. These considerations are valid not only for three-dimensional objects but also for paintings with a thick surface, and on them depends eye- strain or fatigue (Fig. 46).

Contrast is necessary for perceiving the environment, but in a museum it must be subtly regulated. A study of acceptable contrasts of surface luminosity in the field of vision could serve as a reference point: I. All objects and surfaces of a certain size, situated in the field of vision must

as far as possible be equally luminous. 2. In the central areas of the field of vision, the contrasts of luminosity of the

surfaces should not exceed the ratio I : 3. 3. The contrasts between the centre and the periphery of the field of vision,

or between the different parts of its periphery should not exceed the ratio I : 10.~

4. Contrasts are more inconvenient at the sides and bottom of the visual field

The importance of these questions from the physiological point of view emerges clearly in extreme cases: rapid repetition of strong contrasts and over- dramatic effects induces fatigue, since it obliges the pupil to dilate and contract continually and thus suppresses the vitalizing effect which was originally intended; lack of contrast makes the individual less disposed to react physiologically (half-dark).

Dazzling occurs when the illuminated object is eclipsed by the presence of a more luminous element in the field of vision. It depends on contrast. The eye tolerates dazzling more easily in daylight than in artificial light, because the level of lighting is higher in the first case. When it is impossible to remove the source of dazzling, the general level of lighting must be raised. Eye-strain through dazzling plays a fatal role in museum architecture. The necessary

than at the top (Fig. 47). 47

~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ ~ , c k ; I c ; t ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ s ~ ~ dazzling). (From: Granjean, P~sìo'ogìsc~eArei~sgesta'~~~n~.)

7. cf. Grandjean, P ~ ~ i o / o ~ i r r h c Arbeilrges/a///og.

Physiology 184

48 Dazzle from an overhead screen placed too low.

49 Dazzle from a high side-light.

J O Shadow-free overhead lighting (favourable lighting conditions).

I

49

J I Optimum distance of viewer from object in relation to size of object.

Factors affecting the visitors 185

steps must be taken to avoid it in the initial stage of the design. It may occur not only in relation to the object but also in the architectural space, wherever the field of vision presents strong contrasts (Figs. 48, 49, JO).

The optimum distance of vision in relation to the object may be measured from the physical point of view in average values. It must be regarded as a minimum value, and at the same time constitutes one factor in determining the dimensions of the room, though for this purpose account must also be taken of whether the object ought to be seen from above or from below (sculptures, etc.) (Fig. J I ) .

Indirect lighting is provided via surfaces which vary in reflecting power. The colour, texture and structure of the reflecting surfaces (the partitions, for

J2 Attention should be paid to the colour of reflecting surfaces.

J3 Skylight in a flat roof. A restricted area of strong light falling in concentric circles of decreasing intensity, reflected light having been eliminated around this pool of direct light which is surrounded by shadows.

gispersal of light by reflection from the extremities of a funnel which throws a large circle of light. Light subdued and dispersed by the so-called ‘light gun’.

/ 4

JJ REUCHLINHAUS, Pforzheim. Showcases using reflected daylight. Exhibition wall for different objects, consisting of an adjustable backboard system for shelves, mirrors and artificial lights with ceiling to floor glazing in front. The glass front is painted with easily removable black paint leaving clear areas for display. View and cross-section. Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.

J 3

example) critically affect the perception of light and space. A different treatment of surfaces may completely change the visitor’s impression of a space. I t is impossible to make any general recommendation on the reflecting power of surfaces in a museum; the solution to the problem depends on the collection. Indirect light plays a most important role in the general lighting of the room, although if used exclusively it has a psycho-physiologically subduing influence, the effect of which on the collection should be taken into consideration (in some cases, it may produce a ‘religious’ atmosphere). Where this effect is not deliberate, it interferes with the visitor’s viewing.

Daylight is essentially dif€used when it is not in the form of sun-rays. It is only with discretion, therefore, that it can be concentrated in a beam, including cases where it is artificially focused through an optical device. The expression ‘light gun’, which is often used in connexion with museum architecture, is inexact in so far as the reflection inside the ‘tube’ only results in dispersion of light. The reduced effect of contrast or dazzling is less tiring from the physiological point of view (Figs. JZ, j3, 14).

In a museum, reflection may be used deliberately or else may be a source of interference. In the first case, light must be reflected with the least possible loss. Depending on the thickness of the glass, 5 to 7 per cent of light intensity is absorbed (Fig. 11).

1SG Physiology

16 Rough ground-plan showing distribution of side light. Reflection from exhibits such as oil paintings and glass objects should be avoided. The walls and/or exhibits should be arranged in such a way as to ensure that when exhibits are viewed in a direct line of vision, only unilluminated or light-absorbing surfaces are contained in the field of reflection. In modern buildings with flexible window openings this can be done by judicious spacing, screening sources of light, angling walls, etc. When rows of windows are already in position a special study by experts is to be recommended.

I Light-absorbing surfaces Direction of light

The second case will be illustrated by some appropriate architectural examples: Plan of a side-lit room, designed so as to reduce the reflections on oil paintings

or pictures under glass (Fig. ~ 6 ) . Showcases. The glass covers are inclined so that the dark floor or ceiling is

reflected in the field of vision (Fig. ,r7(a), (b)); the inside of the showcase is noticeably more brightly lit than the rest of the room (Fig. 18).

These details only form a small part of the problems which have to be taken into account in the early stages of designing a museum lit by daylight, if any excessive physiological effort is to be avoided.

A R T I F I C I A L L I G H T

Technical considerations and conservation problems connected with the use of artificial light have pushed its physiological aspects into the background. Its advantages and disadvantages for human beings have not yet been suffi-

Light-absorbing surfaces

ciently studied, partly because experience of the matter has not been sufficiently

Additional artificial lighting is installed automatically today, if only for sociological reasons (use of the premises in the evening, etc.).

In the case of simultaneous use, efforts are made to reproduce the direction and spectral composition of daylight. However, this is only possible to a limited extent, as artificial light is obtained from point or linear sources which do not constitute diffusing surfaces of an intensity comparable to that of daylight. It is impossible in most cases to mask the dark window panes in the evening by curtains which reflect the light projected on to them, because of the high expenditure of energy which this involves. Artificial light can in other words be used very effectively to supplement daylight, for example at dusk, but it must be installed according to its own laws.

Parallel use of the two types of lighting must be organized in such a way as to avoid slipping uncomfortably from one to the other, otherwise comparisons between objects placed under a different lighting may occur and physiological perception may be distorted either favourably or unfavourably according to the kind of light. Experience shows that a small quantity of natural light hardly competes with artificial light in an artificially lit exhibition and vice versa. Care must be taken at the planning stage, therefore, to see that, in the dark areas of wide buildings for example, partitions and possibly screens are arranged so as to separate off the sectors lit by daylight, and to apply this formula systematically throughout the building.

The same is true for partial installation of artificial light, in cases where the problems of presentation cannot be satisfactorily solved by the use of daylight.

17 Light-absorbing surfaces: (a) floor; long. (b) ceiling.

Factors affectinp the visitor I 87

A suitable layout and decoration scheme is needed even when the area involved is small.

The exclusive use of artificial light presents great advantages: it is possible to regulate to a large extent the intensity and the spectral composition of the light; sources of light may be arranged flexibly and made to pinpoint the objects. The disadvantages of this solution are as follows: monotony, which deadens the physiological reactions; the difficulty in regard to how contrasts are to be distributed; the resulting rise in temperature (especially where incandescent lamps are used).

With regard to intensity, a painting placed under artificial general lighting of I 50 lux gives rise to very different physiological reactions from a painting exposed to daylight of the same intensity. In comparison, the artificial light is insufficient, for the following reasons: I. The human body is less responsive to artificial light. 2. The distribution of contrasts in the field of vision is unsatisfactory. 3. The general ambient lighting is insufficient. Daylight floods the room with

a diffused or modulated light which can only be reproduced artificially by very powerful artificial light covering a vast surface. It is therefore necessary to come back to the lighting of separate objects, which may however tire the eye by its contrasts with the general lighting.

From this it may be seen that physiological perception of space plays a considerable role in the question whethx to use daylight or artificial light.

Artificial lighting has great advantages for freedom of planning. A study in depth may make it possible to eliminate causes of discomfort such as dazzling, reflections, viewing distance, etc.

From the physiological point of view it must be emphasized that a prolonged visit in artificially ventilated and lit premises disturbs the biological balance, as has been shown by many research studies on neuro-hormonal disorders (stress).

The argument that modern man lives in any case in an artificial environment is a further reason for refusing to accept this solution for museums. The museum should be a place of authenticity, with regard both to the objects and to the environment. The museum should not function according to the laws of the world of production, but according to those of the natural environment.

The architectural consequences of the exclusive use of artificial light (buildings with several floors, flexibility, etc.) will be examined in another chapter.

We1 axat i on

The fact that the visitor to a museum is always in the position of a recipient, and the limitations imposed on his motor functions, easily lead to physiological constraints. The biological balance which has thus been disturbed must be re-established by poles of attraction. For this purpose, passive relaxation, intellectual assimilation and spontaneous activity must be taken into consideration. Theoretically, the psychological process can be distinguished from the physiological process and bodily fatigue explained by different reasons from intellectual fatigue, but in practice the interdependence of these processes is such that they are inseparable.

The sensory nervous system, represented by the visual organ, is subjected to unusually heavy demands. It often happens-not only in the museum-that general tiredness may be traced to optical effort. As the eye normally leaps from one object to the other, the fact of concentrating on static forms and colours requires an effort which may be measured by the contraction of the pupil. To compensate, the eye must be given the opportunity of moving, according to a certain rhythm, from near vision, which is fairly tiring, to distant vision, which

4 - - -

/ 8 REUCHLINHAUS, Pforzheim. All-glass showcase set against the wall, with continuous grooves for holding display fitments and shelves in daylight and artificial light. Wall case, cross-section. Owing to the use of both natural and attifidal light the showcase is more brightly lit than the visitor's area and reflection cannot occur. Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.

I88 Physiology

I? Diagram of area for relaxation (short duration). Ground-plan. Area connecting with the exhibition circuit.

is relaxing, from bright colours to restful neutrality, from light to dark, from small to large and vice versa.

The motor nervous system registers general fatigue by reducing metabolism and respiration. Like the sensory apparatus, it requires compensation such as standinglsitting, walking/lying down, etc., and vice versa. The modern museum encourages self-expression in areas reserved for activity and in special sectors. This implies the visitor’s readiness to act, which must be aroused by physiological stimuli such as empathic shapes, ‘do-it-yourself’ paints, music, etc. Logically, the corresponding rest sector should offer qualities the opposite to, and no less diverse than, the possibilities of action.

Although the principles governing these relaxation areas are the same as those governing relaxation areas in general, their installation and design are matters specifically the responsibility of the museum itself. It is possible to make a decisive contribution in carrying out this task by constructing judi- ciously arranged divisions which form a contrast with the collection from the psycho-physiological point of view. They may be interposed along the visitor’s path, following the divisions of the collection. They may also be grouped together in a relaxation area offering many possibilities, including restaurant facilities. A solution which brings the visitors into natural surroundings is particularly advantageous (Fig. ~ 9 ) .

So far, we have considered the visitor who is able to make a normal effort. But today it is obviops that the weak and the physically handicapped must be able to enjoy the same possibilities. As these problems have already been dealt with in detail in specialized publications, they will only be examined here in relation to the over-all architectural design.

Children should be made familiar with the museum at an early stage. A children’s centre including a painting school or a handicrafts room, rapidly accessible from the museum entrance and easily visible, is quite usual today. Furthermore’ some museums which have been specially designed for children have proved a success. Their characteristics are as follows: presentation which takes into account subjects of interest to the child; didactic organization; scale appropriate to children (easier contact); objects on show which may be handled (copies which may be touched); possibilities of activity in relation to the objects; separate play and relaxation areas (sound-proofed).

It may be asked in this connexion whether it is better to integrate the children’s museum within the museum complex, or whether to build it separ-


ately on another site. The latter solution makes it possible to meet the above- mentioned requirements as fully as possible, without let or hindrance, and to extend freely in all directions. It has the disadvantage, however, of making it impossible for the museum for adults to use certain installations (painting class, etc.) as well as making it that much more difficult for children to regard their museum as a stepping-stone to the main museum. Thus the best solution is a site in the immediate vicinity which nevertheless affords a large measure of architectural autonomy (Fig. 60).

The question of the physically handicapped who cannot leave their bed or wheel-chair, has considerable influence on the general design. There is an increasing number of physically handicapped as a result of road traffic accidents. When drawing up the plans, due attention must be given to seeing that the main levels are accessible by means of lifts with minimum dimensions of 1.3j x 1.3 5 metres or, better still, 1.35 x 2.20 metres, and that ramps with a slope not exceeding G per cent, or special lifts, are available in order to bridge minor differences in leveLS

Many museums have a department for the blind situated near the entrance. 8. See, for example, the Israel Museum, Jerusalem, and the Victoria h t s Centre, Melbourne.

60 BROOKLYN CHILDREN’S MUSEUM, New York. Model. The museum, situated in Brower Park, is seen from street level as a group of individual single-storey pavilions, rest areas and girders erected on a plateau, Paths leading to other parts of the park take the visitor via the plateau or via the observation bridge where one can look down on an open-air exhibition space about twenty feet below.

Psychology

Perception and behaviour

The prime importance of psychology is immediately apparent from the fact that the museum's fundamental tasks are to arouse and sharpen sensitivity. In this article we shall deal with two aspects: the psychology of the perception of objects and that of architecture. Psychosociology and sociopsychology are involved in these two aspects, but should nevertheless not be considered separately. It is an established fact that the way one looks at an object is governed by psychological laws similar to those governing the way one looks at architecture, since both fall into the category of eco-psychology. Further- more, in the museum the two should merge in a single experience (Fig. 61).

The museum provides US with an ideal opportunity to study the relationship between the environment and the mind, for its demands-both varied and lofty-are circumscribed within a limited spatial and temporal framework. Moreover, there are wide areas in which research of this kind, though highly necessary, is still in its infancy, and the margin of interpretation is great compared with the measurable values of physiology, for example. In this field, however, as in others, statistics, questionnaires, the way in which the pupil dilates and contracts, and so on, give us clear information about the interdependence between the internal and the external world. Architectural alterations should be carried out step by step, and should be based on scientific data. It is a matter of urgency that definitive conclusions be drawn from such

61 GALERIES NATIONALES DU GRAND PALAIS, Paris. T h B h and Yehw V o h ? m Space, t h M d i e ~ We Evoke in. Temporary exhibition. Work was carried out by the Académie de France from 1972 to 1974 in R c " on a system of graphic expression of global space, consisting of the construction of images by synthesis. The following points are basic to the study: light gives access to the space containing the perceived forms; the work shown attempts a study of the form in its own construction, implantation and use; the form is approached with the aid ofthe Potential d ~ m e s of 'dead angle spaces', 'passages of transparency' and 'bodies of light'; these elements constitute a plastic language giving infc"tion on the space as a milieu for evolution; considering them as wholes, one can proceed to the creation of a synthetic image with precise geometric definition; L~ jaZNte is a covered area in which one is í-nade to feel the space by means of coloured markings on the walls. This worlc, shown in Rome in June-Jul~ 1974. can be Seen in Paris from 15 March to j May 1975 in the ~ ~ l ~ ~ i ~ ~ Nationales of the Grand Palais.

.

B / ~ ~ ~

- . research, in order to counterbalance the certainties of the exact sciences and technology. Indeed, it is in the field of museum architecture that psychological knowledge should be recognized as providing decisive criteria; it should supply sound arguments for making the 'conservation machine' work more efficiently.

The following analyses will concentrate on the part played by the unconscious, for its role is central although it seldom receives much attention. The interaction between consciousness and the psyche-as may be shown, for example, in the so-called 'reward' test-should form the basis for all architectural planning.

It was also the subject of a paper read before the Académie des Beaux-Arts of the Institut de F ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . Above, synthetic image of IF', facing south.

Human perception obeys the rule of biological equilibrium; in other words, contradictions are not eliminated, but are maintained in a state of tension and simultaneously counterbalanced. Furthermore, these contradictions must be recognizable as such through a structure which contains them.

192 Psychology

62 Continuity of perception ‘completes’ overlapping sectors which cannot be objectively perceived and brings them together in a clearly structured consciousness of the area as a whole.

The same psychological pattern also governs the museum visitor, who must find a balance between the drives which urge him on and those which restrain him-between emotion and criticism. All perceptions are accompanied by intellectual activities, which may be described as a configuration of forces. The latter are based on constants, such as direction, size, shape, colour and so forth, which underlie the visitor’s reaction. One of these surprising constants is the phenomenon whereby objects, although their retinal image is distorted, are seen as being approximately their actual physical size (Fig. 62).

The individual’s experience of three-dimensional space is the result of a perception gradient which can be grasped more easily, and with less fatigue, in a clearly structured environment than in a space whose poorly defined configuration is due to intersecting forms and complicated colour or lighting effects.

Since the object, and not the space, should be in the foreground, one should be able without difficulty to gain a clear idea of the space by means of the surfaces which limit it or by other guidemarks. This is not the case if the central point is inadequate to define the space without ambiguity. That is why a circular space is not satisfactorily grasped when perceived. As long as the space is not easily perceptible, the visitor will continue to search, albeit unconsciously. The resulting uneasiness renders contact with the object more difficult.

The museum is a special kind of space in that, besides the man-space relationship, there is also a complex space-object relationship. Ideally, architecture and object form a whole, usually such a whole as may have existed at the moment of creation. In a museum with several different departments this whole cannot be reconstituted, because the object has been removed from its context. How- ever, it is quite possible to reproduce the inherent conditions of the environment of a work of art, for example, when these remain abstract: scale, light, direction, etc. Only the recognition of the harmony between the object and the space, inasmuch as this is a discovery of identity, can constitute an aesthetic experience. Moreover, a display which has been carefully planned down to the last detail may very well conflict intolerably with the space. For this reason it is essential to remember that space-object identity strengthens the visitor’s capabilities from the point of view of the psychology of perception (Figs. 63, 64).

Behaviour is determined by the fact that the movement-structures latent in space are mentally grasped one after the other with the speed of lightning. Eye movements are a pre-programming of the bodily movement which is to follow; in other words, perception and reaction are connected. A museum, where optical reactions are relied upon, is the very place in which perception and behaviour are almost identical, and this means that the exhibits and the space in which visitors move around must be planned together. The incitements to movement embodied in the architecture must be made more effective, and must be perceived by the visitor as a form of subliminal guidance and encouragement.

Psychic motives and reactions associated w i t h movement

The need to move is- an elementary drive in the human being; the pleasure which he takes in his own abilities generates a feeling of freedom. In space, a subliminally perceived restriction causes a profound disturbance (cf. experiments carried out on rats). Transposed into the context of museum structure, this means that the structure should always clearly invite the accomplishment of an appropriate ‘task‘ and offer a possible satisfaction, which should coincide with the suggested circuit to be followed.

I93 Perception and behaviour

goom lit from overhead with lighting projected exclusively on to the walls. Tests have established that in spite of some technical advantages the over-all impression on visitors is oppressive and

' off-putting.

. Taking possession should follow curiosity, conquest and assimilation, in accordance with a psychological gradation consistent with a 'space strategy'. An opportunity should be provided for the closest possible contact with the object.

Biological rhythm requires fragmentation and alternation of both the quantitative aspects of perception (pauses) and its qualitative aspects (reading of the phases of the configuration). Since continual change may give rise to tedious stereotypes, the psycho-physiological element is a determining factor.

The role of architecture is not only to provide a variety of forms of space and light (large-small, light-dark, etc.) but also to impose a psychological order on the series by the following means: (a) connexions and focal points;

&$IvERSIIY ART MUSEUM, Berkeley, California.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ u , " h f ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ! ~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ h Architects: Mario J. Ciampi, Richard L. Jorasch, Ronald E. Wagner..

I94 Psychology

(b) use of three-dimensional movement structures throughout the space (Figs. 6 ~ , 66). The following models are suggested: (a) perpetual motion, biologically against nature (working of a machine) (Fig. 67); (b) same pattern of movement, but with biologically desirable breaks in rhythm (Fig. 68); (c) variation for a small museum (Fig. 69).

Bdentification and pllace of movement

For the well-being of the visitor, it is very important that he should be able to find his bearings, that he should be able, at any moment, to see where he is in relation to a known point. Direction-finding is a primary instinct in man, who gradually becomes master of his environment by means of a system of

: : : : : : : g : o m : : : i i : : guidemarks. By its very nature, the museum tends towards the principle of : .” : : : : 0 i i spreading out (breaking up of the distance to be covered according to direc- ”. : : : : : % O : tion, distance and time) rather than towards that of compression (shortening

oome .,*mms WO.. Po**

. ‘ t : : ; ; : 0 m t

bs ;*a*’ L*’ ‘ L 0 0 0 . &am.” of the route by technical means such as lifts, escalators, etc.).

6) Ø“.OW..... : f......:. .. i i....... ! P :

6J A standard type of museum circuit which discourages and exhausts the visitor.

66 Suggested circuit for a large area. Biologically satisfying variety, broken rhythm. Organization based on focal points.

67 Spiral or rotating circuit involving biologically unnatural regularity of movement (working of a machine).

!!íB A similar model with biologically desirable breaks in rhythm and changes oÇ direction.

69 MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS, Louisiana (Denmark). Plan for the circuit of the visit which introduces a biologically desirable degree of irregularity.

The importance of psychological identification with the place is clear from the limiting states which characterize a positive or negative impression: Negative reaction: agoraphobia (empty, light), claustrophobia (small, dark),

Positive reaction: euphoria (presence, energy), security (appropriate, har-

Space in the museum also oscillates between these extremes according to whether it is, for example, too high or too low, tidy or untidy, closed or open. The resulting impressions of pleasure or displeasure are automatically trans- ferred to the object.

It is a fundamental requirement in museum architecture that the visitor should be able to have an over-all view of the space in which he moves. Nothing can take its place, not even electronic guidance devices. Nevertheless, considerable attention should be paid to proportions and to modulation, for the visitor must perceive and decide step by step.

The requirement that the space in which one moves should be ‘open’ is derived from a conception that is the opposite of the ‘surprise effect’ which is sometimes sought after and which can be achieved only through a deliberate lack of visibility. The contents of an exhibition may very well be like a ‘dance of the seven veils’. It is of the essence of architectural solutions to enable this intellectual contradiction to be removed by spatial means; for instance, a ‘diversion’ from the circuit may connect up with the ‘current’ of the over-all space. It is a matter of the means at one’s disposal and the way in which these are applied (Fig. 70(a), (b)).

We shall now make a brief analysis of a few spatial situations from a direction- finding point of view: Symmetry is very effective as a factor of order; however, it requires a hier-

archical organization of the collection which is seldom justified (Fig. 71).

irritation (unexpected, confused).

monious), surprise (release of impulses).

Perception and behaviour 19j

7 0 PREFECTURAL MUSEUM, Utsunomia (Japan). As he crosses the internal courtyard before entering the museum, the visitor gains a charming general impression of the museum. (a) Ground-plan; (b) view on arrival at point A. Architect: Kawasaki, Kyoto.

196 . Psychology

<-

+ 73

/ L PASADENA ART MUSEUM, Pasadena. Symmetrical ground-plan: I. Exhibition room; 2. Temporary exhibition room; 3 . Books; 4. Meeting room; 5 . Members' room; 6. Auditorium; 7. Stage; 8. Foyer. Architects: Ladd Br Kelsey.

72 The fan shape. Too many alternatives may confuse and discourage the visitor.

73 Rectangle. Although the circuit is freer, the visitor retains an over-all impression.

71 Circle and curve. The dynamic nature of the background makes concentration difficult and makes the visitor uncertain of his own position.

71

The fan shape, symbolizing freedom of choice, can be used only in so far as it does not make too heavy demands oln the visitor, that is so long as he is not irritated and discouraged by being offered too much (Fig. 72).

The rectangle is the most easily perceived, with its simple and unambiguous lines (Fig. 73).

The circle and the curve have no fixed axes, and it is difficult to perceive them steadily (Fig. 74).

Free forms may be considered unsuitable in a large organized space, but they may be introduced into a limited space which provides an over-all view (circuit which encourages strolling) (Fig. 71, 76).

An arrangement in cubicles as a series of inward-looking spaces, deliberately aims to make the visitor linger in them. A sort of compulsory circuit is necessary in order to avoid the 'labyrinth complex' (Fig. 77).

Continuity corresponds to what is happening in the museum: (a) Space which extends horizontally creates many guide-marks which ease the process of direction-finding; although a certain margin of freedom is perceptible, judicious arrangement makes it possible to suggest the desired decision regarding the circuit (Fig. 78). (b) A space which mav be traversed vertically

Perception and behaviour I07

7/ 7 6

has similar characteristics, which should also reveal the upward development in its entirety and turn this into an experience (galleries, vistas, etc.) (Fig. 79).

The idea of ‘fluid‘ exhibition space has already been interpreted literally several times, resulting logically in exhibition rooms with curving shapes (no corners, unbroken transition from ceiling to walls and to floor). Here, two psychological principles are in conflict: I. The visitor’s awáreness of place and sense of direction lose their simplicity

and clarity owing to the interpenetration of shapes. Lacking systematically arranged guidemarks, he is in a state of uncertainty.

2. The blurring of outlines reduces the number of intersections of surfaces, which are a nuisance. The background is calmer and contemplation of the object is freed from surrounding optical ‘interference’.

The highly formal treatment of space requires very careful placing of the object reminiscent of baroque ideas. Thus the collection is the determining factor: flexibility is almost impossible (Fig. 80) .

7/ Free forms. Complex, difficult to take in at a glance.

76 AQUARIUM, ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN, Basle. The visitor is stimulated by the large polygonal form of the presentation and soothed psychologically by the clearly discernible circuit. Architects: Burckhardt & Partner.

Museum circuit

The visitor’s feet may follow a wide variety of circuits which may be analysed as psychological seismograms. We shall deal only with movement in a straight

77 A nest of small cubicles. The obligatory circuit must be emphasized by formal means so as to compensate psychologically for the maze of small rooms.

f.

.............................. 1

............................ .. s.

.... .............. ’.. i a *‘S.. .............

.e.. h ’.

I i ..... .......... 4

. -

***.*. El

*;

-.. ...................................... ..... 79 Space traversed vertically.

7 8 Spaces extending horizontally. The desired circuit is suggested through the careful arrangement of partitions (opening/ closing the space) and the objects (visible/ concealed.)

198 Psychology

80 WORLD HOUSE GALLERIES, New York, 'Fluid' shapes necessitating an interpretative emotional response. Architects: Frederick J. Kiesler & Bartos.

SI (a) Circular itinerary ; (b) linear itinerary.

82 MAEGHT FOUNDATION, St Paul de Vence. Systematic layout of exhibition rooms.

.. . 3 . ... . .. , . ..

line and with a winding track, which are the manifestations of different types of behaviour in response to the environment. Because of haste and lack of time, a visitor may follow a straight track in which he gains little from a sensory point of view; if he is unpreoccupied and makes real contact with the exhibits, he will take a winding path, resembling the subtle movement of animals. Conversely, the circuit traced out by the architecture suggests the corresponding behaviour.

In the initial stages as in the final stage, the pattern of tracks also has various psychological aspects, which we shall now attempt to describe, setting aside questions of organization: I. The circular pattern leads back to the entrance, and raises the following

problems: the goal suggested is identical with the point of departure, it is possible at any moment to estimate approximately the amount of effort needed to complete the circuit, and a 'return crisis' may occur (Fig. SI(LZ)).

2. The linear pattern has the following advantages: entrance and exit do not coincide, the amount of effort needed is unknown, and the goal may be unconsciously considered as genuine 'progress' (Fig. SI@)).

It should also be emphasized that, for reasons of psychological economy, the visitor should never pass the same way twice.

'Gestalt psychology' of architecture

All visual processes spark off forces in the human brain which tend towards equilibrium. The experience of three-dimensional space arises from tensions which are primarily the effect of the proportions of the space and which may be elicited in a twozdimensional structure.

For instance: Rest Movement

Horizontally: Round shape Oval shape Square Rectangle Parallelism Convergence or divergence

Vertically: Same level Variation in level (floor of ceiling)

The psychological intensity of the space is thus defined and articulated in terms of 'mood', for instance: narrow/broad, oppressive/generous, etc.

For example: The exhibition rooms are arranged according to a pattern in which rectangular

rooms and rooms that are almost square alternate, with corridors leading from one to the other; in the highest rooms, opaque walls and overhead reflected lighting = concentration; in the intermediate low rooms, walls

Perception and behaviour I99

open to the courtyard = relaxation and an opportunity to take one’s bearings (Fig. 82).

The position of the entrance to the room determines the spontaneity of the experience (Fig. 83).

The height of the ceiling may have an oppressive or a liberating effect according to its relation to the size of the room.

Non-parallel partitions, seen from point A, produce an optical impression of depth and, seen from point By they have a foreshortening effect. The psychological quality of the space is not the same at point A as it is at point B. This lack of uniformity makes it more difficult for those features which do not vary to be appreciated (Fig. 84).

The variation in the level of the spiral staircase acts as an optical separation between the entrance area and that of the cafeteria. The variations in height create different spatial qualities (Fig. 8 ~ ) .

The relation between figure and background is of particular importance in a museum, for the architectural form (as an element of space) is not only a delimited rational surface which is situated at the ‘top’ of the visual image; it also actively affects and impinges on the background. A concave shape elicits quite different reactions and associations from a convex shape. The object must be in harmony with this psychological movement (Fig. 86(a), (b)).

Space and object

Every object needs space if its qualities are to be brought out. Every visible form projects itself beyond its limits and to a certain extent invests the ‘empty’ surrounding area with its presence. Only a few of the countless systems of spatial relationship that it is theoretically possible to construct around each figure are spontaneously perceived; namely those which give rise to the simplest conditions for the figure and the observer. Since the spatia1 characteristics of the environment determine the shape and the position of the visible object, space must be organized in a way which is in harmony with them.’ From the point of view of the psychology of perception, the object and the surrounding space must therefore form a whole, the exact definition of which, however, is constantly changing. Just as man should determine his relations with what surrounds him, an outstanding object should be regirded as a

a

U 84

83 (a) The visitor is drawn into the centre of the room; (b) the visitor is drawn to the right into the centre of the room; (c) the visitor is inhibited by the difficulty of making a decision.

84 Narrowing perspective from point A; room appears longer. Broadening perspective from point B; room appears shorter.

8/ HENIE ONSTAD MUSEUM, Oslo. Variation of level in the entrance hall. Architects: Jan Eikvar and Sven Erik Engebretsen.

86 (a) Relation between figure and background. The aim should be to achieve harmony. (b) Difference between a background integrated into the architectural structure of the building and a background added by means of decorative techniques at the Wilhelm Lehmbruck Museum, Duisburg. Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.

200 Psychology

87 Dynamic equilibrium: into the space the human mind projects zones of induction and certain requirements concerning proportions which must be taken into account when placing the objects. Here, zones of induction and lines of force of a rectangular space.

88 ‘Staging’ an exhibition in a time and space sequence. Architecture serves as scenery and off-stage area.

‘living being’ whose environmental conditions should be the best possible in each case.

In a museum the object exhibited indisputably has pride of place and not the architecture; but the latter must be regarded as a decisive factor in the environment, and not merely as a visual ‘accompaniment’. It may be said, however, that in many cases it is possible to reach a consensus as to whether a display is good or bad-in other words, psychological dynamics has its own laws which, unfortunately, have been insufficiently studied hitherto. The relations between several objects and between objects and space form a constellation of sizes and shapes, proportions and distances, etc., which is, in principle, subject to the same criteria of gestalt psychology as a work of art. However, the ‘environmental conditions’, the relative masses and the structures induced are so complex that, in general, the goal can only be attained by way of an empirical approach (Fig. 87).

On account of the close interpenetration of the object and the surrounding space, the architecture must obviously be considerably influenced by the fundamental spirit and conception of the display if the desired psychological goal is to be attained. The complexity of the components makes it very difficult to attain this ideal, which depends partly on whether the structure of the building is open or closed. In a static museum whose contents are fixed, the constructed form may tally directly with the object, but in a museum of a flexible character this goal can be attained only by means of internal arrangements. In view of the fact that the visitor perceives their difference at a more or less subliminal level, the ‘weight’ of the efforts to co-ordinate, and consequently the result, is not the same.

A display model based on psychological viewpoints shows how the conception of the exhibition may influence the architecture (any other model of an intellectual or organic kind would have similar effects on construction). This model is based on the idea that, for the visitor, the museum is an experience which requires a certain amount of time, somewhat like the theatre, the concert and so on, and which should consequently obey similar rules. This results in situations which relate specifically to the art of drama, such as the prologue, the exposition, the climax, the dézoziement, etc., and which succeed each other in space. Architecture cannot neglect this; it must and can sustain the visual ‘drama’ by means of spatial information, accentuate certain passages and divide the whole into parts. Kevin Lynch‘s ideas on town planning, which he has set forth in his book The I#zage of the Cio, can be transposed to the smaller scale of the museum. The power of suggestion obtained by dividing space into sections serves at the same time to guide the visitor without his noticing it.

It would, however, be over-simplifying the case to identify the museum and the stage. The unreality of the performing arts and the reality of the object and of the environment constructed for it are fundamentally different media (Fig. 88).

End

Perception and behaviour 20 I

Space and time

The time factor is latent in all considerations about space, and is‘inseparable from the concept of the circuit. As a physiological measurement, it has a particular significance at the level of aesthetic information. Since information and behaviour are directly linked in a museum, knowledge about aesthetic information, confirmed by scientific tests and generally accepted, may serve as a starting-point for considerations .about space and time. The recording capacity of human perception is constant, which means that within the compact mass of the present no more than a certain number of items of information may be integrally recorded. The flow of information that human consciousness is capable of absorbing is around sixteen bits per second. Of these sixteen bits which enter the conscious mind every second, only one-thirtieth reaches the preconscious memory. There cannot be more than 160 bits of information at the same time in the conscious mind (capacity).

The fact that the capacity of perception is constant has the following consequences for the museum: I. Time and space requirements depend primarily on the object exhibited. 2. The architectural space may either facilitate this inrush of information or

make it difficult by being non-committal. 3. Since the total number of perceptions per unit of time is constant, they must

be employed with discernment and economically, so as to serve the object (less is more).

4. The proper relation between the surface area of the rooms, the size of the walls, etc., on the one hand, and the time to be spent, on the other, cannot be laid down for all cases. A circuit rapidly and extensively covered may provide the same information as a circuit slowly and intensively covered. From the physiological point of view, a large exhibition in which there is a low degree of density of information may be less tiring than a small exhibition in which the visitor is mostly on his feet.

j . The quality of the information is enhanced by harmony between the object and the surrounding space, when the visitor is prepared to receive the ‘messages’, and receives them without agitation (Fig. 89).

It emerges from several surveys that, even in large museums, more than j o per cent of visitors ‘want to have seen everything’. In reality, this is impossible, and it is in contradiction with the philosophy of the museum, since it is not possible to increase the amount of information acquired in a given period of time by quantitatively stepping it up.

89 Museum project. Interior. The architecture is very simple and deliberately no more than sketched in. Architect: Mies van der R (Museum .fou a Small Ciel, 1942).

Lohe.

202 Psychology

One way is to offer the visitor several circuits which are differently arranged and ‘staged‘ from the point of view of gestalt psychology, but which, as units each forming a whole, leave him with the impression of having seen what is essential. The architecture must be such that these circuits are arranged so that there are no watertight partitions between them, but, in each case, they constitute a clear spatial whole possessing its own particular qualities.

Light

Over and above the physiological aspect, we shall consider light from the psychological point of view. Object and architecture ‘live’ on light, which Picasso described as ‘a measuring instrument in a world of forms’. In a museum, light must perform a double function, since it must serve for the interpretation of both the object and the surrounding space. If either one of these tasks is not fulfilled, unity from the point of view of geJtalt psychology is lost. The danger lies in partially solving one of the two problems, as well as possible, but without taking the whole into account.

Light is capable of sending out a large number of ‘messages’ whose effect may be to guide, inform, separate or bring together, hide or reveal, enlarge or reduce, produce gladness or sorrow. Whilst it is fairly easy to determine how the object should be lighted ideally so as to be psychologically satisfying, this problem raises the greatest difficulties with regard to architecture. The constancy law applies here too, that is to say the human capacity to see things (in the light) as they are known to be and not as they appear in reality; thus, a sharp variation in the intensity of light produces either a sudden change of direction or an abrupt deepening.

If the light is unskilfully deployed, the interpretation of space may be distorted since, according to the constancy rule, an impression of depth is associated with each degree of luminosity.

The (psychological) evaluation of the luminosity of a space results from adaptation and contrast. The light should be evenly distributed, so that the museum space can be perceived as a whole. Diffused lighting reduces attention, whereas locally directed lighting increases the force of attraction. One must of course be careful not to overdo it, for the repetition of a striking theatrical effect is tiring. Indeed, the museum is the very place where accents must be discreetly placed. The manipulation of light should not distort the truth of the original. Similarly, colours should not be altered by the use of tinted glass, reflective surfaces, etc.

D A Y L I G H T

A window is not merely a source of light; it is also a psychological link with the external world, which functions in two ways: (a) as a physical and mental respite not calling for any effort of adaptation to the environment; (b) as the ‘placing’ of human internal space within the great cosmic order of horizontals and verticals. An ordinary, fairly small window always poses a problem in a museum (unless it is there for some historical reason), since it affords only a small visual angle and has a pronounced dazzling effect; it does not act as an opening, but as a rival ‘figure’ on a dark background. The background lighting should be provided by an indirect source of light, and highlights can be produced by direct lighting.

Building techniques have been so much improved that the question today is not whether one should choose overhead lighting or side lighting, but what proportion of overhead light should be used. For decades, specialists have been debating the advantages and disadvantages, and are familiar with them. As a result of the evolution of modern architecture, the window has lost its ideological character and has become a glass aperture, just as the wall and the

Perception and behaviour 203

roof (overhead lighting z 'a hole in the head') are no longer regarded as constituting guarantees of shelter. Associations have changed, the problem centres today on the harmonization of object, space and light from the viewpoint of gestalt psychology. Thanks to technological progress, the resources at our disposal today are so plentiful that a satisfactory solution can be found for each case. Of course, the lessons derived from experience unconsciously acquired over the years in this and in other areas of existence with regard to perception and judgement play a part-and often a decisive one.

The yellow and red part of the spectrum (including summer light) is also of great psychological significance, for it is keyed to life, and should consequently be used as extensively as possible in the museum. Formerly, most paintings, for instance, were intended for rooms in houses, and were not meant to be seen in the northern light, which is.appreciated only for its relative consistency (nor did Rembrandt have a studio facing north).

The quality of daylight should also be regulated in accordance with psychological considerations; one should use warm colours of the spectrum wherever one wishes to produce an emotion and cold colours (northern light, for instance) wherever objective and critical scrutiny is the principal aim. As a rule, one should always seek to add warm components so as to avoid monotony.

The question of conservation as well as the problem of the choice between natural and artificial lighting for a museum will be dealt with further on from a general point of view.

.

A R T I F I C I A L L I G H T

As artificial light does not correspond to the natural cycle, its ,use has an entirely different psychological basis. Many studies have shown that percep- * tion and behaviour are different with artificial light. The biological constant starts off the mechanisms of nocturnal behaviour. As far as the relationship with space is concerned, one is not biologically attuned to the cosmos if one is in a completely closed-off room, and the system of co-ordinates does not operate.

In general, the intensity of the light is incomparably weaker than that of daylight. In order approximately to reproduce some of the qualities of natural light, artificial lighting is organized in two ways: (a) dihsed general lighting, which is usually dull and monotonous on account of its low intensity; (b) direct illumination of focal points (objects), which produces an (excessive) theatrical effects as a result of the low intensity of the light and its lack of effect on the dark background.

Monotony, like violent contrasts, distorts reality and makes a visit to a museum something between a dream and a trauma.

Colours

Colours actually play an important psychological role; they are, however, of secondary importance at the planning stage. The complexity of all the issues connected with them is such that we cannot examine them here.

90 Hygrometric chart, correlating tones of comfort and security recommended for different types of museum material. In this chart defining conditions of the atmosphere, an attempt is made to correlate areas acceptable as zones of comfort with those agreed to be satisfactory for museum purposes. While there is much common ground it should be noticed on the one

hand (to left of chart) that the zone of comfort extends into regions that are much too dry for many kinds of inanimate object, being below 40 per cent RH. The answer to this is to condition the museum for the collections rather than for the staff. On the other hand, archives, etc., can be safely stored under conditions far outside the zone of comfort (see bottom section of chart). As it is an established

fact that the human subject does not take happily to sedentary work at temperatures below 20" C, it would be necessary, in this case, to provide sedentary staff with suitable local heating.

Conservation

Physiochemistry of the objects

The museum as a meeting-place may be considered from either the objective or the subjective point of view, according as to whether the emphasis is placed on the social sciences or on the exact sciences of physics and chemistry. To deal with the problem, a combination of elements from both these fields of knowledge should be employed.

The objects in museums may be divided into three groups: (a) real things created by man or by nature and possessing original value; (b) reproductions, models or copies which, in certain conditions, may have the same value as the originals; (c) audio-visual and other aids to interpretation, which are becoming increasingly important.

The conservation expert’s task is to preserve, with the help of physical chemistry, objects whose unique character and fragility call for a great variety of treatments. The greatest care must be taken with originals; the following remarks in this connexion should make it possible to pinpoint the problems. The archaeological museum, which calls for strict conservation measures, serves as a fitting model in this context.

At the present time, faced as we are with a glut of information, original objects are the only sources of information which are constant and authentic and which cannot be tampered with. It is for just this reason that they never cease to afford new possibilities of interpretation. The original is the basis of the museum, its very raison d’être and the standard by which it is judged.

The science and technology which are involved here in a great variety of ways make strict demands which can be clearly stated. It is not possible to deal with all the details in the context of this article. From the point of view of the architecture, however, one can, proceeding by simplification, reduce the fight against the ageing process, which in itself is ineluctable, to a common denominator: all conservation work is aimed at protecting the object against the depredations and the changing conditions of nature and placing it in a wholly or partly artificial, constant environment.

In the same line of thought, the concept of conservation also extends to protection against damage and theft, since this has similar architectural implications.

It is here that we come into seemingly insurmontable conflict with that trend in the social sciences which calls for the removal of all barriers and maximum contact with the exhibit, free access from outside and integration into the environment, free access to all objects inside the museum, open display (including the problem of maximum capacity) and hence a normal environment for the object and the visitor, and physical displacement of

, 206 Conservation

objects so as to extend their ‘sphere of influence’, for example lending out for study purposes, etc. (Fig. 90).

All of this is in complete contradiction with the requirements of conservation which are based on the idea of there being a closed and constant environment. The most advanced trends in sociology, in which openness is a key idea, and the demand of physical chemistry for a closed environment are diametrically opposed. It is therefore not surprising that the fundamental task of conservation should be called into question and that the idea of a ‘conservation- oriented’ museum clashes with that of a ‘consumer-oriented’ museum. In this controversy, the stakes are high on both sides, but, in one case, the loss is irreparable. It is usually the exact sciences that win out, as they can offer a verifiable demonstration of their case, but this demonstration should not take the form of set formulae and simplifications, but of an intensive study of each particular case, In the field of social psychology, it is not possible to give such clear proof of ‘destructions’.

Museum architecture must unquestionably meet both requirements as best it can, but placing the emphasis on one or the other, depending on the case. The social and psychological aspects should be considered in relation to conservation and vice versa, this dialectical relationship determining the architecture of the museum. Moreover, building entails an irrevocable decision. It is thus in the organization of space that the possibility of giving a new dimension to these irreconcilable principles, and providing, where appropriate, a three-dimensional solution, is to be sought.

Starting off with total conservation and going on to intermediate adjustable solutions, we shall present architectural models aimed at showing the different degrees of priority given to human or material considerations.

In order to get as near as possible to an ideal state of conservation, the objects are kept in optimum technological conditions: Hermetic sealing-off from the outside world, with no inlets for heat, cold, etc. Temperature and humidity automatically maintained at a constant level by

mechanical devices. Minimum access so as to avoid disturbances caused by the heat or humidity

given off by the human body. Extended visits being scarcely possible, even for study purposes, special rooms with transition zones (air-locks) must be installed for the objects.

Exclusion of most natural and artificial light. Artificial ventilation with filtered air, etc. When conservation is the chief concern, the architecture of the museum becomes an essentially scientific problem and the architect an assistant to the specialized engineer in its solution. Although a project of this nature does not call for any differentiation in the use of space, as it is all intended for the same purpose, the architectural implications, especially in relation to the environment, may be considerable. The various possibilities are usually as follows: The storage building conceived as a closed and more of less independent unit

is, on the one hand, very important from the point of view of town-planning, but, on the other, it is difficult to translate into formal terms and to express its function (comparison with the silo) (Fig. 91).

Storage space surrounded by other premises, a solution satisfactory only for small museums; when there are large stocks, functional deficiencies appear in the surrounding sectors;

Underground storage rooms, installed beneath the museum or outside it, cause, from the point of view of town planning, little disturbance to environ-

9 1 Town skyline. A museum (or museum store-room) which is closed on all sides for conservation reasons, does not fit easily into the urban landscape.

Physiochemistrv of the obiects 207

ments which may have some general value worth preserving. An intermediate solution consists in placing the storage premises in an accessible

’building with a roof-garden, a children’s playground, etc., which fits into the landscape (Fig. YZ(LZ), (b)).

If the reserves are placed in a separate building, they can be moved further away at will (to the suburbs, for instance) since, in any case, transportation is necessary. Objects should be transported to the museum in air-conditioned, shock-proof containers.

Since objects may require very different conditions for conservation, one thing that needs to be done is to create separate climatic zones which continue right into the display sections; this means that if the principles of conservation are to be systematically respected, climatology will be a dominant factor in the organization of the museum, which also has repercussions on the architecture.

It must be granted that neither the idea of establishing an order of priority within the collection from the point of view of conservation nor the resulting architecture can be satisfactory and that, in most cases, such solutions have to be rejected on the grounds that they make the museum a mere ‘machine for

9” (a) Underground store-room with car parks, children’s play areas, etc., above. Simplified cross-section:.

conservation’. The ‘machinery’ of the museum is far too complex to be geared only to this one function. It works properly only when all the ‘cogs’ are meshing. Optimum conditions-especially in towns-can be obtained only by employing heavy technical plant at considerable expense. Such technical means are, however, burdensome, and for this reason it is to be recommended that, as far as possible, only natural means should be employed.

In the developing countries, research is being carried out into the protection of museum collections by means of ‘architectural climatology’, that is to say

92 (6) MUSEUM OF MODERN ART, Brussels. Underground museum in an historic quarter. Simplified cross-section. I. Entrance; 2. Reception; 3. Temporary exhibitions; 4. Patio; >. Collections; 6. Museum square; 7. Museum road; 8. New sections; 9. Car park. Architects: Roger Bastin and Leo Beeck; arch. ass. Pierre Lamby and Guy Van Oost.

208 Conservation

3 2 1

4 9 --- A

4 6b

I I-

I-/ 93 Plan for the ideal museum with environmental control: buffered core for optimal environmental control. I. Core (maximum control); 2. Insulating corridor; 3 , Work areas, public areas; 4. Acclima- tization; 5 . Air-lock for main visitor traffic flow; 6. Minimal control: (a) Main foyer; (b) Shipping and receiving; 7. People; 8. Exhaust effect; 9. Works of art. Simplified ground-plan by Duncan Cameron (MzisezimNews, May 1968).

94 Contact between visitor and exhibit: (a) direct contact; (b) the ‘glass curtain’ effect.

by applying the simple physical laws of construction so as to cut down the need to rely on technology. The simple method practised by Chinese museums, which consists in showing collections only when the seasonal macroclimate corresponds to the constant climate required by the exhibits, is not applicable everywhere. Figure 93 shows a museum in which the design emphasizes the conservation function.

As has already been suggested, modern museum design for various reasons calls for transition zones (air-locks), the functions of which are: I. The physical acclimatization of objects when being moved from one cli-

matic level to another. These spaces are situated mainly in the storage, administration and workshop sections and, from the architectural point of view, may be simply functional in design.

2. The physiological acclimatization of the visitor to the varying climatic levels and to the relatively pronounced variations in lighting. The architectural solution calls for special study and know-how, since the transition must take place gradually by way of spaces which do not interrupt the tour of the exhibition but give a certain pattern to it.

A distinction can thus be made between spaces serving to effect a transition between different degrees of lighting and between different climatic levels; these two kinds of intermediate space should not be the same. From the technical point of view, it is difficult to achieve marked differences of climate within the display section since the phenomenon of condensation, in particular, has to be reckoned with.

Sections where the main concern is with display

The ‘capital’ constituted by the contents of the museum is of value to mankind only if it is ‘in circulation’, if it is ‘productive’. To achieve such productivity, architecture, must overcome the antithesis between conservation and display. The more extreme the two standpoints are, the more difficult is it to find the solution, but the more interesting and pleasing will be the result.

Owing to the complexity of the problem, to which we have already drawn attention, it is necessary, in order to arrive at the right solution, to begin by studying the objects or groups of objects and determining their optimum physical parameters. The physical and chemical relationship of three sets of factors needs to be harmonized: the macro-climate, the micro-climate of the exhibits, the human micro-climate.

Several combinations are possible depending on the degree of compatibility: I. The macro-climate cannot be regulated to the artificial conditions created for

human beings and objects, which means that the outer shell of the building must protect the whole of the interior against heat and cold, damp, dust, etc.

2. The micro-climates required for human beings and objects are not compatible and the physical conditions in which the collection is shown affect the physiological well-being of the visitor or, conversely, the conditions created for his comfort affect the exhibits. This being the case, a climatic separation must be created between viewer and object which, for reasons of presentation, generally consists of a glass screen (Fig. 94(a), (b)).

3. When there does not need to be any difference between the macro-climate and the internal climatic conditions, one can do without the external climatic ‘shell’ and protect only the exhibits.

4 . When there are only slight differences between the macro-climate and the display area, only the space in which the visitor moves within the museum may have to be provided with air-conditioning for reasons of comfort.

T. When the three climates are almost identical (with material providing a fair degree of insulation-stone, for instance-in temperate zones), it is possible to envisage a free layout which avoids many constraints and makes

Physiochemistry of the objects 7-09

direct contact possible, although certain restrictions may need to be imposed for security reasons (Fig. 91).

Each of these possible combinations calls for fundamentally different architectural solutions, the separation of the different types of environment being a problem of architectural technique. Basically, there are two possible ways of organizing space: I. Separate rooms or groups of rooms with independent and diversified air-

conditioning. The collection is exhibited in different sections with technical installations specially designed for the contents of each. The architecture must take this arrangement into account at the design stage. One problem that arises is the need to use the same sections of the building for more or less the same purpose and to keep the composition of the collections in them more or less constant.

2 . The system of a space within a space, with air-conditioning for the object (mini-climate).

In this connexion, a very free approach should be adopted to the use of showcases. There are two basic ways in which they can be used.

First, a set of showcases, freely positioned in space, with or without special air-conditioning, may be used. The showcases should be arranged in such a way as not to be directly exposed to the sun. Similarly, when artificial lighting is used, steps must be taken to prevent heat being given off inside (special filters for showcases) (Fig. 96).

Secondly, continuous mural showcases, large sections of the exhibition area insulated by means of glass panels going right up to the ceiling and provided with separate air-conditioning, may be used. The showcases are usually built against the walls but may also be positioned in such a way as to be approach- able on all sides. Since they have a greater volume, the air circulates better inside them and it is easier to control the micro-climate (ceiling ducts, etc.)

At a very early stage, a choice must be made between air-conditioned rooms and air-conditioned showcases, and between the set of showcases and the showcase-room. It should be clearly decided beforehand where the showcases are to be positioned in the rooms and whether they will be connected to the floor or to the ceiling.

(Fig. 97).

9J HAKONE OPEN AIR MUSEUM, Hakone. Open-air exhibition. Approximate harmony of conservation and presentation from the point of view of physical and physiological requirements.

96 The 'room within a room' system for separate acclimatization of exhibits. Macro-, micro-, and mini-climates, separate air-conditioning ducts. Simplified cross-section.

I \ I / - 0 - Macro-climate ,

, , , , , . # . ,,;;,;;,;,::,::.~.~... 'I' ,',,'.I I...,. '..'

I Micro-climate

Mini-climate I o 1 tj I & I showcase n I 4 V I 4. I 4 V l t

210 Conservation

97 FEDERSEEMUSEUM, Bad Buchau. Site museum. The mural showcase extending up to the ceiling imitates the form of the window. (a) Interior view. The architectural space extends right to the back wall of the showcase. The panes, jutting in and out alternately, allow the objects to be seen from different angles. A combination of natural and artificial light provides the right intensity of illumination to prevent reflection. (b) Exterior view. Because of the very large windows one can observe the direct relationship between object and setting in which it was found: visual transition mini-micro-macro- climate. Architect: Manfred Lehmbruck.


The creation of the greatest possible contact between the visitor and the object depends on the architectural solution adopted and on the technical characteristics of the dividing elements (transparent or opaque) (Figs. 9 8, 99).

Dual - pu rpose sections

The desire to balance conservation against display, considered to be both of equal importance, may produce a variety of answers to the organizational and constructional problems involved.

P H A S I N G

The objects are normally kept in store-rooms in which optimum conditions are provided and are shown in succession on a rotation basis for a relatively short time. Conditions of transportation are assumed to be optimum. It is not certain that this principle can be systematically applied, for the following reasons: I. Climatic conditions in the exhibition area must be the same as in the store-

rooms, and its architecture, which should be adaptable, is thus .fixed once and for all.

2. Even a very short time spent under different conditions may cause irreparable damage.

3. In spite of every precaution, it is well-nigh impossible to avoid certain types of damage (in loading and unloading, from the jolts to which they are subject on the way, abrupt changes in temperature, etc.).

4. The museum can only with great difficulty open itself out, in the sociological and psychological sense: chances of conservation are no better for fragile objects (the only ones considered here), but the museum cannot properly fulfil its social function (Fig. 100).

98 Large display cases forming movable dividing elements. Simplified cross-section. Air-conditioning of display cases (mini- climate) and of exhibition room (micro- climate) by means of ceiling ducts. Flexibility is possible.

99 A circular showcase which can be viewed from all sides makes possible close contact between visitor and exhibit., Simplified ground-plan.

Z O N I N G

Since phasing in this way does not in itself provide a satisfactory solution, the spatial factor should be exploited to help to limit the dangers to objects and to achieve a compromise between conservation and display. This results in intermediate solutions in which now one aspect and now the other is stressed. These considerations lead to certain principles, one of which is the so-called ‘filtering’ principle, which opens up to the visitor sections in which conservation requirements are different. In the course of time, the collection may ‘filter’ from one zone to another without any serious risks by passing through acclimatization rooms. It is thereby possible to obtain, if need be, several routes through the collection, the predominant feature varying between conservation and display.

In the sections which make less demands on display techniques, it is possible to accord more attention to the requirements of conservation. This could result, for instance, in three zones, with: (a) systematic storage of objects close together in darkened, entirely air-conditioned rooms; (b) less closely arranged storage in sets of shelves or in showcase-rooms with adjustable micro-climates, without too much attention to display; (c) widely-spaced display, designed for the public in accordance with aesthetic and sociological considerations.

The size, the height, the lighting and the arrangement of the premises may be adapted each time to the required conditions. Nevertheless, great adaptability must be ensured within the sections so as to allow for changes of objects.

It is possible, however, on the basis of the same principle to achieve not only ‘filtering’ but also ‘static zoning’, which means that the collection is arranged more or less permanently in accordance with the considerations mentioned above. The advantage of this arrangement is that it makes it

- ~

Store Museum

100 Objects kept in store in optimum conditions are exhibited in rotation.

212 Conservation

IOI Diagram showing a balanced relationship between numbers of visitors and exhibits by means of spatial zoning of exhibition and conservation areas. This principle can be applied statically or on a phased basis.

I ! ! i I ! !

Many H O b j e c t s

Few Persons

Presentation Presentation Conservation I II

possible to draw out the various qualities of the space and to harmonize them in the best way possible with the objects.

These conservation-based models may be compared with public-oriented models which are concerned with the size and the quality of a given space. However, there is a conflict with conservation here in that it is just those objects which most deserve to be on show that have to be exhibited in the places least favourable to their conservation, although this objection carries a little less weight now there has been a change of attitude towards masterpieces considered as ‘star attractions’., The more art is seen in relation to its context, the broader and more even the basis of the interest in works of art-including those considered as ‘secondary’. The advantage of dividing the collection into zones lies rather in the field of organization and social service than in that of conservation. Most museums, if only for reasons of space, practise some such form of zoning.

When the museum is being built, it is essential to analyse all the possibilities and their implications in depth (Fig. TOT).

,

Lighting

We shall examine below a few special matters which relate to the principles of conservation but which have a profound influence on architectural design. Strictly speaking, all light is harmful to the object and contributes to its ageing. The exceptions to this rule are only differences of degree, for example oil paintings, which do not need to be kept in total darkness. It is necessary to distinguish between: (a) damage resuIting from direct exposure to the action of rays and which may vary according to intensity, duration, wavelength (ultra-violet rays, for instance) and climatological conditions; (b) damage produced by the effects of lighting on the climate (for instance, raising the temperature of the rooms).

Scientific measurements show the following values are to be acceptable and they are accordingly recommended: for organic materials, textiles, graphic works, maximum of 5 o lux; for oil paintings, maximum of I 5 o lux; for other objects, a higher or lower number of lux, according to the fragility, the thickness of the surface, the chemical composition, etc.

The reflectance of the objects and the colour temperature must be taken into account. Ordinary daylight may exceed IOO,OOO Iux, which means that it nearly always has to be reduced in a museum. The type of lighting and the way in which it is installed are determined by the limit of tolerance of the object. This should be scientificallv calculated in each case. thus makine it Dossible to

“ I 9. See also: Robert R. Feller, ‘Control of the Deteriorating Effects of Light upon Museum Objects’, MllseKm, Vol. XVII, No. z, 1964; and ICOM, ‘La Lumikre et la Protection des obiets et SoCcimens

arrange exhibits in groups according to their t~lerance.~ Generally speaking, it may be said that the ‘deflation’ in the degree of con-

ExposCs dans les Musées et Galleries d’Art’:

Française de I’Eclairage, 1971.

servation contrasts with the mounting ‘inflation’ in the number of lux which is to be observed today.

Eclairage dcr CEiurex d’Art, Paris, Association


Requirements thus differ not only within one and the same museum, but also between various types of museums. Thus, the original objects in an archaeological museum require quite different measures from those called for by the reproductions and models in a museum of technology. The architectural typology of the museum is strictly determined by the constructional measures which have to be taken for the conservation of the collection.

Daylight varies greatly in intensity, direction, wavelength, etc., and is hence difficult to regulate depending as it does on the climate. The problem of daylight is inseparable from that of space and for this reason it is responsible for countless architectural successes and countless failures. Both static and mechanical means can be used to protect objects against the harmful effects and fluctuations of this light.

Initial planning plays a decisive role. It goes without saying that an enclosed building with fixed and well-insulated walls, small apertures and a low level of lighting does away with many problems. But other, equally difficult problems arise. Harmony between the space and the source of light is of prime importance. For instance, a very high room with a relatively small overhead opening may be well lit by the light reflected on to the walls; in addition, the height of the room facilitates the natural circulation of the air (Fig. 101).

An opening facing the side away from the sun may have advantages. In the case of a saw-tooth roof or a similar structure, care must be taken that the architecture does not 'killy the exhibit. It may be necessary to have a ceiling through which the light is diffused, and this will have to be set fairly far away on account of the undulating contours of the shadow. Then, the intensity of the light will have to be checked to make sure it is adequate. In the case of a lateral wall built on the saw-tooth principle, its deliberately discontinuous character and the risk of dazzling and exposure to oblique light reduce the flexibility of the display. For reasons explained elsewhere, it is doubtful whether unilateral exposure, when a predominant feature, is a good thing (Fig. 103).

I O 2

I 02 High room with relatively small skylight. Good lighting due to: (a) the relatively high proportion of room area covered by the central light; (b) side light reflected from walls from a considerable height.

103 Lateral wall built on the saw-tooth principle. Risk of dazzling and exposure to oblique light. Monotony, limited flexibility of display.

There are various fixed appliances for the purpose of diffusing light and providing shadow. Absorbent panes of glass or film, the density of which can be chosen, go only some way towards reducing harmful radiation. In the case of objects which are sensitive from the aesthetic point of view (paintings), one must take into account the fact that they alter the colour of daylight. Absorbent panes which at the same time diffuse the light greatly are not suitable for objects whose effect lies in their form.

Slatted or latticed sun-screens are effective only if they are placed outside the weather barrier (the pane of glass). Their shape depends firstly on the sun's orbit-in other words, on the latitude-and, secondly, on the direction

Conservation ' 214

ro4 Claustra. The claustra casts a shadow on the exhibits and often (as is the case here this is not on the right scale, making the objects difficult to see.

in which they are facing. If sun-screens are non-adjustable, it is difficult to eliminate the disturbing effects of light and shadow caused by the sun's changing position, which can ruin a carefully planned display. The absence of maintenance costs is an advantage (Fig. IO$).

Adjustable regulating appliances are best suited to the variability of natural light, and afford the great advantage that the apertures can be kept open when luminosity is slight, and all the available light can be let in. They can be regulated according to the angle of incidence of the light, and they perform four functions: (a) they afford protection against the sun; (b) they regulate the intensity of the light; (c) they diffuse the light; (d) they may be used to reflect artificial light (inside). When fixed proportions are laid down, a single fitting cannot perform all these functions. The diffuser is not effective unless it is kept clean, which can only be done if it inside the building-but this is incom- patible with its being used as a sun-screen to regulate the intensity of the light. A dimming device is necessary, principally so that the effect of the light can be reduced as far as possible outside visiting hours. If there are only a few objects which need to be protected, it is possible to install a directed dimming device (for showcases, for instance). Automatic control is preferable, to ensure smooth running. It is often difficult to find room to install it, so it is as well to think about it fairly early on. Unfortunately, the visual disturbance resulting from the equipment available on the market affects the architecture considerably and also the intimate relationship between the object and the visitor, which is most important. The way in which such fittings are designed is of major importance for the museum using natural lighting. An unobtrusive and accurate regulating mechanism is still to be invented.

Light coming from the side facing away from the sun (northern light or, for the southern hemisphere, southern light) has the advantage of being relatively constant with regard to both its physical quality and its physiological eEect. A certain monotony is inevitable when it is used exclusively, especially when the light is not very intense. This reduces the validity of one of the main arguments in favour of daylight, namely that it is subject to variations, which are the essence of life. One can perhaps go so far as to say that a choice must be made between a complicated device to provide protection against the sun and an excessively bleak monotony. Differences in the quality of the light open up possibilities in the interpretation of the objects. In practice, when light from the north has been chosen for reasons of preservation, it has proved profitable to enhance it by means of a certain amount of southern light, possibly in the

'

Physiochemistry of the objects 2 I J

form of reflected light. Lighting from one side throughout an entire building has a leaden effect on the basic architectural design, and makes it necessary to arrange the various rooms on the same lines. It is possible to introduce a greater or lesser degree of variation between rooms, but the fact that the light always falls on one of the sides and that the other side is invariably chosen as the hanging surface is psychologically inhibiting and produces stereotyped patterns of presentation.

Reflected light has a greater effect and significance than is generally recognized, owing to the fact that daylight, which in any case is diffuse, rebounds off all the surfaces in the room. The reflectivity, the colour and the structure of the surfaces give the whole room its tonality. In general-particularly in hot countries-the lighting and heating effect will be still found to be pronounced. One of the advantages of indirect light lies in the fact that the harmful ultra- violet rays are absorbed in the course of the phenomenon of reflection; its disadvantage is that it alters the colours in a way which is not desirable in a museum. In the architectural conception of the problem of lighting, indirect light should be usèd for background lighting and direct light to add emphases.

Reflections from surrounding buildings and trees can be very important, and may become a decisive criterion in the choice of a site. For instance, many of the opportunities of using daylight are lost if there is a skyscraper towering up in front of the sun (Figs. IOJ, 106).

Humidity and temperature

Temperature and humidity are closely bound up with the problem of light. The reader will get some idea of what this means from the fact that, in a building in which 50 per cent of the surface area of the outer walls consists of glass panes, the latter are responsible for as much as 80 per cent of heat-loss. Here too, constancy is desirable. Fluctuations over a long period are less harmful than sudden variations in temperature, as is shown by the relatively satisfactory state of historic works of art that are kept in buildings in which the temperature varies little (churches, for instance). Recommended temperatures range from about 1 8 ~ to zo°C for an atmospheric humidity of JO to 66 per cent, with a maximum of 70 per cent in damp climates and a corresponding temperature. It is to be noted that even these figures constitute a compromise with the conditions of human physiology, since considerably lower temperatures are better for the preservation of more fragile objects. The measures to be taken depend, on the one hand, on the geographical and urban situation (dust, fumes, etc.) and, on the other, on the physiochemical make-up of the object. If the temperature-humidity ratio is higher or lower than the appropriate figure, either dehydration, cracks, etc., or condensation, accompanied by the formation of mould and bacteria, will result.

With regard to planning, it is to be borne in mind that it is basically easier to humidify than to dehumidify. While it is possible, to a certain extent, to achieve humidification by natural means (by providing water surfaces), dehumidification can be performed only by mechanical means. At the stage of architectural design, care should be taken to avoid the formation of stagnant air-pockets which could give rise to mildew. This makes it necessary for studies of fluid dynamics to be carried out, with a view not only to allotting the space available but also to arranging the rooms. Fumes can be eliminated only by ventilators provided with filters, which may be used for general air-conditioning or be specially designed for certain objects (for instance, an air-filter which absorbs sulphur dioxide).

According to the nature of the exhibits, steps must be taken to ensure that the whole of the museum is dust-proof, which means either installing an artificial ventilation system or placing the exhibits in dust-proof showcases, with or without ventilators. In manv countries-esDeciallv in troDical areas-it

2h

rol Roughly speaking, daylight can be considered adequate when the ratio of the height of a neighbouring building to its distance from the window is at least I : 2. Simplified cross-section.

-0-

106 The tendency of a reflecting wall to affect colour and raise temperature (particularly in warm climates).

216 Conservation

IO. See Appendix II, page 269.

is recommended that visitors be made to pass through an unobtrusive device which absorbs dust and humidity.

N A T U R A L V E N T I L A T I O N A N D D A Y L I G H T

In museum architecture, the requirements of conservation can be met at very different technical levels.

If natural ventilation and daylight are chosen (artificial lighting being used merely to supplement it), efforts will have to be made to meet the main requirements by climate-adapted building, that is to say by using only specifically building techniques to regulate the effects of the climate.10 These may be: I. In the general planning of the project and the over-all design of outer walls

comprising a proportion of openings and of enclosed areas adapted to the contents of the collection, providing for the openings to be facing in an appropriate direction and, if need be, for an arrangement which is in accordance with the principles of fluid dynamics. It is also necessary to take account of environmental engineering from the ecological point of view, especially with regard to the humidity rate and the reflection of heat.

2 . Determining the dimensions of the rooms on the basis of the climate, for instance: rooms with high ceilings in a hot climate, natural circulation of the air both vertically and horizontally, etc.

3. Providing for weather-insulation and employing appropriate building techniques (walls of several thicknesses, double glass panes, etc.).

4. Using materials capable of withstanding extreme climatic conditions, for instance: hygroscopic materials in a dry climate, waterproof materials in a damp climate, etc.

Such measures-which cannot all be dealt with here-have a profound influence on museum architecture, but they must be adapted to each particular case. They afford the advantage of not giving rise to mechanical breakdowns and not entailing large operating costs. If they are to operate ‘economically’, however, a higher outlay on the building is necessary. Owing to considerations relating to natural ventilation (high ceilings, air-cushion, etc.), the volume to be built will be greater than other factors would necessitate (Pig. 107).

Although climate-adapted building makes it possible to obtain appreciable results, its possibilities are limited. If one relies on its effectiveness alone, unsatisfactory conditions of conservation will often have to be accepted.

A R T I F I C I A L A I R - C O N D I T I O N I N G A N D D A Y L I G H T

For this reason, most museums employ artificial atmosphere regulation, while continuing to use daylight. Atmosphere regulation-or air-conditioning-may be partial or complete. In general, one starts from the principle that the most important rules associated with climate-adapted buildings should be obeyed, and that a mechanical air-conditioning plant should also be provided. As one will certainly wish to take advantage of the excellence of daylight for displaying the exhibits, the air-conditioning plant must perform the following functions: (a) make it possible to obtain maximum benefit from the daylight and to guard against its fluctuations; (b) offset sudden changes in the weather that the building material (glass, for instance) cannot absorb; (c) in most cases, overcome the effects of heat or cold; (d) keep fresh air circulating. In comparing the cost of complete mechanical air-conditioning with that of a solution based solely on climate-adapted building, it should not be forgotten that the first may require as much as a third of the total volume of the building, depending

Physiochemistry of the objects 217

f f 1111111 ,-A L,ll 1111 II

on the size of the unit, and that, generally speaking, it does not lead to a reduction in the volume built. From the technical point of view, it is recommended that the building be divided up into sections according to the different types of environment and use (conditioning of the object, special sections). In a museum lit by daylight, it is often difficult to house such bulky machinery. For the sake of the psychological ‘economy’ of the display section, the exhibits should not have to compete with radiators, exhaust pipes and ventilation shafts; in other words, the latter should be in the background or not visible (concealed, for instance, behind false ceilings or walls). From the stage of architectural planning onwards, allowance must be made for the large amount of space required by the air-conditioning conduits, and this may in some cases have a decisive effect on the project (Fig. 108).

107 Diagrammatic suggestion for acclimatization in a hot, dry tropical climate. Simplified cross-section. Movement of air through and up a central hall which acts as a chimney, extending vertically the height of the building. Humidity ensured by air sucked in over water surfaces. Shade from roof projections perforated for ventilation. (Design varying according to direction in which the museum is facing.)

A R T I F I C I A L A I R - C O N D I T I O N I N G A N D A R T I F I C I A L L I G H T I N G

Technological progress in the creation of an artificial environment has finally reached a stage at which both lighting and atmosphere regulation are entirely artificial. This poses problems which belong to the technical sphere. Constancy, flexibility and regularity can undoubtedly be guaranteed within fixed limits. The outer walls can be closed and can be well insulated; large installations and pipe-systems can be positioned and controlled visually. Even where there are undesirable light-rays, they can be investigated and dealt with more accurately than can daylight; an artificially regulated atmosphere can be kept constant.

The focal point of the architecture becomes the arrangement of internal space, on which the relationship between the object and the surroundings depends. The problem of light is really a question of the technique used for lighting. If all the opportunities offered by artificial lighting are used, a large,

I l I I I l I I- I = I_ I I _ L r

Pressure gradient

108 The pressure gradi.ent of air-conditioning systems designed to meet conservation requirements should lead down from sensitive towards less sensitive areas or exhibits. The arrangement of the rooms should be taken into consideration at the earliest possible stage in planning. Simplified ground-plan.

Conservation

109 Plan for a multistorey museum lit by daylight. Simplified cross-section. Light should preferably be obtained from north-facing windows or skylights (south- facing in the southern hemisphere) in order to avoid exposing the exhibits to direct sunlight. Satisfactory lighting of the lower storey is difficult.

II0 In multistorey buildings higher storeys may be set back to allow daylight to enter through the roof of the storey immediately below. Oblique light, illumination decreasing sharply from top to bottom of the wall, relative darkness of the middle of the room. Simplified cross- section.

I !

4 h d

III Museum lit exclusively by artificial light: extensible on a vertical plane (cumulative); extensible on a horizontal plane; flexibility of presentation; adaptable lighting (the direction, intensity and nature of the light may be changed at will). Conservation is considered the first priority.

II. See page 205.

flexible space (‘open plan’ design) must be chosen. Consequently, there will be no appreciable distinction between this space and other neutral structures which are used for all kinds of purposes and which are to be found throughout the world.

The differences are so deep-seated that a basic distinction must be made between a museum using daylight and a museum using artificial light.

A museum using daylight, establishing as it does a dialectical relationship between man, space, light and object, is complicated and makes no claim to perfection in the rational sense. Primary importance is accorded to man and display, in their sociological, psychological and physiological interdependence. There are many obstacles to the free development of this relationship, but they call forth unexpected solutions. Two building problems predominate: first, the number of storeys. If a museum using daylight is to be used effectively and afford the same resources as a museum using artificial light, it must be able to avail itself of the whole spherical horizon. Only a single-storey museum can fully meet this condition; if similar conditions are to be obtained in a building of several storeys, the different storeys must each be set back considerably.

It is not satisfactory to set them back a short distance, on account of the oblique light and the reflection of the wall above.

There remains the problem of the middle area, which, in certain cases, is not sufficiently well lit by daylight to meet the requirements of display (Figs. 109,

I I O ) .

Secondly, flexibility is much reduced. A museum using artificial light places most emphasis on the preservation of

the exhibit, for the sake of which the visitor and most of the exhibits have to exchange their natural environment for the artificial environment of the museum. For this purpose the architecture offers the setting of a large, super- imposable and highly adaptable space. The space within which the specific museum experience takes place is arranged after the basic setting has been established, like a theatrical setting. In the absence of overriding considerations, the architecture can provide only a neutral structure resembling that of warehouse. As to its fitting into the urban framework, there are two possibilities, which are mentioned at the beginning of this chapter.ll

A building which goes back a long way, which has glass walls, and is mainly lit by artificial lighting, is in much the same position as an artificially lit museum (Fig. I I I ) .

Physiochemistry of the objects 219

II2 DENVER ART MUSEUM, Denver. Artificial light only is used for presenta of the exhibits. The scattered window I serve the purely psychological purpose providing orientation and a change of scene. Architects: James Sudler Associates, Denver; Gio Ponti, Studio P.F.R., Milan.

tion ;lits of

Since ecological and sociopsychological considerations are also involved, an interdisciplinary problem arises. The choice between daylight and artificial light should be made in each individual case bearing in mind considerations relevant to the human and the exact sciences. In one case, the architecture is also a clear expression of what occurs in the museum; in the other case-if it is to be consistent-its effect is neutral; the implications of the decision are such that economic considerations should not be decisive (Fig. 112).

2 20

Side entrance

Hospitality

Creative activities

I I

i I , I

Temporary exhibitio

Main entrance

D .....

O Public Internal

I I Semi-internal

I Semi-public

II? Schematic path diagram. The main lines of communication between different sections and areas, indicating varying degrees of accessibility to the public.

221

Fu net ions

Space and circulation

The foregoing chapters were concerned partly with man in his psychosomatic complexity and partly with the object in its material substance. The considerations which follow stem from architecture, that is, from the laws governing the ordering of space. Since things, in Goethe’s words, ‘clash violently in space’, space must be so ordered that the desired operational processes may function. The word ‘function’ has its origins in the industrial way of thinking of the previous century, and appropriates to itself the utilitarian logic of the machine, which is non-stop and automatic. In any case, this interpretation soon came to be contested, since the complexity of architecture cannot be compared with the mode of operation of a machine, and it is possible to distinguish therein both‘ a utilitarian and a non-utilitarian aspect. In the following pages, we shall endeavour to treat the subject systematically in so far as it relates to construction; in doing so we shall undoubtedly find it necessary to link those functional qualities which can be measured in objective terms to those which call for subjective interpretation.

The relative disposition of space and arteries and other channels of circulation (‘paths’) necessarily derives from the basic concept elaborated by sociology, physiology and physiochemistry, which not only furnishes the decisions of principle, but if one is to be consistent, must continue to serve as a guiding directive, down to every detail. It is possible to deduce from this concept operational processes and spatial qualities which must bear a structural resem- blance to the mental construct, that is, must belong to a particular order. To be sure, this ‘order’ cannot be grasped in strictly functional terms in the exhibition area. ‘Order’ may be undesirable if the effect of ‘disorder’ is consciously sought after, for example in contrast to the efFïciency-minded world. Clearly, then, in the museum as nowhere else, considerations of utilitarian logic must be subordinated to certain guiding principles deriving from some higher order. In the functional sphere also, the objectives must be so formulated as to allow room for interpretation.

Display area

S Y S T E M S O F ARRANGEMENT

The holdings of a pluralistic museum can be arranged in accordance with different internal schemata which entail extremely varied spatial forms and relations. The following are but a few examples taken from the infinite number of possibilities: Topological arrangement, which may conform more or less closely to certain

internal sequences, but without any attempt to impose a geometrical pattern. This principle of dispersal gives little indication as to the type of architecture suitable as its framework (Fig. 114).

222 Functions

wide 10 tho museum

I I 4 Topological allocation of museum space under a Buckminster Fuller geodesic dome. Alexander Dorner, Architektzdr Wettbewerbe, Stuttgart, Icrämer, p. 38.

b

I I J Systematic arrangement on the principle of a series. Simplified ground-plan.

Chronological \ (vertical) arrangement

Systematic arrangement, either horizontal (for example, according to the materials) or vertical (for example, chronological). On the basis of scientific considerations, a specific, continuous sequence of developments is posited, which leads to the principle of the arrangement in series. The criterion of serial arrangement may be didactic, thematic, or comparative (Fig. II)).

Systematic superimposition of two or more types of arrangement. Gross- references are brought into evidence by means of the pattern of spatial relations. This process may take place on one or indeed on several levels (Fig. 116).

Division of the collection into groups of exhibits that are similar in nature or belong together (depending on content, scale, materials, and so forth). These groups are then housed in separate pavilions, which allows the architecture of individual buildings to be adapted to each group of objects

. (Fig. 117). Arrangement based on visual (communicative) effect, the purpose of which is

to display exhibits to maximum advantage. The architectural specifications should be as conducive to the harmonious relationship between space, lighting and exhibits as possible. Objects which are governed by similar conditions are grouped together, thus inducing a sense of the gradation of spatial qualities (Fig. 118).

Arrangements admitting of interpretations from varying points of view, in the light of additional information. These give rise to areas of varying intensity and density, possessing focal points characterized by some special spatial quality (where written oz audio-visual material may also be made available) (Fig. I 19).

Levels of conservation, arranged in accordance with climatological considerations and grouped together for specific technical reasons (for example, a

1r6 117

r16 Superimposition of several types of arrangement (e.g. 'horizontal-vertical'

compact building is most satisfactory from the heat-exchange point of view). The temperature (humidity, etc.) gradient may be dictated by considerations

arrangements'oflthe collection or 1st circuit-2nd circuit-store, etc.) by leading visitors either along a radius of the

relating to the public as well as to the exhibits. By sealing off the rooms as appropriate, these various climates (macro, micro, mini) can be juxtaposed,

circle or in concenturic circles. Access is from the centre of the circle. Simplified ground-plan.

superimposed or enclosed one within the other (see Figs. 93 and 101). Symbolization of an idea underlying the presentation. A system of arrangement

is chosen whose spatial structure generates associations connoting a particu- I I7 Exhibition area in the form of a complex of pavilions allowing architectural design to match content. Simplified ground-plan.

lar semantic content. For example, a circuit spiralling upwards may be compared with the progress of mankind; in other words, form is raised to the rank of a sign (Fig. 120) .

223 Space and circulation

Artificial Overhead ! Sidelight I light 1 light ! I Daylight I

L -.IL Ql

BI M

! ! Paintings Sculpture

i ! / Drawings ¡Paintings f II8

f 1 I

Staging of a collection, where diachronicity is used in the same way as in the theatre. The spatial framework must be both neutral and flexible, in order that it may serve for the performance of successive ‘representations’ (Fig. 121).

In each of the foregoing systems of arrangement, quite different functional relations emerge not only in regard to the mode of presentation, but in the over-all context of the museum. The disposition of the rooms, their situation in relation to each other, and their ordering, that is the general layout, will in each case be radically different. It is not possible to evaluate the different systems of arrangement in general, as there are always special circumstances to be considered, and in this respect also each museum must work out its own style. To be sure, conflicts with sociological, psychological or other criteria may arise, which may prevent a functional conception from being put into effect as a principle of spatial organization. A creative leap is always needed in order to unite a theoretical system with an architectonic system, with the many constraints to which it is subject.

The functions deriving from the type selected are necessarily reflected in the programme as qualities of space or surface which have only to be defined quantitatively at this stage, once they have been clarified in terms of the ideal. In the same way, the nature and frequency of ‘traffic flows’ between groups of rooms must be established as exactly as possible.

In designing a museum, particular difliculties arise in establishing the exact dimensions of the exhibition area, since generally valid, rational criteria are relatively few and far between. For this purpose one can take as one’s starting- point, either space (for example, approximately 2.7 linear metres of hanging surface or 7 square metres of floor surface per painting) or time (for example, two hours taken as the average length of museum visits). Figures of this kind are however valid only for the case in point, and are put forward at best as an approximate guide, since both the objects and the system of arrangement tend to vary considerably. Accordingly, the actual area needed can be determined only by means of statistical comparisons with other similar institutes, trial layouts and scientific experiments (for example using hodometers).

A C C E S S

The functional capacity of the chosen form of organization is deduced from an

II8 Arrangement based on visual effect, display of exhibits to maximum advantage. Here daylight is the determining factor. Simplified ground-plan: gradation of spatial qualities; courtyard containing collection of sculpture; collection of paintings-daylight; collection of drawings-artificial light.

1

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I ! 3 1 - jkl- pi I U ! ! 2 1 3

113 The architectural design conforms to the type of interpretation aimed at. Here, for example, the Ist, 2nd and 3rd (store) circuits are each treated differently. Simplified ground-plan.

I20 WORLD MUSEUM OF THE MUNDANEUM, Geneva (Switzerland). Human progress symbolized by an extended spiral. Project 1929, Le Corbusier.

examination of the internal system of access and the distribution of visitors. As this is a problem of traffic, the laws governing traffic management can be applied i~zufatis izz&atzdis. The question can be approached in terms of a general distribution along certain main directions of traffic flow and a more detailed breakdown within groups of rooms-although the means of locomotion (perambulation) is in both cases the same. The architectural spaces must be planned accordingly, and must offer a variety of focal points, vistas and changes of mood, as is done on a larger scale in town-planning policy.

121 Exhibits arranged as on a stage with maximum flexibility: no supports within the exhibition area, external bearing frame; adjustable levels, e.g. podia

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c , ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ y ~ ~ ~ ~ d ~ ~ o r if necessary excluded by means of mechan-

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ z2 be assembled and changed at will. -

7-24 Functions

-- A

123 A twisting circuit around a central hall. Access from a staircase in the middle which links the different levels.

124 An itinerary which weaves in and out, often involving use of a ramp, endeavours to counterbalance the constraints inherent in an exhibition by introducing an element of surprise. Simplified ground- plan.

A 1z.J Comb-type layout. An entrance at one end of the 'comb' leads into a central axis, off which one can wander at will into successive exhibition areas, varying in size. Simplified ground-plan.

I22 A rectilinear circuit.

The following is intended as a critical analysis of some of the basic possibilities which arise in this connexion. From the functional point of view, we shall be mainly concerned with strictly objective and practical (working) considerations, since psychological and other similar factors are best left out of account at this stage.

A basic distinction can be made between systems affording centralized and decentralized access, according to whether there is just one entrance (and exit) or, alternatively, the collection can be approached from a number of sides.

Centralized systeilzs of access

The main advantages of such systems are the possibilities of control and surveillance which they afford. Only in such systems can the visitor be systematically guided along a predetermined path. A certain disadvantage lies in the fact that before coming to a particular object he has always been subjected to a number of other prior impressions.

A layout based on the principle of arterial flow implies that visitors have to keep moving along, and thus to a certain extent entails the idea of a 'conducted tour'. The visitor may be 'conducted', more or less noticeably, by means of different architectonic forms, which will lead him on continuously, in what is bound to be to some extent a stereotyped manner, from start to finish, even though he may be able to cut short his visit at certain points.

The arterial flow may be: I. In a straight-or more or less straight-line, as in the case of the suites of

rooms (with or without interpolation of cubicles) to be found in old museums, and also some new ones (Fig. 122).

2. Twisting so as to follow the line of the atriums or meanders of the ground plan, on one or on several floors; some two-thirds of all museums are built on the lines of the classical atrium (in particular, museums depending on daylight) (Fig. 123).

3. Curved in circular or spiral form, on one or more floors (Fig. 67). 4. Weaving freely about; here, the visitor may end by losing his bearings if

geometrical constraints are done away with altogether (Fig;-124). In all these forms, the continuous nature of the artery offers relatively few alternative possibilities of presentation; this is especially so in the case of narrow arteries.

A comb-type layout functions according to the principle of a central axis, with ancillary loops offering a graduated succession of alternatives which may at the same time correspond to the system of classification of the museum's holdings. Access may be either from one end of the 'comb' or through one of its sides. In the case where access is gained halfway along one side, the visitor can immediately turn left or right and thus has a greater range of possibilities (Figs. 12j, 126).

A chain layout represents a loose sequence of self-contained display units, each of which may be designed to blend with the contents, in respect of configuration, lighting, and so forth. The transitions from one unit to another can be so arranged as to enable short-cuts to be taken (Fig. 127).

A star layout (for the whole area or part of it) was extremely widespread around the turn of the century. Radiating out from its central point, it provides access to sections of more or less equal significance, which, as in the case of

Space and circulation 225

1.26

126 Entrance halfway along one side of the ‘comb’ offers the visitor a wider choice of alternatives than given in Figure I Z J . Simplified ground-plan.

‘27 Chain layout. The different units can each be designed to match their contents. Simplified ground-plan.

128 Access from centre of a star shape. Simplified ground-plan.

1.29 Access from centre of a fan shape. Simplified ground-plan.

comb layout, have no through-flow of visitors and so can be isolated. The symmetry of the axial configuration presents a problem, as it can only seldom be brought into harmony with the different elements of the collection (Fig. 128).

A fan type of layout offers the visitor a broad range of possibilities, obliging

too much of him so that he feels overtaxed. In other words, the advantages gained from the informational and technical (‘traffic management’) point of view are transformed into a psychological disadvantage. Furthermore, a bottle- neck may be caused at the entrance as a result of visitors’ bunching together.

Within certain limits, the different ‘fingers’ may vary in their dimensions and configuration (Fig. 129).

him to make*a rapid choice. In the case of large collections, this may be asking -I-

Access may be central or-less satisfactorily-through one ‘finger’ of the fan. bd

1.28

226 Functions

I 3 0 Access to a block arrangement. Simplified ground-plan. Variations: (a) a large block offers the widest range of possibilities if access is central (the area is large enough for flexibility to be unimpaired); (b) in a small block access must be from the side so that the whole of the limited area mav be available for use. a b

A block arrangement leaves the choice of circuit free, according to where the point of access is situated. The distribution of visitors can be regulated as desired. When access is central, the approach must be from a different level if the most is to be made of available possibilities (Fig. 130).

As a rule, the square or circular design and central access offer the widest range of possibilities in this respect. However, this is true only in the case of extensive display areas, since to have a fixed central point of access in smaller rooms considerably limits their use. The problems referred to here concerning the circulation of visitors can of course also arise in intermediate forms, or in combination.

Decentralixed systems of access

Here, since there are two or more entrances and exits, the visitor is not required to follow a particular circuit. He could be allowed to move about freely, as in the areas reserved for pedestrians in town centres (of which the museum could form an integral part); and since it is not always possible to see everything

I 3 1 Decentralized access. Simplified ground- plan. This system has advantages if the twin problems of security and cloakroom facilities can be satisfactorily solved (perhaps by using electronic devices).

in a ‘free-range’ system at a single visit, further visits will be required, enabling him to make further discoveries. Until now, the socio-psychological advantages of such an approach have in practice been nullified by organizational difficulties. The proposal continues to be mooted, in theoretical works and in competitions; it has, however, already been put into practice in the somewhat similar form of the ‘exhibition street’ (Figs. 131, 132).

Speciai areas

12. See Introduction, page 129.

The internal functions of the areas devoted to communication (multipurpose space, etc.), practical activities (experimentation and work rooms), educational activities (lecture halls and classrooms), refreshment (cafeteria, etc.) or administration (offices, mailing service) will not be discussed here, as most of these areas function according to their own laws and are not peculiar to museums.12 On the other hand, we shall consider their place in the layout, their

227 Space and circulation

\

D B

spatial relationship to the display area as also the ways in which they interrelate. Ideally, the administrative services, laboratories, workshops and mailing

rooms should form a functional sector of their own, with a separate entrance, ' which must however be integrated as closely as possible into the institution

as a whole. In the case of the other areas, the question arises as to whether, and to what extent, they can be integrated. In certain cases-for example areas given over to practical activities and refreshment areas-part of the area will be integrated (and open to the public), part will be left separate (for instance to accommodate the supply services). Two approaches are possible: integration and separation.

A 13 2 ONTARIO SCIENCE CENTRE, Toronto. Architecture designed to incorporate a number of different specific functions and making good use of the site. Plan and section: A. Entrance building; B. Core building; C. Exhibition and work core; D. Future exhibition; E. Future studio, laboratory and library; I. Cooling pond; 2. Parking; 3. Pedestrian bridge; 4. Service tunnel; 5 . Administration offices; 6. Great hall; 7. Soo-seat auditorium; 8. Lecture rooms; 9 . Connecting link, elevators and escalators; IO. Terrace; I I. Galleries; I 2. Future arboretum; 13. Future rest area; 14. Future exhibit halls; IT. Parkland. Architect: Raymond Moriyama.

228 Functions

Integration into the collection, which, particularly in the case of smaller museums whose layout can be taken in at a glance, and whose holdings are not especially fragile, can be both expedient and attractive. The intimate, relaxed character of the museum is accentuated. The pre-condition is that all areas must be as freely accessible as possible, from outside the museum as well as from inside. Otherwise, the rooms set aside for rest and refreshment and practical activities are not certain to be used to full capacity. The precise mode of functioning is a question of organization and (possibly electronic) security and surveillance (Fig. 133).

Separation-or the possibility of separation-of the special areas from the collection and from each other. There are many arguments in favour of this course: the separate use made of these areas (for example for evening courses), the fact that they have different spatial qualities and the need to prevent disturbance from noise, the coming-and-going of visitors, and so forth. Since, on the other hand, the museum must retain the character of an ‘open house’, the architect has at one and the same time: (a) to divide off the areas in question, using fixed or movable partitioning; (b) to ensure that they can be used for a variety of purposes; (6) to provide transitional zones which can be connected alternately to one or other area.

I33 Special areas integrated in a small museum, As the layout of the whole area can be taken in at a glance there is no need for rigid demarcation according to function. Simplified ground-plan.

A

This can be achieved as follows: (a) by using light, adjustable partitions possessing adequate insulating capacity; (b) by a judicious arrangement of space which allows people to move easily and without commotion from one place to another as desired (for example, areas of quiet, contrasting with areas of noise); (c) by designing the technical (for example, air-conditioning and lighting) installations of the different areas so that they can be used equally well for joining together and separating; (d) by ensuring that the architectural treatment of the different areas (in regard to acoustics, finishing materials, and so forth) remains varied, but blends harmoniously when they are joined together.

From the functional point of view, it is important to decide which areas must remain in direct contact, adjacent to one another, and which need link up only indirectly (groups of rooms). The principle of separate utilization requires that as many special areas as possible should link up directly to the entrance hall. Depending on what part the various functions are expected to play, fixed or movable channelling devices will be used (Fig. 134).

choice between integration and separation. In this connexion, the question of zoning for sociopsychological or conservational reasons plays only a limited role. Generally speaking, the grouping together of the storage rooms is, from the point of view of organization and building technology (air conditioning, security, etc.), the most appropriate solution (Fig. 1 3 ~ ) . In its relation to the display area, this group of rooms can be: (a) added on alongside or on the

The location of the storage rooms can also be considered in terms of the ’


Exhibition

Reference collection

I3 4 Access to special areas from the entrance hall. Functional interdependence of special areas.

1 3 J Peripheral position of store, with display, study and storage areas on different levels. Cf. Figure 133 with store in central position. (Visitors are able to view store from outside or. where appropriate, use it.)

periphery, so as to enable both areas to develop unimpeded; (b) located centrally, thus permitting easy access by visitors and easy removal and replace- ment of objects, but on the other hand imposing constraints in regard to presentation and also tending to the neglect of other functions (research, laboratory work, administration).

Transit (circulation)

Architectonic functions can mostly be expressed in terms of circulation or path diagrams though, here again, subjective considerations have to be taken into account alongside purely objective factors. The importance of the part played in this connexion by psychology is evidenced by the well-known fact that to traverse a given itinerary frequently appears to the person concerned to demand a much greater effort than is justified by the actual distance covered, and vice versa. In other words, the way in which an itinerary is plotted and laid out automatically generates certain responses. In museums a basic distinction must be made between the circuit followed by the visitor, on the one hand, and the paths taken by staff and transport, on the other.

AS has already been shown in the chapter relating to psychology, the circuit followed by the visitor is not subject to today’s paramount principle of e&- ciency, and may be characterized as a ‘voluntary detour’. Its efficacity lies in a sphere quite different to that governing the paths taken by staff or for the

230 Functions

13 6 Path diagram showing how the visitor ‘saunters’ (above) and how staff and exhibits follow a direct route from the most central point of access (below). b

movement of exhibits, where the laws of economy of effort prevail and the aim is the diametrically opposed one of minimizing the distance to be covered. The paths taken by staff and for the movement of exhibits must accordingly be planned according to this principle and, in general, must of necessity be kept separate from those used by visitors. With regard to vertical means of transport (lifts), every effort should be made to site these centrally in the ground-plan, in order to keep the horizontal distances as short as possible. This theoretical ‘point of gravity’ can nevertheless be shifted in so far as the amount of traffic is not the same to and from all areas and tends to be heaviest in the direction of the administrative services, workshops and so forth (Fig. 136).

In order to assess the functional soundness of a building, it is common practice to analyse the relationship between useful space and space used for circulation or transit. In the case of museums, however, this practice is appropriate only when applied to what goes on ‘behind the scenes’, since as far as the collection itself is concerned no space should be reserved exclusively for transit, seeing that every square inch should be used for display or relaxation

I

purposes. It is also important that access to the special areas should not be through bare, tunnel-like corridors, but through space that is attractively used for display or other museum purposes.

Attention has already been called, in the chapters on town-planning and sociology, to the need for an effective link-up with the urban structure. Gen- erally speaking, new buildings are required to fit into an existing situation, or are erected as part of a larger urban complex. In the latter case, there is theoretically every chance of achieving a satisfactory solution. In practice, however, the solution achieved is unfortunately rarely happy, since other planning components take precedence. This may be due to any of the following factors: (a) adherence to a pre-established town-planning policy; (b) greater economic importance of adjoining buildings planned at the same time; (c) purely quantitative assessment of utilization; (d) disregard for the not immediately apparent demands museums make in regard to their surroundings.

The inadequacy of new museum buildings is largely to be attributed to these factors, and can be overcome only by giving priority to the museum, both in terms of time and space, from the very start of the planning operation. This is not to be understood as meaning that museums should be sited like monuments in a commanding position, any more than that they should be placed ‘in the way’ of passers-by like some great department store. Most truly


contemporary museums have a particular, reflexive relationship to the present, a relationship which should also be expressed in the general approach to the museum. Due weight must be given to the appropriate use of spatial means to prepare the visitor and condition him, in order that he may begin to apply other standards or values than those that prevail outside, and so make such a voluntary ‘detour’ seem worth while (Fig. 137).

These subjective considerations are virtually independent of the objective factors governing the transit (circulation) system. In all cases, efforts must be directed towards ensuring ease of access; however, it is not necessary that an underground station open directly into the entrance hall (as has already been proposed) or that the visitor be obliged to traverse a gigantic car park in order to reach the collection. As the visitor approaches the museum, the tyranny of the concrete jungle should gradually fade. The immediate precincts of the museum, which have the exceptionally important function of serving as inter- face between the museum and the outside world, are reserved exclusively for pedestrian use. This is why the entrance to major museums can be approached on two levels, an upper one reserved for pedestrians and a lower level for

I o i

motor vehicles; it is for this same reason, coupled with a concern to spare the museum’s surroundings, which are generally worth preserving, that the car parks are situated either at a considerable distance from, or beneath, the building. The problem of motor traffic being a general one, we shall not pursue it further (Fig. 138).

The functional relationship between the reception areas (courtyards and the like), the entrance hall and the collection itself is further affected by the problem of security. Even if it is frequently disputed, and is not everywhere an acute problem, this is a factor which must be taken into ‘account. At all events, as large an area as possible should be kept free, surveillance being exercised only on the actual collection. It could also only help to make the museum more lively and attractive if some form of ‘streaming’ of visitors were practised already in the entrance hall. A major museum should not be accessible only through ‘the eye of a needle’. There should,therefore be either discreet channelling within the entrance hall or several ticket barriers or check points should be positioned on a single axis of distribution along which all visitors must pass. The solution adopted to this problem can have a significant effect upon the architectural conception as a whole. The principle that the entire collection must be kept in view for surveillance purposes, which tended in the past to be regarded as an absolute criterion, made it well nigh impossible to design smaller, more intimate rooms. Thanks to electrical safety devices, this principle has nowadays lost some of its absolute validity. From the functional point of view, transit (circulation) within the museum is governed by the fact that the museum is divided into an ‘on-stage’ area and a ‘behind-the-scenes’ area, in other words, there exists a public domain and a technical-cum-operational domain, just as there is a visitors’ entrance and an independent service

I37 Design for an extension of,the Schomburg Collection, New York. Plan: I. Passage; 2. Exhibition; 3. OfTices. Here, the road runs into the entrance zone. The collection is reached by a pedestrian passage situated in the middle of Harlem and can also be seen from a walkway. Architect: Roger De Conrey, Glasgow.

13 8 Pedestrians and motor vehicles can approach large museums at different levels. Internal or external staircases, depending on the position of the (single) ticket barrier or check point.

212 Functions

I39 CENTRE GEORGES POMPIDOU, Paris. External escalators give access to different areas of the cultural centre in turn. Model (see also Fig. 3 ~ ) . Architects: Piano & Rogers; Ove Arup & Partners.

140 MUSÉE DES ARTS ET TRADITIONS POPULAIRES, Paris. The urban appearance of this museum is determined mainly by the multistorey research department. The single-storey display area affords great flexibility of use and the basement contains a reference collection which is open to the public. Architect: Dubuisson. Museologist: Georges Henri Rivitre.

entrance. In addition, there are certain border-line sections. The more responsive the museum is to sociological trends, the more ‘fluid’ will be the transit areas and the more difficult surveillance will become. The public should also be allowed a glance behind the scenes, for example by means of windows let into the restoration workshops, storage rooms and technical installations (for example the conducted tour of the sky-lights in Gapodimonte). For this purpose suitable arrangements must be made at the design stage to enable the visitors’ circuit to touch upon such premises at various points without affecting the security system. This bi-partition should naturally be as little apparent to visitors as possible; this is best achieved by ensuring that there are no cross- junctions. The architect’s difficult task is to bring both domains so unob- trusively into relation with one another that both the internal link-ups (means of access) and the systematic divisions (stair cases, etc.) functions moothly.

Under this heading we shall consider only the specific requirements in regard to circulation facilities in museums. Their efficiency can only be assessed in relation to the psychological function. Since there is in theory no space reserved exclusively for transit in the display area of museums, there should be no ‘corridors’ or ‘staircase wells’ to constrict fluid movement, in other words, the circulation facilities must be made part and parcel of the presentation itself. This can be achieved by eschewing: (a) all constriction or interruption, which means for example that broad staircases will be preferred to long ones (not to be confused with changes in rhythm); (b) to great vertical intervals (hence for instance a preference for mezzanines and split-level arrangements); (c) stretches of ‘waste-land’, providing neither information nor emotional impact.

On the other hand, the vertical intervals (changes of level) must not be too small (however attractiye this may be in architectural terms), as they can easily be overlooked by the visitor whose attention is engaged elsewhere as well as constituting an” obstacle for the physically handicapped, as also for transportation purposes. Likewise, ‘suspended’ storeys and galleries are to be avoided, as they may appear to the visitor at first glance as being unlikely to reward the physical effort involved.

Ramps offer a means of countering certain of these difficulties and securing continuity of movement. However, their gradient should not exceed 6 per cent, and they are bound, as a result, to take up considerable space (for example, 60 metres in length for 3.60 metres difference in level. Moreover, it is difficult over this relatively long distance to arrange displays that are compatible with the gradient (cf. the Guggenheim Museum).

Mechanical means of transport always call for a psychological adjustment on the visitor’s part, in the case of escalators and travelling platforms by taking up his attention and in the case of lifts by constricting and interrupting the continuity of his experience. When mechanical means of transport are used, it must be borne in mind that: (a) they offer no contrast to the world of efficiency; (b) they generally call for some form of decision on the visitor’s part; and (c) mechanization almost always means collectivization. How far these effects are considered suitable or indeed desirable will depend upon the type of museum and its particular pretentions (for example, technical museums). There are no objections to the use of such means of transport outside the display area (for example, in the entrance hall), provided that the congruity of the whole is not disturbed (Fig. 133).

Needless to say, quite different laws apply to the technical services. The principle of economy of effort may even make it expedient to allow vans to be brought into the exhibition area (for example, the area devoted to practical activities).

Space and circulation 23 3

234 Functions

I4I Proposal for a large museum with predominantly single-storey display areas. Division into sections linked by electronically controlled means of transport. Maximum flexibility, extensibility and use of daylight.

142 ART MUSEUM, Denver. Example of vertical layout. Standard floor- plan. Seven storeys, relatively high. Architects: James Sudler Associates, Denver; Gio Ponti, Studio P.F.R., Milan.

I

In this connexion, it is instructive to compare the horizontal with the Vertical development of the museum building. In doing so, however, we shall confine our discussion to the display area, since in the case of research, education, administration and so forth, special consideration’s apply which are not peculiar to museum practice (Fig. 140).

The single-storey display area offers the maximum possibilities, as far as adapting space and natural light in order to show exhibits to their best advantage is concerned. Differences of level can further enhance the advantages of this type of layout, which allows considerable flexibility and scope for extension, whether of the museum as a whole or of individual sections. There is no doubt that the single-storey arrangement is ideally suited for smaller museums, particularly those depending on natural lighting. For the public’s sake, however, the collection must not be too large, in other words, this ideal solution is applicable essentially in the case of smaller museums and ‘site museums’. Since a big single-storey museum is likely to extend over a very large area, the physiological criteria are decisive. It is conceivable that recourse to various technical and spatial devices would make it possible to overcome this limitation to some extent, but this would entail additional expense, as would the location of all non-display sectors in basements (Fig. 141).

142

\

Space and circulation 23 5

By contrast, vertical, multistorey development affords the advantage of economic use of land and profitability. The ‘behind the scenes’ technical services also operate extremely smoothly, since communications can be concentrated vertically, with numerous junction points and short distances. Since the ‘efficiency’ of museum operation varies in proportion to their height, a conflict arises between the measurable values and criteria governing museum architecture and those that are not (or not yet) measurable. In many or most cases, it is no longer possible to make a free choice; however, in cases where the decision has not yet been taken, the following considerations should be borne in mind: I. The division into storeys splits the display once and for all into hard-and-

fast sections. Even when, to begin with, the collection falls naturally into a division by stories, it will be subsequently impossible to modify this arrangement to any satisfactory degree. Flexibility is thus reduced.

2. Natural lighting is adequate only on the top-most storey; on the lower storeys the only lighting available is that entering obliquely from the sides. The decision in favour of the multistorey museum is thus tantamount to a decision in favour of artificial lighting.

3. The rooms will necessarily be arranged in vertical ‘flights’, since approximately the same volumes must be superimposed upon each other. Regardless of the nature of the exhibits, the ratio between surface-area and duration of visit is fairly constant (Fig. 142).

Certain of these drawbacks can be alleviated as follows: I. Visual links between the different storeys (possibly also split-level arrange-

ments) transcend as far as possible the horizontal divisions and thus give rise to a sort of ‘vertical open-plan arrangement’ in which objects and spaces are brought vertically and diagonally into relationship with one another.

2. Natural lighting can be improved by disposing the storeys in tiers, thus allowing sky-lights to be built into the peripheral areas. When combined with terraces, the resulting building is on the model of a ‘ziggurat’, and has the additional advantage of giving on the outside world (Fig. 143).

The concept of the ‘architectural landscape’, which is today so current, is a conjunction of ideas that harks back to man’s original need for living space, and is undoubtedly particularly applicable to museums. It can be interpreted in either the horizontal or the gertical sense to enable the architect to devise means of attenuating the concern with efficiency and output which is the hallmark of the multistorey building (Figs. 144(a), (b)).

143 WALKER ARI‘CENTER, Minneapolis. A building in.dggurat style. Plan of the fourth floor with a view over the terraces: Ï. Terrace I; 2. Terrace II; g.Terrace III; 4. Restaurant; s . Kitchen. Architect: Edward Larrabee Barnes.

r44(a), (b) A linear system of architecture with standardized basic structures which is well suited to a transport museum. Plan and elevation. Design for a transport museum, New Delhi. PrinciDal architect: L. G. Toye, Luckhow.

I4.J CENTRE GEORGES POMPIDOU, Paris. The experimental room of the IRCAM project is a good example of a multifunctional space, offering great optical and acoustical flexibility. Architects: Piano & Rogers.

Technology

Flexibility, extensibility

Building .is both an intellectual and a material process. Where as the intellect- planning and reshaping-is constantly astir, the materials remain fixed in the form imposed upon them. Present-day building techniques have for the first time made it possible to keep pace, to a certain extent, with the ever-acceler- ating operations of the human mind. There undoubtedly exists a relation-the origins of which remain unexplained-between the stability of a building, that is the expenditure of energy required to effect the transformation in question, and the duration of human needs, that is the validity of the form established. On the one hand, technology has the task of ensuring that the currently required specifications are such as to provide ‘workable material’; on the other hand, it is at the same time áhvanced technology which has stimulated the intellect to carry out unending modifications and experiments. It is precisely in the field of museum construction that a new philosophy has developed con- currently with the new operational methods available to architecture, including the latitude they afford for imaginative innovation. In the planning of each particular museum, it is accordingly essential to clarify at the very outset whether, and if so what, modifications are necessary and what limits can be

The reasons for this uncertainty have already been indicated in the foregoing chapters; in the present chapter we shall take them for granted. They are of three kinds: (a) practical, relating to the exhibits themselves, and involving for example, the extension or modification of the collection (purchases, donations, functional extension); (b) conceptual, deriving from a reappraisal or a new approach (involving new correlations and focal points); (c) technological, relating for example to new possibilities of conservation or interpretation, including architectural possibilities (all too easily forgotten). The considerations which act as a check upon unbridled extension include: (a) the scientifically proven limit to man’s receptivity; (b) the alienating effect and the in- human scale of major complexes; (c) the need to anchor the object in some spatial or temporal continuum. The concept of an infinitely expanding museum is as frightening as that of a hypermarket stretching on and on. The primary phenomenon of locality, rooted in the philosophical consciousness, must be taken into consideration and the stability it implies must be brought step by step into a dialectical relationship with the dynamics of development.

The properties that make it possible to modify the function of an existing space to meet a new requirement-which must be organically integrated with the over-all utilization of space-are adaptability and extensibility. These two terms can be distinguished as follows: a building is considered (a) adaptable if it is specially designed to allow its functions to be modified with a minimum of technical resources and organizational work; (b) extensible if its design principle is such as to enable structural uniformity to be preserved as the building grows. (Fig. 14~).

Adaptability and extensibility are thus inseparable; in other words, a coherent extension of the museum may be accompanied by a modification of the uses to which it is put. The following possibilities may accordingly arise: I. The museum can be enlarged without any major modification of the existing

building. For the purpose of this relatively simple process of ‘adding on’

I drawn.

2 3 8 Technology

146 Extensibility. Simplified ground plan: (a) continuation of existing forms and structures is not to be recommended unless the building work can be done quickly and the over-all architectonic effect has been carefully structured in advance; (b) a new building on the reserved site.

it is necessary merely to reserve additional building land and to justify the appropriateness of the extension in architectural terms.

2. It must be possible to enlarge the museum in such a way as to allow its content and structure to be reorganized and integrated into a unified whole; in other words, the new additions must be properly planned so as not to disrupt existing relationships, while the exhibits are rearranged and re- attuned to their new setting.

3. The museum is not enlarged, but the arrangement of the exhibits is constantly modified so as to allow the focal points to be shifted and new relations to be established between the exhibits and their setting.

W i l e in the first case a new, independent structure can be selected, in the second and third cases an over-all structure is required which must be sufficiently neutral and adaptable to lend itself fully to the modified uses to which it is put.

Moreover, a basic distinction must be drawn according to whether these modifications affect the museum as a whole or only sections thereof. For example, the different sections of the display area are more or less prone to change depending on whether their content forms a finished whole or is in process of development. The decision reached on this question is of considerable bearing, since it has the effect of diminishing or extending the range of architectural possibilities. The problem of adaptability is one that dominates modern architecture as a whole; in the case of museum architecture, however, it is particularly acute, since: (a) the future uses vary considerably and are difficult to anticipate; (b) requirements with respect to space and light are particularly high as regards both the public and the exhibits.

Examples of possible forms of spatial modification and extension are as follows:

I. A new collection forming a coherent, independent corpus is added to the existing collections-or made up from them, as they grow in size-without impairing the structural integrity of the old building. The link-up with the existing circuit must proceed either from the central area of access or from one of the main arteries of circulation; a reorganization of the traffic paths in the old building does not necessarily entail the alteration of its structure.

Flexibility, extensibility 23 9

To house the new collection, the design of the old building may be extended without interruption, though in cases where the extension operation is spread over a number of years, such a solution is fraught with difficulties, as the former design is generally antiquated and the building materials are no longer obtain- able (differences in ageing, and so forth). Alternatively, the architecture of the new building may be designed to contrast harmoniously with the old building (Figs. 146~ 147).

2. Provision is made at the initial planning stage for the autonomous growth of the specialized departments which must remain in the same relationship once and for all. When the content of the future additions is more or less known beforehand, the extension can be planned in several stages. The main difficulty lies in the fact that a central or radial system offers the best guarantee of easy access; on the other hand, the nucleus round which extension develops must itself be able to develop consequentially. In other words, the advantage of a centralized entrance area must be weighed against the resulting check upon the growth of the centralized installations (information, communication and activity sectors accessible from the centre). This inevitably restricts the extensibility of star- and fan-shaped layouts (Figs. 148, 149).

The less centralized the layout, the easier it becomes to effect an extension of individual sectors. A linear ‘distributor belt’ offers a greater number of starting- points and more independence vis-à-vis the ground-plan. This central path can be either rectilinear (for example in the comb layout) or annular (as in the chain layout). The individual sectors, whose design will reflect the nature of their respective holdings, can be planned and extended independently. This is a point of major importance for the museum as a whole; however, it does imply that the pavilion-type sectors will remain fixed and will not subsequently encroach or overlap upon one another. Such an assumption is not always a very safe one (Figs. 110, 1~1).

3. The focal points and scale of the future growth of the collection cannot be extrapolated from the existing situation; in other words, a major shift in the use made of the existing premises may possibly occur. In such a case, a structure must be chosen that is as uniform and neutral as possible, designed to answer variable requirements, and that can be enlarged as the need arises-like an

147 NEW MUSEUMS BUILDING, Cambridge. A building complex which is divided into sections can be built in separate stages in a way which is technically as well as visually acceptable. Architects: Arup Associates.

148 Extension of a building with a clearly defined centre is only possible to a limited extent as the central nucleus itself cannot be extended in an architectonically convincing manner. The figure shown here is a five-pointed star. Simplified ground- plan.

,

240 Technology

I49 JURONG SINGAPORE SCIENCE CENTRE. Extension in several stages. Individual extension of the various departments. Site-plan: I. Main entrance; 2. Public and student entrance; 3. Staff and service entrance; 4. Control gate for ecological zone and V.I.P. entrance; 5 . V.I.P. entrance; 6. Teachers and staff entrance; 7. Workshops entrance; 8. Loading and unloading area; 9 . Life-science gallery; IO. Science and

. technology gallery; I I . Bridge; I 2. Work- shops; I 3. Special exhibits gallery; 14. Void; I 5 . Cafeteria facing ecological zone; 16. Future extension of the gallery; 17. Future courtyard; 18. Future extension of store; 19. Park for 150 cars; 20. Park for IOO motorcycles; 21. Future extension of car parks; 22. Staff car park; 23. Ecological *! zone; 24. Jurong Lake; 25 . Boundary line; 26. Future road to town centre. Architects: Raymond Woo & Associates.

IJO Extension of a comb-type system. A linear axis of distribution makes it possible to extend individual areas (to increase their contents) or to add on other sections without having to keep to a fixed system of arrangement. Simplified ground-plan.

III Extension of a chain layout on a site reserved for museum use from the outset. Independent design (or extension) of individual buildings whose style matches their content: I. Exhibition, old; 2. Lecture room, new; 3. Exhibition, new; 4. Research, new; 5 . Catering, new; 6. Administration, new.

24 -

26

industrial plant-using the same elements at different intervals of time. The system of presentation is made flexible so that it can be adapted as appropriate in line with the structural extensions. The crux of the problem is that the technical constraints-particularly the regular repetition of the elements as in a crystalline aggregate-may be detrimental to the free-ranging quality of the presentation. For this reason, it is advisable in every case to space out the supports at as wide intervals as possible and to design adjustable ceilings. With this system there are no visual difficulties about subsequent extensions (even after fairly long intervals of time) provided one has a fluid ground- plan comprising projections and recesses (Fig. IJZ).

4. The growth of the collection is contained by a process of selection and rotation. From the architectural point of view, extensions take place within a pre-established framework providing functional adaptability over the entire area (‘open plan’). The advantage of this over the crystalline structure (see 3 above) is that all the load-bearing pillars can be located outside the ‘main stage’, in or in front of the outside wall of the building, thus making available a ‘landscape, which can be adapted at will. Should an extension nevertheless prove to be necessary, the approach taken should be that outlined in our first example, since the system of supports is located on the periphery of the building and forms a self-contained whole.

j. In the case of continued growth, the exhibits can be split up and divided among smaller museums in the region in question, for example in newly-built satellite towns. This gives the subsidiary museums the opportunity to fill the ‘cultural vacuum’ created by new housing estates or which may exist throughout a particular province. Since there is not likely to be the same shortage of land in such newly-planned estates, these satellite museums can be incorporated into a wide-ranging programme of environmental development for cultural and leisure purposes. A further advantage is that they will not be encumbered with special sectors such as major storage rooms, or research and administration departments; in addition to display areas they will, however, need premises for practical and other activities, workshops and amenities for visitors, if they are to fulfil their task adequately. This method of extension can also be combined with the process of ‘rotation’, which has already been discussed in its various aspects in the chapter concerning conservation.

Flexibility, extensibility 24 1

It should be pointed out once more that we are dealing here again with the extension of large museums according to the principle of decentralization and not with museums relating to a particular site whose establishment and operation are governed by quite different factors.

6. The extension of the special (non-display) sectors or areas gives rise to Werent problems to those posed by the display area in that the framework within which they must be tackled is not by and large very flexible. Given the specific spatial qualities of these areas, it is very difficult to make any change in the use to which they are put. The trend towards expansion is limited to the individual sector and to the development of its particular functions. This autonomy of development makes it advisable to separate the premises devoted to practical activities, lectures and classwork, rest and refreshment, etc., from the display area as such and to develop them as separate units, with their own architectural forms which may serve to enhance the rest of the museum by providing a contrast.

When the special sectors are housed predominantly in the centre of the museum complex, provision must be made at the planning stage for adequate reserve space into which to expand. It must also be taken into account in this respect that a subsequent raising of buildings located within the ground-plan is fraught with major technical difficulties and that non-built-up areas must accordingly be kept free from the start.

Should the special sectors continue to expand, it may be found expedient to

I. By erecting on the available building plot self-contained, extensible pavilions, and at the same time grouping together the presentation (Figs. 1j3,

2. By foregoing all idea of spatial proximity and siting the special sectors in another area of the town or of the region, where they will be able to develop freely. This solution could be adopted whenever the building possibilities of the plot have been exhausted. It should, however, be stated that such a

envisage complete spatial separation, which can be done either: I Jz Extension of an ‘open plan’ system based on square units. Simplified ground-plan.

1/41.

b ‘I3 WESTERN AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM, Perth. Building offering great flexibility in the of the premises, although optimum adaptation to a particular function is difficult.

use

242 Technology

I I 4 Extension by establishing a ‘branch’ in a different area of town. Plan of siting.

IJJ MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, Tokyo. The research department is an extension built approximately three miles from the old museum.

solution means the end of the pluralistic, integrated museum as outlined in the foregoing chapters (Figs. IJJ, 1~6).

In all considerations with regard to extensibility, a basic distinction must be drawn between those relating to content and those relating to technical factors. The collection can to a certain extent grow ‘organically’ through the incorporation and exchange of ‘cells’. By contrast, the building process is always one of addition, in which new ‘crystals’ accrete to the old structure. Even the so-called flexible building remains stable and limited as a construction, although lending itself to a variety of different uses.

It is also to be noted that a master plan must be developed at the outset with a view to possible future expansion of the museum (however unlikely this may at first appear); such a plan should not go into too much detail, but should at least establish the broad outlines of future extension.

It may further be noted that the various alternative layout systems are to a greater or lesser degree conducive to extension depending on how far they are compatible with a ‘neutral’ design. A museum whose architecture possesses a considerable symbolic value will find it more difficult to expand than one with a neutral structure.

sy s t ems of construction

The building of a museum consists in the twin processes of arranging the materials of the collection and ordering the materials used in its construction, the aim being to bring the two into harmony with one another. With the self- confidence which was natural to an age not given to constant self-doubt, as is the present age, earlier museum builders solved this problem with sovereign authority. Our faculty for ‘total recall’ has become so perfected that individual convictions are accorded only minimal importance on the diachronic scale. It is for this reason that museums in particular, whose activities bear upon

. Flexibility, extensibility 243

periods and intellectual spheres that are quite remote from one another, ‘must be on their guard against all rigid formalization of the type characteristic of whatever is constructed. Museum architecture is thus torn between two contrary requirements: (a) it must be as well suited to the exhibits as possible (space, lighting and exhibits all forming a single unit); (b) it must make it feasible to scrap existing units and replace them by others.

If architecture is understood in its strict sense, that is to say as relating to the fixed structure, not the interior arrangement which can always be modified, it becomes clear that it cannot meet both requirements in full at one and the same time. The choice of the construction system will accordingly oscillate within these two extremes, tending towards either a closed or an open system. In order to make clear what are the advantages and drawbacks of these two systems, we shall in what follows present them in the ‘pure state’.

C L O S E D S T R U C T U R E

The closed structure is a self-contained, clear-cut system, such as is (judged to be) best suited to a specific task at a particular moment in time. Architec- turally, it is represented by specific, individual forms, which may be strongly charged with a precisely modulated expressive value. Until quite recently, it remained the sole mode of architectural thought. Not only was it the result of a iertain technical incapacity of past ages; its conscious aim was to formulate its own conception in all matters great and small, and to bequeath it as a legacy to posterity. Similar aims may still be valid today in the field of museum architecture and lead to the adoption of a closed system. Since by its very nature such a system admits of a great number of individual variations, a general technical description of it is not possible. We shall accordingly do no more than illustrate it with a few examples (Fig. 1~6).

The architecture is suited to the chosen system of arrangement (see the chapter on functions) and ideally embraces the object in a differentiated environment (with respect to space and lighting). As each object finds its echo in the architecture, everything goes to favour the dialogue between visitor and exhibit. The psychological effect derives from the definitive character of the constructed (realized) form, whose impact is thereby increased. The spatial dimensions are determined in relation to the object, the constituent architectural elements being perceived as primary constructions in their own right; in other words, the vision of the architect is reflected in every detail, right down to the immediate surroundings in which each object is placed. R-evelation of the static forces at work is the most important and most characteristic ‘medium of communication’ at the architect’s disposal. The visual link between construction and expression confers a convincing authenticity on the ‘original’ atmosphere of a treasure-house of ‘original’ items (Fig. 117).

Accordingly, the walls and ceilings will be designed so as to ensure their structural harmony with the exhibits, and their static function will be emphasized. The walls should be designed so that they are both suited to the exhibits and also recognizable as stress-bearing structures, while the ceilings must be constructed in such a way as not only to provide a protective canopy for the exhibits but also to retain, visually, the character of supporting structures. The building materials used in a museum do not serve merely as a back-drop; they are also a determining factor in ensuring its cohesion. Masonry tends to find expression in plane surfaces, steel lends itself best to linear structures, while reinforced concrete possesses the property of linking horizontal and vertical forces in a monolithic block. Thus each different building.materia1 bears a different relationship to the object exhibited. An intractable brick wall, for example, does not respond in the same way as a light concrete wall which can be moulded at will (Fig. 118).

Solid-wall and skeleton construction processes are both quite feasible, depending on the content of the collection. The former provides a subdued,

I J 6 Simplified ground-plan for a closed structure.

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r/7 NORTH JUTLAND FINE ARTS MUSEUM, Alborg. Here expressive forms and lighting make the architecture striking, but they also determine the space and presentation possibilities. The ceiling sections are made of a light material and could, theoretically, be changed. Architects: Elissa and Alvar Aalto and Jean-Jacques Baruël.

118

Modular system applied to a concrete wall. WILHELM LEHMBRUCK MUSEUM, Duisbourg

hermetic surface as back-drop, the latter thrusts into the visitor’s field of vision-when it is systematically left visible-supporting pillars and props as massive elements which may detract from the visual impact of the exhibits. Generallg. speaking, the delimitation of space requires that recourse should also be had to light elements whose role is visibly one of jointing and bonding. The closed structure thus tends to find expression in walls rather than in pillars, and the choice of the mzterials already constitutes a certain decision as to the form.

In the actual construction process, conventional techniques tend to be applied, the finishing work being done by craftsmen in a more or less durable form. When the closed structure is used to maximum advantage, flexibility becomes, in principle, of secondary importance. In practice, however, a variety of intermediate solutions are encountered whereby partial modifications are feasible: I. Relatively large, high-ceilinged rooms, as are to be found in old mansions:

experience proves that these allow considerable scope for alterations, since the load-bearing elements are spaced far apart from each other.

2. Alterations involving areas which do not bear any static load, using for example light-weight structures that can be erected on the spot and taken down at no great cost: the advantage of these, from our present point of view, is that, thanks to their jointless, uniform surface, they appear to be more permanent than they are.

3. Commutable sections, for example detachable ceiling panels and interchangeable transparent or opaque domed roofs.

All in all, the closed-structure system makes it possible to design a complex which is custom-built. The ground-plan and elevation are worked out in

Flexibilitv. extensibilitv 24 s

considerable detail; a direct, optimal relationship between lighting and object is also secured. Lastly, this system affords scope for an architectural interpretation of the collection which is not merely superficial, but penetrates to the very structure of the building (Fig. 1j9(a), (b)).

The difficulty of this conception lies in the fact that the individual relationship between exhibit and architecture must necessarily be reflected in a design that is unobjectionable both in static and in functional terms. Since he is also working for posterity, the architect bears a considerable responsibility. There is a great temptation to give free rein to personal interpretations or to take the structural medium as an end in itself. In order to prevent any misunder- standing, it should also be stressed that we are not heie speaking of the creation of a complex reflecting historical development, or of any kind of formalism, but only of a conception which embodies the structural affinity between the exhibit and architecture. Nor is this at all the same thing as over-emphasizing

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A I\

‘19 This original design in the form of ascending pyramids was developed to solve the problem of displaying carpets of varying length. Here large carpets can be examined from galleries at various levels: (a) section; (b) model. Design for Government Museum of Decorative Arts, Frunze, Kirgiz Republic (U.S.S.R.). Architects: A. Marin, I. Michailev and B. Revjakin. Engineer: B. Levinstein.

1/9 (It) any particular elements of the building (for example the girders) as ‘structural motives’, as this would run counter to the whole psychology of perception as applied to museums.

O P E N S T R U C T U R E

The open structure does not have as its starting-point the differentiation of functions and the careful study of individual sectors, which are finally integrated into an equally complex, architecturally closed system, but derives rather from a general building principle which is made to subsume all functions, including those that will become known only at a later date. In order to achieve this diachronic character, it is essential to be able at any moment to

246 Technology

review and readjust the available space in accordance with fixed architectural and technical criteria. As a result, the conception itself is not based upon any particular system of arrangement of the content of the collection, but upon an empty, neutral cube, which ideally should be provided with power supplies only (and the mains and other installations needed for this purpose should as far as possible have no impact on the architecture).

The displays which succeed each other on this ‘stage’ involve predominantly the use of interior design features similar to the wings of a theatre. The requisite unity of space and exhibit is accordingly secured at the decorative level, while the structure proper manifests an attitude which ranges from passivity to ‘tolerant goodwill’. In accordance with the view that architecture is primarily the search for forms that come to terms with the earth’s gravity, no attempt is made to bring the object and the building into harmony with one another-a harmony which is in any case unattainable since all true structures are primarily fixed and can be flexible only secondarily in so far as they can be put to a number of different uses. The relationship between the object and space is therefore necessarily based upon contrast, which is particularly effective in fine arts and archaeology museums, where it can be raised to the level of an architectural principle, while in technical museums as also in ‘museums of modern art it need be emphasized less strongly.

This system makes it possible to match the interior architecture more or less perfectly to the exhibit. By means of lightweight elements which can be quickly put together, it is possible to adjust the spatial dimensions, the mood and colours, as also the lighting-albeit only to a certain degree in the case of natural lighting. In many cases, such an arrangement will prove satisfactory,

.and even highly desirable; it is not suitable, however, in the case of exhibits of outstanding value or aesthetic appeal. The more dynamic the ‘on-stage’ action, the less ‘solid’ must be the wings-not in the sense of their actual fabrication but in their impact as judged from the standpoint of the psychology of perception. For example, forms reflecting historical development cannot be accommodated in a closed system, but can be accepted perfectly well as temporary arrangements and aids to interpretation. Moreover, desirable though the establishment of a dialogue between visitor and object may be, in the case of ‘major’ exhibits there is a danger of its becoming non-committal and superficial.

‘Open plan’ designs without pillars

The architectural conception of adaptable ‘open plan’ design is based on broad spans whose downwards thrust, concentrated on as few fulcra as possible, is absorbed vertically. In order to avoid any reduction of the available area, the load-bearing elements are placed in the vertical plane of the external boundaries, or better still, outside the area demarcated. According to the same principle, the trusses can also be situated above the roof, on the outside, in order to free the entire area in the vertical as well as horizontal planes. This approach has proved particularly effective in cases where it is desirable to avoid the visually segmenting effect of shadows cast by beams or girders on a luminous ceiling (Fig. 160).

Where multistorey buildings are designed without pillars but with ceilings which are required to bear a relatively heavy useful load, the resulting supporting structures are likely, when the spans involved are considerable, to reach storey height. These intervening storeys can be used for the purpose of housing installations, which may just as well be situated relatively unobtru- sively between the main storeys, since all the lower display areas will in any case need artificial light. This will, however, appreciably detract from the desired vertical continuity (see the chapter on psychology). It can therefore be stated that the ‘open plan’ arrangement without pillars lends itself best to the single-storey type of construction.

Flexibility, extensibility 247

From the functional point of view, maximum flexibility is obtained with a modular system, which operates best when it embraces all three dimensions. There are several reasons for this: (a) the neutral design is quite unrelated, architecturally, to the objects; which are in any case interchangeable; (b) the structure is self-sufficient and can as a result be erected in complete independence, from the rational and technical points of view; (c) the exhibits’ environment is made up of mobile components which can be handled most easily and rapidly of they are modular; (d) the standard nature of the components facilitates their assembly and fitting in place, as also their maintenance and servicing.

If the modular system is to be used to the best advantage, it is essential that the ground-plan and elevation be split up into units of equal size, and that no ‘odd‘ sections be left over. For this purpose, the following continuous geometric systems may be used: the square grid with sub-components (for example, the isosceles triangle) (see Fig. IJZ), or the hexagonal grid with sub-components (equilateral triangles) (Fig. 161).

Modules of other shapes might also conceivably be chosen; by and large, however, they result in over-complex structures.

Even if it is not considered practicable to divide up the whole interior into equal units, an ‘open plan’ design can still be achieved by use of other stereo- metric forms, since the building’s shell is in any case of secondary importance only in the architectural presentation of the objects (Fig. 162).

With this type of design there should also be maximum flexibility in the lighting arrangements. This gives rise to particular difficulties as regards natural light, which should in principle be available at all points and from every direction if one is to get the specific lighting desired in each case. Ideally, therefore, the cube should be ‘glassed in’ on all sides, like an enormous showcase, in order that all possibilities may be left open. At a later stage, the horizontal and vertical fields that are not used would be blocked out as conservational or psychological requirements necessitate or regulated by means of appropriate mechanisms. Reference has already been made to the technical difficulties which arise in this connexion. The problem becomes much simpler in the case of artificial lighting, which is available everywhere and can be installed as required. It may therefore be concluded that an adaptable museum, depending on natural lighting, will logically be open on all sides, while the artificially-lit museum will be a closed structure.

With regard to the building materials, reinforced concrete or steel suggest themselves for the main structure, and glass or lightweight materials for the external partitions. The same or similar materials are used for the internal divisions; for such purposes, prefabricated components such as those used in department stores may suitably be employed. Two considerations should, however, be borne in mind, particularly when a high artistic level of presentation has to be achieved: in all assemblies of prefabricated components the joints are apparent, and may detract from the visitor’s aesthetic enjoyment: the contrast with the everyday world or with trade-fair architecture should be preserved.

I 60 Large open space with no pillars. Simplified ground-plan. The wide bays mean that the building can be enlarged in two directions. The large area of available surface ens’ures great flexibility and there is no problem in adapting it to different functions as the quality of the space remains the same. See Figure 121.

I 61 Extension of a hexagonal ‘open plan’ arrangement. Simplified ground-plan.

I 6.2 ‘Open plan’ arrangement in a circulai- area, the boundary walls of which support the whole structure. Inside this neutral space the exhibition can be arranged with a minimum of constraint. Glass may be used in the construction or not, as preferred. Simplified ground-plan.

248 Technology

A system must therefore be devised which avoids these dangers or gives the impression of being specifically designed to serve permanently for museum purposes even though it may thereby lose in flexibility.

Generally speaking, it can be said that all the advantages of the closed structure must be considered as being drawbacks of the open structure, and vice versa. The strength of the open system lies in its rational approach and its sociopsychological trend. The system in question also makes it possible to handle a complete reversal in the organization or conception of the museum. The architectural possibilities are limited to ensuring harmony of treatment, down to the smallest details, and an ‘impassive’ restraint towards the object ‘involved’. The bigger the hall, the more adaptable it is; however, the integrated extension of the building becomes that much more difficult. In other words, this form of building tends to stand on its own, a fact which must be taken into account from the outset.

‘Open plm’ desìgm afforditg the possibìlity of extensìoti

It is possible to regard as an extension of the principle of adaptable ‘open plan’ designs a structure of the ‘honeycomb’ type with units which can be added on progressively as required. The aim is to create an ‘open plan’ area made up of modules, which is nevertheless limited in its all-purpose service- ability by the presence in its interior of stress-bearing elements. Such a system makes sense essentially if it is planned to serve a dynamic function. It is a relatively easy matter to reorganize the entire collection each time a new extension is made. The conditions governing the presentation and the relation-

163 Open structure with variable ceiling and roof levels, enabling side light to reach central areas. Simplified cross-section.

MUSEUM OF THE DEPARTMENT OF FINE ARTS, Panjab University, Chandigarh. Combination of chain layout and open- plan system based on square units. The central pillar of the mushroom-shaped structure poses a problem if the latter has a small overhang. Architect: P. B. Mathur.

IQ

Flexibility, extensibility 249

.I 6J ‘Container-Museum’ I y j 8. Design for a fine arts museum in Antwerp (Belgium). Architect: François Jamagne.

ship between the object and the building in which it is housed are similar to those obtaining in the system outlined above, with allowance for the interior pillars. The open structure has the further advantage of being extensible on all sides and adaptable to irregular or uneven sites. I t is possible to enhance the impression of spaciousness by means Óf a vertical-and possibly itself adjustable-staggering of the different sections, which would have the further advantage of allowing light to enter the upper part of the central sector from the side (Fig. 163).

What was said above regarding square or hexagonal modules is equally valid in the present case. The number of pillars should be kept to a minimum; the broadest spans will occur in the central sector. Mushroom-shaped constructions have the advantage of having only a single pillar; from the point of view of presentation techniques, however, they are satisfactory only when their overhang is considerable. For construction purposes, a steel or reinforced concrete frame must be used (Fig. 164).

As a result of weathering, etc., the plastic harmony of the fasade is visibly broken if the successive additions follow one another at considerable intervals of time.

Lastly, mention may be made of a proposal that is constantly being mooted, which derives from other fields of building practice: the idea is to solve the problem of extension and adaptability by means of interchangeable ‘containers’. Quite irrespective of the fact that the wealth and diversity of the exhibits precludes such a solution being applied, if only for material reasons, in a pluralistic museum, it must be evident that it is at variance with all that we have learnt from psychology concerning the museum, whose vitality depends upon its uniqueness rather than its interchangeableness (Fig. I 6~).

In conclusion, it may be said that when a close and appropriate relationship exists between the object and the building, one can hardly look to prefabricated techniques for very satisfactory results, since the repetition of the dimensions and forms is at odds with the innermost nature of the individual, unique object. However, when only the interior design impinges directly on the object, design of the structural frame can proceed according to its own laws, and prefabricated components can in this case be used.

iGG CENTRE GEORGES POMPIDOU, Paris. Once decisions of a functional, technical and economic nature have been taken, the material still has to take form, a form which will say something of the collection inside. Here the first struts of a ‘cultural supermarket’ in the heart of Paris (October 1974). Architects: Piano Rogers.

Aesthetics

Laws of form and semantics

It is common knowledge that the planning and building stage is dominated by practical, technical and economic considerations, problems of form usually being relegated to the background as less urgent, if they are not regarded with outright suspicion.

Once plans are completed the tactics are suddenly reversed; pressures which existed earlier are forgotten and no longer accepted as explanations or excuses- in fact they can no longer be Gisualixed as they existed before. The majority can now only see the plan as afait accompli existing in its own right, and expect it to provide them with the key to an understanding of the building and the collection.

This illustrates the great importance of the architectural design, which has received particular emphasis recently for several reasons: (a) social trends are placing the museum in a more central position in society and extending the scope of its activities; (b) the museum is beginning to assume some of the responsibilities of other cultural institutions which have now served their historical purpose; (c) it has thus become a focal point for culture in action and a mirror in which cultural values and ideals can be presented and assessed in visual form.

I -i T67 -.

AA impression of strength combined with irrationality is conveyed by this heavily overhanging design. Plan for a ‘museum of the earth‘, Brasilia. Architect: Oskar Niemeyer.

Museum building therefore affords an opportunity to transcend the functional or technical terms of the language of architecture and to put forward interpretations and feelings which are in harmony with the social and aesthetic aspirations of the times. The architectural style therefore has the dual responsibility of, on the one hand, conveying the museum’s central theme and indicating the diversity and general orientation of the cultural manifestations housed there, and, on the other, finding an appropriate way of drawing attention to and enhancing the role of cultural phenomena.

As the museum exists not primarily to meet objective requirements or to serve any utilitarian purpose, but to satisfy subjective needs, museum architecture has occasioned a wide variety of .conceptions-indeed it has become a testing ground for new, freer approaches to problems of form, as many imaginative and original buildings of recent years bear witness (Figs. 167,1-88).

Aesthetics

168(a), (61 WINNIPEG ART GALLERY. ’

Example OF a piece of modern architecture which is irrational and formalistic. Architect: Gustavo da Roza.

These trends can be taken as an indication of the place of the museum in today’s world. Nietzsche’s dictum, ‘the museum is the church of the aesthete’, can be interpreted as meaning that particularly high standards will be set for the intellectual and architectural ‘superstructure’, of the museum. It therefore calls for an approach which is seldom needed today, one which over and above the satisfaction of immediate requirements should branch out into the realms of ‘total art’. This places great responsibility on the planner, as architecture of this standard is as vulnerable to excess of zeal as to lack of it. The faceless, purely functional ‘warehouse’ style is as unsuitable as an obsessive and extrava- gant preoccupation with form.

Genera! approach to assthelie

As it is becoming more and more widely recognized that man is very sensitive to form and shape, efforts are now being made not only to demonstrate these categories philosophically but also to subject them to scientific methods of analysis. The further this research work impinges on the realm of the exact sciences the more confidently use can be made of the results. The different approaches have already been dealt with in the chapter on psychology and need only be briefly summarized here: Gestalt psychology is based on a physiological study of human perception and

examines the demonstrable phenomena of visual reactions, so as to arrive at

Laws of form and semantics 2 < 7

qualitative statements about objects and space; its methods are empirical and it calls for no prior knowledge on the part of the subject.

Information aesthetics is based on physiologically measurable units of perception which are recorded in a process oscillating between differentiation and integration of the object. The length of time taken by this process depends on the quality of the object. The amount of information received and the time taken to ‘use’ it gives an indication of the aesthetic richness and complexity of the object and enables its aesthetic value to be described quantitatively and even to be arithmetically measured.

The semantic approach is based on the assumption that visual communication takes place by means of signs transmitted by the object which are interpreted by the receiver on the basis of a common code. As these reactions can only be triggered by a learning process or previous knowledge, the impact of the object is dependent on its context in time and space.

It is unfortunately not possible to give a more detailed account of these attempts to reach a scientific understanding of this complicated subject at this juncture. Each of the methods outlined, with its particular advantages and weaknesses, serves to define a different aspect of this many-sided problem. Their application to architecture therefore raises special difficulties-which do not occur in connexion with painting and sculpture for example-as here it is hard to disentangle the aesthetic from the rational processes. The interrelationship between seeing and thinking, which is difficult enough to grasp at the best of times, is further obscured and complicated by the simultaneous entry into the picture of other, non-aesthetic, categories.

Although relatively little research has been carried out into the impact of architectural forms and shapes from the point of view of visual communication there is no doubt that such an impact exists. In the following reflections on museum architecture the three approaches referred to above will each affect the final assessment to a different degree, according to the emphasis. While we shall not here consider such obvious practical aspects as the problem of unoccupied space, conservation requirements, etc., due attention will be given to the close relationship between practical, organizational aspects and aesthetic considerations.

Consequences of preceding chapters concerning aesthetic form

Previous chapters have shown that decisions reached on the basis of sociological, psychological or conservation requirements already imply decisions regarding form; in other words, the spatial organization of each category already comprises a pattern of arrangement that displays particular formal tendencies. The aesthetic problem could therefore be simplified by saying that if a basic idea is taken to its logical conclusion the arrangement of space and form will follow more or less automatically. However convincing this may sound in theory, it does not give a full picture of the situation, as (a) each programme contains a wide variety of possibilities which on closer examination can be seen to constitute formulae of the ‘both . . . and. . .’ type; (b) in a circumscribed space valuations are unavoidable; (c) the translation of concepts expressed in verbal terms into reality, or into terms of ‘nuts and bolts’, is a subject in its own right; (d) the ‘language of form’ has its own laws which open up new possibilities. Questions of form can only be discussed on the basis of pictures as verbal metaphors are inaccurate and not to be trusted.

The conversion of theoretical schemata into building terms is accordingly a creative process which, though it externalizes what is present in the mind, cannot rest content with selecting one of several existing possibilities, but must evolve something completely new.

It need hardly be said that although this chapter will discuss the architectural implications of some of the topics considered earlier, such factors as the

7-54 Aesthetics

environmental conditions in an urban or rural setting raise entirely different questions, as regards their bearing on architectural design.

Whether the aim is to adapt the style to that of the surrounding buildings or to create a contrast between old and new, both approaches being defensible from an aesthetic point of view, measure and proportion must always be kept as the guiding principles if the visual impact of the whole is to be effective and recognizable, as an example either of unity or of polarity, in gestalt psychological terms.

As the pluralistic approach of today’s museum requires it to play host to the most varied activities, its content can only give the architect a rough guide to the aesthetic approach to be adopted. A simple, open structure is the only one which will enable the museum to fulfil its role in society today. The architecture only provides the external framework and leaves the articulation of space within to the interior designer. This subservient role can be carried to the point of self-effacement. As the technological limitations and possibilities of all buildings which aim to provide maximum flexibility are roughly similar at a given moment in time, the purpose for which they are intended is not particularly important-in other words even museum architecture does not try to impose a style of its own.

As we have already shown, an emphasis on flexibility leads to simple geometrical forms which lend themselves to economic use of internal space. It follows therefore that the wider the variety of content and functions the more neutral the style of the building will be, and the more limited and concentrated the scope of the collection the more emphasis can be given to architectural style as an expression of content. The smaller, more specialized museum would therefore seem to offer the architect more opportunity to devise an individual, original design based on the special characteristics of the collection.

Another result of social trends is that specialized fields such as research, education, communication, etc., are taking up more and more of the museum’s time and this should also be reflected in its external appearance. However, as each of these specialized fields has its own architectural ‘image’, one of the dangers to be avoided is that of superimposed themes obscuring the central message of the exhibition building.

The conservation aspect of the museum’s work is expressed by the exclusion of the outside world. Although it is practically impossible to build a block which is completely sealed off from the outside world, solid walls which serve as hanging surfaces but also as protection are a feature of many museums and the treatment of these surfaces on the outside in such a way as to indicate what the museum contains is a constantly recurring problem (Figs. 169, 170).

The main responsibilities of the museum are not of a rational, functional nature, requiring a high degree of internal organization ‘behind the scenes’. There is therefore no reason to bring functional aspects into the foreground in order to create the impression of a highly efficient museum ‘machine’. The forms and shapes of purely functional architecture can therefore be considered uncharacteristic of a museum.

Building techniques are closely linked with many fundamental questions and to some extent supply the basis and lay down rules for the implementation of the design. There is, however, a basic distinction to be drawn between manual and industrial building techniques, which offer very different possibilities and have quite a different visual impact. The former, which include all conventional techniques using stone, bricks, concrete and steel, have the advantage that practically any co-ordination of building with subject-matter can be achieved. They allow special materials and orders to be envisaged to meet individual needs, while monolithic structures provide a smooth, uniform background. It is therefore clear that conventional building methods make possible the emergence of meaningful configurations in gestalt psychological terms as well as affording a high and complex level of achievement from the standpoint of information aesthetics.

Laws of form and semantics

I 69 CULTURAL CENTRE, Randers (Denmark). The introverted nature of cultural experience can be expressed in architectural terms as withdrawal from the environment. Architect: Flemming Lassen. Collaborators: Peter Brodersen, Per Lassen, 0.2. Nielsen.

If industrial building methods are used the manufacturing and assembly techniques which they imply lead to the dominance of neutral space using geometrical structures. As it is practically out of the question to make structures correspond with content, the design options are severely limited and must be concentrated on achieving clarity of outline for the complex taken as a whole, making use of the simplification and repetition which industrial building methods impose. This type of building will on the other hand allow all the more scope for interior design complementing the external structure and providing a high degree of plasticity making it possible to adapt the form to the nature of the exhibits. The aesthetic choice therefore lies in the main between external architecture lacking informational content and a style which although more interesting and varied has less psychological impact. In order to avoid t o D . great a discrepancy between external and internal styles, the internal design should match the geometrical framework to a large extent and echo its gestalt psychological effects.

The physiological effects of a museum vary between the two extremes of concentration and relaxation. The architectural style may be reminiscent of a ‘cloister’, encouraging meditation, or base itself on ‘holiday’ styles of architecture. In the first case an introverted style radiating harmony and stillness

17 0 NEW HISTORICAL MUSEUM, Tashkent (U.S.S.R.). The use of glass walling throughout establishes an effective though limited relationship with the outside world. Climatic reasons necessitate the use of glass which is permeable to light without being transparent or heat-absorbing. Architects: Abdulov, Nikiphorov, Rosenblom.

256 Aesthetics

171

University of Nebraska (Lincoln). Symmetrical museum. Architect: Philip Johnson.

SHELDON MEMORrAL ART GALLERY,

is to be preferred, while features of the second should be openness to the outside world and lively, adventurous design. Two factors which will determine the final decision are the immediate environment and the nature of the collection. From the point of view of the biological rhythm of the human organism it may be desirable for both tendencies to be catered for and held in counter- poise by the architectural composition.

As psychological and aesthetic factors are very closely related, and indeed often identical, we shall not give many examples of their interrelationship, referring the reader to the chapter on psychology for more detailed discussion of the subject. In general, arrangements designed to help the museum visitor find his way, providing directions of which he may or may not be aware, constitute an aesthetic bonus. Emphasis on the need for a well-ordered articulation of space with a recognizable system of co-ordinates, based on the constants in perceptual behaviour, can itself be made into an architectural manifesto establishing specific principles of design. In a rectangular system for example, the desired qualities of simplicity and order can be reflected down to the smallest details, resulting in a high aesthetic standard. As the regular shapes are easily understood they are aesthetically as well as psychologically effective; although they are strongly perceived, their familiarity prevents them from becoming too dominant. The desire to make the structure of the whole area comprehensible at a glance leads to an architectural transparency which further enhances the aesthetic appreciation of space by introducing an element of simultaneity. Symmetry, which embraces a host of related categories of design, is also often used as a means of grounding and consolidating the consciousness of locality. Attention should however be drawn to the difficulty of reconciling the geometrical dominance exerted by symmetry with the pluralistic approach of modern museum work (Fig. 171).

A completely different conception is that in which the museum visitor is not called upon to take in the whole collection-or the whole museum area-all at once, but step by step. Here, as for psychological reasons no attempt is made to give a general impression, the visitor’s interest must be sustained by placing new, stimulating features at intervals along his route. The stimulus of curiosity will thus replace the effect of the over-all view and it must be kept alive by features which have expressive content. The visitor will be led on by assymetri- cal, oblique or fluid shapes which keep him gently but firmly on the

Laws of form and semantics 257

preordained path. The architectural style should not be neutral but should be involved in the life of the museum, overlying static shapes and drawing upon a wide variety of free-flowing, dynamic configurations. The variety and restlessness towards which this architectural conception tends should not, however, be allowed to distract attention from the exhibits (Fig. 172).

Psychology understood as study of the whole system of biological stimuli and responses also has a decisive bearing on aesthetic considerations. As we have already said in the paragraph on information aesthetics, man’s capacity for perception and retention is limited and in a museum it must be allowed to concentrate as much as possible on the exhibits. The architecture must aim to avoid such optical interference and distraction as might be presented by obtrusive architectural features, over-prominent backgrounds, or jointings and unnecessary points of intersection. The philosophy of architecture on which this view is based can be summed up in Mies van der Rohe’s words ‘less is more’. Boldness in over-all design and simplicity in details is an architectural maxim which is particularly relevant to museum design. This ‘integrating’ approach should not necessarily be taken as opposed to differentiation, as contrasts can in gestdl‘t psychology contribute to simplification, leading to a

17-2 The ‘journey of discovery’ effect can only

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t~~~~ ensured by an architectural layout which

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . v ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ h e circuit also has emotional significance.

ground-plan*

I73 The Netherlands Davilion at the Venice

better aesthetic appreciation of the object. If a few elements are developed ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c $ ~ ~ & s ~ n d simplicity of the individually and at the same time placed in a carefully-thought-out relationship with each other tlie twin dangers of summary treatment on the one hand and fussiness on the other will be avoided (Fig. 173).

As we mentioned earlier, architecture can also be seen as a means of communication which uses different spatial arrangements and shapes to send out its ‘signals’. This ‘sign language’ can pass on information regarding the contents and significance of the building and define its functions and its place in time and in its environment. These messages may be made up of physical or intellectual components, having in the one case a functional and in the other

architecture focuses the visitor’s attention

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l e G. Ristveld.

z j 8 Aesthetics

a symbolic character. As messages of the latter type call for a higher level of sensitivity in the ‘receiver’ they are clearly of an aesthetic nature.

The material features of an architectural style which act as ‘signals’ receive their semantic content from patterns of behaviour which are generally linked with them, from comparisons with forms which are familiar in a similar context, from experience of different sizes, proportions and materials and from all types of associations and affinities which are operative in the field of gestak psychology. It is, however, extremely important for the aesthetic quality of the architecture that the signal should not derive from literary vocabulary or a mere representation of nature but should be a genuine transposition into the abstract language of architecture, which only speaks through geometry, size, shape, colour and material.

The form of the museum building should therefore be significant and, over and above superficial, causal associations, send out decoded messages regarding such subjects as the nature of the collection to be seen inside. It follows that each museum can be distinct from other museums and have its own individual design. It is not therefore possible, as with other types of building, to build a series of museums on the same model.

The style of architecture must spell out as it were, in palpable and convincing fashion, what in the particular instance the concept ‘museum’ denotes. Ability to transmit other information will follow automatically to some extent once museological requirements are met and presented in an artistically unambiguous form. Confusion with buildings intended for other purposes, for example offices or schools, should be out of the question.

The configuration of the building should also reflect the museum’s status as a focal point for cultural activity in society. Experience indicates that this requirement in practice allows a great deal of scope: thus it can be construed as an invitation to ‘monumentality’, which has in a few extreme cases been carried to the point of ostentation. Much as all signs of external power and influence should be rejected, yet some degree of ‘heightening’ is justified, as long as its result is to show the museum as ‘different’, not as ‘bigger’ (Fig. 174).

This is no doubt the basis for the widespread attribution of sanctity to the museum, which has led to the adoption in Western countries of the Greek temple and in Eastern lands of Asian temple architecture as a model for museum architecture, an approach which persists even today. The complicated problems raised by the imitation of historic buildings can only be briefly mentioned here (Fig. 17)).

The fact that this is still a live issue even today is illustrated by the plans for a tantra museum in India, which strive towards a synthesis of modern architecture and traditional forms of religious architecture. It is doubtful whether this can be considered an example of the pluralistic approach to museum work (Fig. 176).

The expressiveness of an architectural form can, if it is the subject of general consensus, crystallize in the course of time as a symbol, as it were the seal or hallmark of a complex intellectual concept. The only drawback is that formulae handed down by earlier generations are accepted uncritically although they may have lost their meaning. Museum architecture, which has a close relationship with the past, is particularly vulnerable to this danger. However the symbol always retains its validity in semantic terms-either by the abstract transposition of an ancient canon of design into the technology of our times, in which case its meaning is only perceived subliminally, by association, or by the development of new symbolic forms which can already be seen emerging today in different places (Figs. 177, 175, 179).

Laws of form and semantics 7-j 9

I74 NATIONALGALERIP, West Berlin. Façade. The serene but forceful character of this structure is a modern architectural interpretation of the desire for pomp and solemnity. Architect: Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.

I7.f NATION.4L MusEuar, Seoul (Republic of Korea). This is basically a modern structure which has been given a semantic content by the use of traditional forms and copies of ancient temples.

Aesthetics 260

17 6 TANTRA MUSEUM, New Delhi. Ground-plan. The museum houses a collection of works of art connected with the tantra cult. Symbolic forms inspired by the very specialized content took precedence over museological considerations in the design. Architect: Kavinda.

So far we have tried to identify what might be called ‘outside’ influences- for example from the environment, society or technology-which affect the aesthetics of two- or three-dimensional figures. The translation of theories into bricks and mortar is difficult because the real world of shapes and forms operates according to its own completely independent laws. While gestalt psychology enables us to investigate these laws, the majority of men react quite spontaneously to visual stimuli and although their response is unconscious it is both rapid and unequivocal. The inexhaustible variety of material, shapes and forms and the -equally innumerable rules governing their combination can only be hinted at in a verbal consideration of the subject.

We shall mention only a few examples which have specific significance in terms of gestalt psychology: I . Size is a means of establishing a scale of relativities in the world of things

and also places man in a fundamental relationship to his work. The observer is therefore very sensitive to anything which infringes the established scale of sizes and expects a different architectural style depending whether he is viewing a collection of jewellery or monumental statuary.


I77 NATIONAL MUSEUM, Peking. The modern horizontal design has been overlaid with reproductions of historically significant forms. Museum constructed around 1966 at the beginning of the Cultural Revolution in the People’s Republic of China.

178 NARA KOKURITSU HABUTSUKAN (Nation Museum), Nara. Japanese museum combining the most modern of constructions with tradition: Japanese forms.

ka1

I1

262 Aesthetics

I79 MUSEO DE ANTROPOLOGÍA, Mexico. This mushroom-shaped structure, situated in the central hall and surrounded by fountains, evokes the ancient Mexican god of rain in a contemparary manner. Architects: Pedro Ramírez Vázquez, Rafael Mijirez and Jorge Campuzano.

2. Proportion is a biological fact which indicates that temion has been brought into equilibrium. It can also be described in terms of information aesthetics as a specific form of complexity. It has a definite role to play in a museum building which is oriented towards visual perception and can serve as a pointer to interior atmosphere and quality.

3. Dominance of vertical or horizontal lines is immediately interpreted by the observer as signifying rest or tension, extension or intensity, etc., with the associations and philosophical attitudes which these concepts imply (Fig. 180) .

4. Every shape, whether it be a cube, a sphere or a quasi-organic form, represents a configuration of forces which is very individual and may or may not be tolerant of neighbouring shapes and surroundings. For example the juxtaposition of a straight and a sagging wall always creates a situation of aesthetic conflict.

5 . The formal qualities of a linear, net-like system of containment, transparent and permeable, are quite different from those of a solid construction, which appears protective from the inside but discouraging from the outside. In other words a ceramics museum will not resemble a museum which extols the achievements of modern mathematics.

6. The variety of materials available will extent the possibilities we have mentioned here almost to infinity.

These laws of physical shape and form must be taken into account from the outset in museum architecture.

This is just a small extract from the ‘vocabulary’ of shapes and forms, which can be put to a wide variety of uses but must never be applied arbitrarily or on the basis of a purely intellectual approach. But there is also a ‘grammar’

Laws of form and semantics 26 z

governing relationships between the different shapes and forms, for example: (a) incompatibility, when shapes are mutually exclusive because there is no common denominator; or (b) congruency when a form is adapted to its surroundings, assimilation when simplification is called for, combination when an effect should be heightened; or (c) contrast when attention should be drawn to a particular feature or when an element of tension is required.

As the impact of the innumerable possible visual antitheses varies in intensity, each must be chosen and used in accordance with the desired artistic effect. It may be appropriate to set a geometrical outline against a featureless natural landscape or to build a fluid structure to contrast with the stark cubic background of the modern city. In the same way it may be necessary to screen off the background to an exhibit carefully, so as to ensure that the different values are set neither too close together nor too far apart.

Every shape is ‘charged’ with aesthetic values and can only be combined with others in specific collocations and juxtapositions. It should be possible to work out an aesthetic equivalent of Mendel’s law for combinations of shapes depending on the extent to which they produce the desired results.

Even the most summary review of design problems establishes that they are subject to a wide vagiety of different influences. The quality of the solution with regard to its informational content will depend on the number of aspects which were taken into consideration when the decision was made. If it is assumed that each object, each work of art for example, is a small ‘cosmos’, it is museum architecture’s special task to ensure identification not only between man and building but also between building and object. Every time a museum is planned this exceptionally wide range of factors must be taken into account and their importance carefully evaluated before a selection is made. However, it should be emphasized that the right solution will not be arrived at merely by systematic examination of each possibility in turn but-this being the way the human mind operates-more by a series of ‘hunches’. This is one reason why the team responsible for planning should begin to work together as soon as possible.

Coexist e n ce-co m b i na t i o n-syn t h esi s

These conflicts which necessarily occur in such a process are unfortunately often left unreconciled in the name of ‘coexistence’, which may be expressed both in the museum’s relationship to its environment and in a lack of harmony between the different elements inside the museum, with adverse consequences as regards the museum visitor’s initial impressions and his understanding and appreciation of the collection. Although we take irreconcilable elements more in our stride than earlier generations did, each visitor will still make a more or less conscious effort to reconcile such visual discrepancies in his own mind, thus using up mental energy unnecessarily (Fig. 183).

A more satisfactory solution would be based on the principle of combination which enables the various elements to retain a considerable degree of independence although their interrelationship is shaped by selection and co-ordination. This approach would be most suitable for the modern ‘pluralistic’ museum. It can be expressed in architectural terms as a carefully arranged group of different types of buildings, for example a complex of pavilions combining very different styles which, while keeping their distance, are brought into a dialectical relationship with one another (see Fig. 117).

Alternatively the antithesis may be transposed to the plane of the building itself, as when a flexible, modern structure has to be combined with the necessary adaptation to the environment. This problem often occurs when a new museum is to be built in an old, historically interesting city district, a situation which projects a problem familiar to designers working inside the museum into the sphere of external design (Figs. 181, 192).

I80 HERBERT F. JOHNSON MUSEUM OF ART, Ithaca, New York. Architecture symbolizing effort. Surprising for a museum. Architect: I. M. Pei.

264 Aesthetics

I 81 Matching the architecture to the environment. External features. The neutrality of style of a multipurpose building inevitably conflicts with the requirements of aesthetic design or environmental desiderata in regard to use of space. Embellishment of the façade by skilful use of shape, proportion, material or directioning or by deliberate recourse to contrast is one way of solving this problem.

I82 MUSEUM OF ART OF THE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF LITHUANIA, Vilna. Example of architecture relating to environment. Around the outside shops form an integral part of the museum. Architect: Cekanauskas.

Solutions based on the principle of an all-embracing synthesis are however by far the most satisfactory. A prior condition is that the circumstances must make it possible to find a common denominator of form, and this is likely to be a long and laborious process. Once the homogeneity of the whole has been ensured by finding such an underlying motif, individual elements can be worked in to enhance the general effect. As the basic specifications in this case cannot be too unusual or too rigorous, this approach is most successful with museums which deal with modern subjects (for example twentieth-century art and technology) where man, the environment, exhibits and building all belong to the same period. It is of the nature of a ‘pluralistic’ museum however that such an approach would be of limited use here.

The subjective components of the museum’s work offer scope which an imaginative architectural approach must exploit to the full in a time such as ours, which is so lacking in symbol and allegory. But this scope can be abused by designers anxious to ‘do their own thing’. A satisfactory design always seems obvious but is nevertheless the result of a long process of inner doubt and hesitation between the numerous alternatives. It is never arrived at ‘by accident’ or ‘as an afterthought’ but is gradually assembled piece by piece. In no case is it permissible for: (a) eccentricity to be pursued as an end in itself, as its ‘appeal’ is short-lived and it does not reflect the essence of a museum; (b) a preconceived form to be imposed which is not a reflection of the museum’s content; (c) architectural design to be so emphasized that rather than being subservient to the exhibits it competes with them for the visitor’s attention.


This largely answers the question of the originality of the building and the influence of the architect's personality, for a design can only be valid and creative if these limitations have been observed. But all that we have said earlier makes it clear that museum architecture must be unique and unmistak- able of its kind.

In the laborious process of museum design three groups of factors which must be considered on'their own terms have therefore to be skilfully blended and fused together. They are: (a) physical (functional) factors, and the objective constraints resulting frbm them; (b) aesthetic aspects, with their emphasis on wholeness and permanence; and (c) intellectual forces affecting the contemporary social, historical and ideological scene.

The architectural style must be such as to express in convincing fashion its inherent structural affinity with these various spheres.

1 8 3 R~MISCH-GERMANISCHES MUSEUM, Cologne. The adaptation to gothic architecture being very difficult, the solution of contrast was chosen, for the exterior shape of the museum as well. Architect: Heinz RBcke.

266

184 MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS, Louisiana (Denmark). With careful planning by the commissioning authority and an appropriate design by the architect the museum today can carry out to the full its role in education, culture and enjoyment if the setting is one of natural beauty. Architects: Jörgen Boe and Vilhelm Wohlert.

267

Conclusion

In this essay we have tried to assemble the individual bricks needed to build this thematically complex structure and to give some indication of the way in which they should be put together to form an organic whole. The ‘network’ of requirements which we have been able to lay out so neatly here in theoretical form will, after examination and assessment of the factors involved in the ‘here and now’ of building a particular museum, necessarily undergo a radical shift of emphasis. In this process, however, the remaining joins holding the whole fabric together must not be torn apart but-by analogy with the laws governing ‘half-lattices’ in mathematics-drawn together in the appropriate relationship.

People often bewail the fact that the ‘ideal’ museum has yet to be built. An ‘ideal’ museum can never and should never be designed, as the starting-points are so different that an approximation to abstract values is all that can ever be achieved. It would, however, be very much to the point to design a ‘museum of museums’, an idea which has been put forward on several occasions.

We have shown that architecture can make a very substantial contribution to a museum’s success in dealing with its problems in general, as man not only shapes space but is shaped by it. Many plans to modernize museums and bring them more to life can only be carried through if spatial requirements have been met.

It must therefore be recognized that the architectural organization of space is for the museum worker a means of communication which if properly used can help him to achieve his goal. Architecture can be a very direct and immediate form of ‘public relations’ in the best sense of the term.

As the conditions on which museum design is based vary so greatly from one museum to another and as it is in any case a fairly unusual assignment for an architect to be asked to design a museum, there are very few systematic analyses of museum design, although a wealth of written material exists for such buildings as schools and hospitals. The approach outlined here can therefore only be seen as an introduction to the subject, which must be subjected to further analysis and expanded in many respects. It should also be noted that in the absence of exact data in many spheres we have at times only been able to base our discussion on unverified assumptions. In some spheres these assumptions could be used as a basis for experiment, or at least for further discussion. This work can therefore be regarded as a foundation on which successive layers of new knowledge can be built, after first being checked by experts in the basic sciences. We have indicated a way of tackling many individual problems, of closing gaps in our knowledge and of exchanging experi- ences in the sphere of museum design. Most work remains to be done in the practical held, the surface of which we have only been able to scratch, and many technical details will require closer attention before they can be built into the final edifice. It is therefore absolutely essential that systematic research in the field of museum architecture should be pursued on a world-wide scale, experi-‘ ments carried out and the results made available to all. Everyone concerned should take part in this work and if our essay has helped to convince anyone of this it has achieved its aim.

[ Tradated from Germas]

is.;. ,

Appendixes

Museums are not institutions which can be reproduced in an indefinite number of copies from a single, specific model. Museums take various forms, depending upon:

I. The relative importance given to, the three major purposes of the museum: study and documentation, conservation, and education and culture.

2. The nature of the major discipline or discipIines covered-arts, the sciences of man, nature and the universe, advanced technologies-and the forms of presentation -monodisciplinary, multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary.

3 . The architectural characteristics of the museum, according as to whether it is: (a) a new building or one adapted for the purpose and which may or may not be an historic building, with or without its own surroundings; (b) a systematic open-air museum, with or without the addition of buildings; (c) a natural park.

There is, for example, a world of difference between a museum which has a research centre and one which has not, between an American-style ‘art- centre2 and a museum designed to provide cultural cross-references to the scientific activities of the university to which it is attached, between an art gallery and an open-air museum of sculpture, between a museum of pre-history connected with certain archaeological sites and a museum of advanced technology, exhibiting locomotives and aeroplanes in its enormous halls, between a zoo and a natural park, etc.

However various their forms, there is nevertheless one thing that all museums have in common, the process by which they are initially programmed and planned.

Let us attempt to summarize the stages of this process as it applies in the case of a

In the first instance, realizing that a gap exists in the network of national museums, a public authority, or a group of citizens formitig themselves into an associ-

I. I? May 1974.

’ new building.

-

ation, decides to found a museum devoted to a particular subject, with its own aims, its particular size, its own statutes, on a given site, and in accordance with the resources which they are able to command for the purpose.

As the client, they commission a museologist to establish the museum’s programme, allocating suitable funds for the purpose.

In order to draw up the programme, the museologist begins by obtaining all relevant information from the client and from other sources. With this information to hand, and keeping in constant touch with the client, he draws up the programme as follows: specification of the museum’s operational units and sub-units by categories of premises, together with a summary assessment of the respective surface areas and the purposes of the premises (which may be: public foyer ; exhibition galleries ; semi- public meeting-rooms and halls for organized activities; semi-private documentation rooms; rooms reserved for specialists; private workrooms; offices for the director and the scientific, technical and admistra- tive personnel; technical equipment store- rooms and stock rooms).

In drawing up this programme, the museologist enlists the services of specialists in the various technical fields; their assistance, and the necessary verifications which this entails, continue to be provided throughout the operations up to and including final acceptance.

The client adopts this programme, pending the receipt of further information.

Then, in consultation with the museologist, the client organizes a national or international competition for the purpose of selecting an architect, or appoints an architect directly, as the main contractor.

On the basis of the programme, and of the estimated cost of the operations, the main Contractor or architect draws up the plan. This plan takes the form initially of a summary specification, together with outline plans, a study of the physical characteristics and accessibility of the site,

an estimate of the cost and the time required for completion,

After consulting the museologist, the client adopts the plan, pending further inquiries.

During the second phase, the main contractor, who remains in constant touch with the museologist, draws up a detailed project, including working plans and an indication of the estimated cost of the carcassing, the finishings and the fittings and fixtures.

Finally, after consulting the museologist, the client adopts the final plan, the financing arrangements and building schedule.

Work then begins on the implementation of the plan, in accordance with the agreed schedule. The main contractor remains responsible until completion of the work for the building operations carried out by the individual contractors and for the cost of the operations.

The client is kept constantly informed of the progress of work jointly by the main contractor and by the museologist.

Minor changes may possibly be made during the execution of the plan, on the initiative of the museologist or the main contractor, subject to the approval of the client concerning the nature and costs of such additional operations.

Once work has been completed, the client goes through the procedure of provisional acceptance, then, after the necessary time for inspection tests, final acceptance.

The client is likely to be spared a great many technical and financial difficulties, legal complications and frustrations if the work of programming and planning thc project is carried out properly, whilst the architect can derive great satisfaction from applying his professional skills to coping with the technical problems involved.

I GEORGES HENRI RIVIBRE

Appendixes 269

II Climate and museum architecture in South and South-East Asia

The problem

It is well known that preservation of art objects is intimately connected with the climate of the environment surrounding them. Too high a temperature coupled with low humidity produces a condition in which many types of objects deteriorate rapidly. Palm leaves loose their flexibility and start crumbling; cracking in woodwork starts and paint layers in paintings tend to flake off the support. Similarly, high temperature and constant high humidity create a condition in which micro-organisms and insects thrive; paper becomes limp, and corrosion of metals is rapid. Sudden or repeated fluctuations of temperature and relative humidity, the two main factors designating the climate of a place, may spell disaster for susceptible types of objects. Wood, for example, expands when the relative humidity of the atmosphere is increased and shrinks when the relative humidity is reduced. Constant movement of the grains of wood gives rise to permanent strains and cause it to crack eventually.

Air-conditioning is often recommended as a solution for the control of climatic conditions inside a museum building. It is no doubt the best means of ensuring a uniform climate in a closed space, but its high cost-both capital investment and maintenance-makes its adoption in museums of South and South-East Asia almost impossible. There are instances where air- conditioning units were installed, but had to be abandoned later because the museum found the monthly bill of electricity and the salaries of maintenance staff too high for its budget. The majority of museums in developing countries will unfortunately find themselves in this category.

It is therefore of great importance to consider whether any system other than air-conditioning would have a sufficient effect on the museum climate, whether anything can be done, through orientation and designing of the museum building, to control the indoor climate, if not fully, at least to a certain extent. It is not often realized that proper siting, orientation, designing of roofs and windows, ceiling heights and many other factors can have a tremendous inAuence on the microclimate.

Climate features

Climate is the result of many elements, the main ones being temperature, humidity, precipitation and sunshine. The climate of any region is not determined by a single climatic element. It is the result of the combination of all the climatic elements there prevailing and is controlled by several factors such as latitude, land and water, winds, altitude, mountains, oceans, etc.

The area lying between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn is known as the tropics. Climatically, this area has been divided into several zones, bit the region in which we are interested, South and South-East Asia, can be divided into three main climatic zones.

These are: (a) the hot dry zones (Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and part of India); (b) the monsoon zones or hot wet-dry zones (Burma, India, Thailand); (c) the hot humid zones (parts of South India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia, etc).

To these main climate types, we could include two secondary climatic zones which are due to the geographical position of land: the mountainous zones (parts of Afghanistan, Himalayas) and the coastal areas.

Important characteristic of climate types

H O T D R Y Z O N E

The hot dry zone is characterized by high day temperatures (annual mean of maximum temperature in shade 37" C), cooler nights (annual mean 20' C) and low' relative humidity (10-55 per cent). There is a large daily variation in temperature (mean daily variation approximately 23' C). The annual temperature variation is comparatively low (mean value approximately 1 0 ~ - 1 7 ~ C). Land is very dry, giving rise to wind-blown sand.

This type of climate produces desiccation and is hazardous for all types of organic objects. Loss of humidity produces splits and cracks in wood.

H O T H U M I D Z O N E

The hot humid zone has a warm and continuously moist climate. Relative humidity almost throughout the year remains high (55-100 per cent). The annual temperature variation is not high (approximately 3"-5" C). The annual mean of maximum day temperature in the shade is high (approximately 36" C). The daily variation is not high (5'-7' C). The sky is usually overcast. The landscape is green and there is consequently no dust problem.

The continuous wet climate accelerates the growth of micro-organisms. The water level is also very high, and difficulty is experienced in the construction of basements. Conditions are not conducive to human comfort.

M O N S O O N ZONE

The mónsoon zone has distinct dry and wet seasons. Relative humidity is fairly high during the rainy season (55-95 per

Appendixes 270

1x1 Vaulted roofs protect high windows, shade walls and reflect a higher proportion of solar radiation.

I 86 Wide roof projections keep the sun away from the walls. The two-storey high pierced screen keeps the windows and walls behind cool and well ventilated.

cent). It drops during the season (20-55 per cent).

Temperature during the summer season is high (annual mean of maximum day temperature in the shade is approximately 3 j O C). There are three main seasons: cool, hot and rainy. The hottest month is very warm, and the coolest month is not very cool.

I 87 Internal court with fountains and plants cools the surroundings by evaporation. It is roofed with a pierced screen which helps to reflect solar radiation from the sky.

Marked differences of humidity during dry and rainy seasons produce swelling and shrinkage of materials which are moisture-absorbing. Wood, cardboard and paintings suffer greatly in this climate.

M O U N T A I N Z O N E

Because of their geographical position, areas such as the mountain zone have a special climate. The day temperature is lower as. compared to the surrounding climatic zone. It decreases with height at the rate of approximately I' C for every zoo metres. Humidity is on the high side (45-100 per cent). There is likelihood of frost in these areas. Dust is not a great problem.

C O A S T A L Z O N E

Again because of their geographical position, coastal areas have a climate slightly different from that of the surrounding climatic

Appendixes 271

zones. The difference lies mainly in high humidity ( 5 5-100 per cent). Annual temperature variation is lower. Air in coastal areas is charged with salts which give rise to many conservation problems.

Building design and structural requirements

G E N E R A L P R I N C I P L E S

When construction is planned in the tropics, the common characteristics of the different types of climate, which affect buildings to a great extent irrespective of tonal variations, need first consideration. It will be seen from the above description that all the zones are hot with normally high air temperature, though some are hot humid, others hot dry or hot dry-wet. Sun in the tropics is

I XY Traditional roofscape showing the wind scoops on the terraces of the buildings. These channel wind into the room and bring the high temperature down considerably.

a constant factor, though its position in the sky may vary in different zones, but it is much fiercer than in temperate or cool climates. Protection from sun and solar radiation is therefore the main consideration as regards walls, roofs, window-openings, as well as orientation of buildings.

In a museum building, orientation is all the more important because normally north light is recommended as the most suitable natural light for galleries, and for conservation studios; the north light is uniform, and the colours are distinctly visible. But, naturally, the opposite wall facing south has to be well protected from the sun by large projections, , balconies or sun-breakers which allow light but exclude direct sun rays and heat. East-west orientation, which is a favourite of traditional builders in India, is not suitable for museums, unless the walls facing east and west are

protected by sun-breakers or wide projections.

Buildings in the tropics need protection from direct and reflective solar radiation. Roofs and external walls are the main victims of solar radiation, and unless these are protected the interiors would also be affected.

Roofs and external walls can be used to minimize the effect of solar radiation in two ways. First, reflective materials and white or near-white paint can reflect away much of the solar radiation from the building. Secondly, the methods of construction of roofs and walls can prevent sunlight from reaching the interiors of the buildings. Provision of external shades can keep the buildings cool. Trees can provide some shade, but in a museum building, trees are a security risk providing easy access to windows as well as to the roof.

Thermal insulation of roofs, a false ceiling or a double roof can reduce solar radiation considerably. Wide roof projections, use of sun-breakers and proper materials of construction can protect the external walls to a great extent from solar radiation, and the walls in turn will protect the interiors.

Exact sizes of the window openings will be dictated by the requirements of a particular zone, but in general they need protection from the sun. Sun-breakers, vertical, horizontal or a combination of both, can protect windows from direct rays while allowing much-needed glare-free light inside the museum gallery. Windows provide natural ventilation, which is needed to some extent in all the zones of the tropical climate. (Figs. 18j, 186, 187).

Ventilation can also be provided by channelling the wind. Foz this purpose windscoops or special, screens are installed on the roofs to divert the wind to channels which reach the rooms. This technique has been use in certain very hot dry parts of India for centuries. Normally one windscoop is provided for each room, and in multi- storeyed building the channels reach all the way down. This type of ventilation is possible if the wind blows regularly in the same direction. By providing such ventilation, temperature can be brought down from 48" C to 35' C . (Fig. 188).

Before planning a museum building, it is necessary to decide whether the building will be provided with air-conditioning or not. This decision will influence the planning. If a building is designed in order to obtain natural lighting and ventilation, which can be supplemented with additional artificial lighting and ventilation, it will be moie functional than a building which has not been so planned.

In a museum building, natural lighting, with all its faults, cannot be discarded. It can be reflected, screened and diffused so that it is without glare and with less ultra- violet rays. Judicious use of natural light can be most profitable and inexpensive. Light entering through high windows reflected by the ceiling is adequate for galleries. (Figs. 189, 190).

Ceiling fans, different types of air- circulators and unit ventilators are helpful to the circulation of air, but their location should not be disturbing in the galleries. They can be built in.

272 Amendixes

I 89 A traditional example of the pierced screen with an opening which allows diffused sunlight and air into the building. The interior is kept cool by the breeze. Hot air can be kept out by covering the screens with reed curtains; these can be rolled up to allow a cool breeze to enter.

I9 0 An example of the protection of the ground-floor wall by a verandah. The upper-floor wall and the windows are protected by the projecting roof and the sun-breakers.

Special csaasideratiows

H O T - D R Y Z O N E

This climatic zone has high air temperatures, dry air and dry ground. Absence of cloud or vapour intensifies solar radiation, which dries the air still more. Owing to dryness of ground, very little vegetation or plant life is possible, and solar radiation is reflected. Use of dark colours for exposed ground near the buildings will decrease reflective radiation. Fountains and trees should be added in order to cool the surroundings, but they should be kept away from the building to avoid termites.

Humidity being low in this zone, doors and windows are kept closed; this restricts the entry of hot air into the building. Small window openings high up in the wall allow the necessary air to enter and reduce the solar radiation. During the daytime, windows are kept closed, but cool air should be introduced at night, particularly in the museum galleries, to cool the interiors. Windows on the east and west sides should

be smaller than south windows, but should have adequate screens, shutters and sun- shades. North windows need protection from wind in winter.

West facing walls in particular need to be thick. A 1j1/2-inch thickness of walls normally provides a ten-hour time-lag. Alternatively, cavity walls are considered effective for blocking out heat transmission. East and south walls can be of light construction if protected by overhangs or sun-breakers.

A 41/3-inoh thick R.C.C. slab with 3 to 4- inch lime-concrete or mud-concrete layer provides an eight-hour time-lag for flat roofs.

For maintenance of desirable humidity inside galleries and for cooling the interiors by circulation of cool air, desert-coolers can be used.

Airborne sand or dust storms, high temperatures, higher fluctuations of diurnal temperatures and sudden chilling during winter months create great stress in the surface of building materials, and it is advisable to use only such materials as will withstand these conditions.

High ceilings do not make any apparent difference in the temperature unless there is a double roof. In museums such a roof can provide top-lighting introduced into the space between ceiling and the roof. The lighting can be natural as well as artificial.

Courtyard planning of a compact type would function effectively for this zone. Enclosed courtyards retain heat during winter and allow quick radiation of heat and cooling during summer. They can be landspaced with fountains and green plants and can be utilized as sculpture courts or relaxation areas in museums.

HOT-HUMID Z O N E

This zone has moderately high temperatures but moist air and damp ground. Cloud and vapour act as a filter to solar radiation; and damp ground, with a lot of vegetation, plants and shrubbery, reduces the heat of the surrounding area, which does not heat up easily. Air movement also helps in cooling surroundings as well as interiors.

For human comfort natural ventilation

Appendixes '73

is a necessity, and breeze at body level is desired. External air must continually replace internal air. This can be ensured by wind-oriented large windows. In the planning of museum galleries, this creates problems, as most of the walls have to be spared for exhibitions and the display of objects; but if the orientation of the galleries is planned in view of the wind direction, comparatively smaller openings can provide enough ventilation. However, windows need protection in the form of sunbreakers or overhangs which should allow ventilation and light but not glare and rain. The angles of sun-breakers and window projections need particular care because they should not obstruct the breeze. While preparing an exhibition layout for the galleries, it should be seen that partitions or screens are not erected which would obstruct natural ventilation. Cross-ventilation of the galleries is most important.

Thick walls protect galleries from solar radiation but external walls need protection from the rains. Water penetration can be avoided by adjustable louvers which should, however, allow much-needed breezes.

High humidity can be mastered for personal comfort by introducing air movements through fans, and air circulators. Good air circulation prevents the growth of micro-organisms. High humidity also affects building materials, and exposed metals or timber should not be used in this climate.

M O N S O O N Z O N E

This zone combines the characteristics of a hot-humid climate during the rainy season and has a hot-dry climate during the rest of the year.

A special effort is needed in this zone to maintain surroundings like green lawns and fountains which are a great help in the dry season in cooling the surroundings and reducing solar radiation.

Windows should be in generous proportion as compared to hot and dry zones but need protection from the hot summer sun in the form of sun-breakers and wall or roof projections. Pierced screens covering the windows or verandah are very useful in this zone, allowing enough ventilation in the,rainy season but cutting down direct sun rays as well as solar radiation from the sky and the ground. In winter, they allow much needed sun during the daytime. But behind the pierced screens, it is necessary to provide shutters to the windows, which can be closed when necessary to keep out the sun, cold wind and dust prevalent in this zone. Windows or ventilators as measures of permanent ventilation in the form of pierced screens are a popular feature of traditional Indian architecture. However, such ventilators are always without shutters. In museums they not only create cleaning problems but allow the entry of dust, which is very harmful to museum objects.

The building should not be compact, but open and well ventilated. Walls of galleries should be of heavy masonry, but should be protected by verandahs or balconies of lightweight construction; this slows down the rate of cooling or heating of internal galleries in extreme seasons.

Humidity fluctuates severely as per seasonal variations and causes wood and comparable building materials to shrink and split. It also affects shrinkable clays. The building materials have to be selected carefully. Owing to heavier construction of outside verandahs, i t may be necessary to shut up the building during the day and open it up during the night. This needs special attention in museums.

M O U N T A I N Z O N E

In this zone, the temperature is low because of high altitudes; humidity is high, and the range of diurnal temperature is also fairly high.

A heavyweight structure with a higher time-lag will prove satisfactory, as the temperature drops considerably at night. Ceiling insulation is useful in preventing rapid loss of heat by radiation at night.

Sunlight is strong at higher altitudes and contains a higher proportion of ultra- violet rays, the sky being clear. Ventilation is a necessity, as the humidity is high. Measures for the hot humid zone can be adopted to a certain extent, depending on exact situation.

C O A S T A L C L I M A T E

Humidity in coastal areas is very high throughout the year. Rainfall is also generally high. Ample provision of windows to provide ventilation is subject to penetration of rain-water and needs careful designing. Wind is normally strong and some areas are also affected by cyclonic storms. This necessitates compact structures and closed walls with adjustable window openings on the windward side. The construction must be sound to withstand storms.

Building materials which can resist penetration of rain-water and corrosion due to sea-salts should be used.

In the museum galleries most of the museum objects should be displayed in closed showcases, as sea-salts are very harmful to them.

Conclusion

The ideas presented here are only preliminary, showing that there is a close relationship between the design of the museum building and the conservation of the material. This relationship is notable in the tropics because the climatic factors are extreme. Since air-conditioning is difficult for most of the museums in South and South-East Asia, museum designing to meet the requirements of conservation assumes still greater importance. It needs much more research and practical experimentation before concrete results can be achieved and firm recommendations made. Traditional architecture in South and South-East Asia as elsewhere in the world is very much influenced by the climate. Analysis of traditional measures to counterbalance the extreme climate provides some solutions which can be adapted to the present conditions.

O. P. AGRAWAL and SMITA J. BAXI

The spectacular revival of interest in museums observed almost everywhere in the world today shows that this institution, one of the oldest in the history of human culture, is becoming more attractive and is entering upon a new phase in its existence. The flood of information distributed by the mass media, far from supplanting our first source of knowledge, the historic building, seems on the contrary to cast a new light on its intrinsic merits of uniqueness and authenticity. The lesson of the museum is indeed unique in its way, for within its walls instructive information is combined in the most natural manner with sensual impressions to offer that special intellectual pleasure which makes a museum visit such a memorable event. A museum is neither a mausoleum nor a temple. However, by the very nature of its function, which is to perpetuate the historical experience of the human race, it selects the most significant of such buildings and presents them in the form of models or plans. Hence the vast potentialities of the museum’s contribution to man’s spiritual world.

The present network of museums in the U.S.S.R. consists of a multitude of variously specialized museums amply covering the different branches of culture, art, science and technology and systematically distributed over the whole country. All the administrative and cultural centres of every republic, territory and region possess museums, special attention being given to their organization in the national republics.

In the Soviet Union, the building of new museums and the modernization of old ones are included in State plans for cultural development. In drawing up these plans all the diverse requirements of modern life are borne in mind. Specifically, this means taking into account changing social conditions, urban growth, increasing leisure

191 time (the working day is continually being DOM-MUZEJ V. I. LENINA (Lenin Memorial Museum), Ulyanovsk, I 970. shortened), the trend in general educational Architects: B. Mezentsev, M. Konstantinov, and cultural level (in I972 general secondary G. Issakovitch. educati6n became compulsory for all),

along with problems pertaining to museology, such as the constant extension of collections and the development of the main functions of modern museums: conservation, study and education.

The U.S.S.R. now has a long-term plan for the development of museums between 1975 and 1990. This document was prepared by museum specialists and architects working in collaboration. Particular stress is laid on the organization of new museums in the major new towns. The various specific suggestions made in the document can be summed up as follows: (a) a museum is one of the various institutions whose function is to provide information and which are essential elements in the nucleus around which a city is built; (b) museum architecture should reflect the particular nature of the collections and of the national and climatic conditions; (c) the interior of a museum should be so arranged as to ensure that the main administrative and functional areas are linked in the most convenient way for both visitors and staff, and that the widest use is made of new display techniques. The development plan also provides for the systematic training of specialists in muse-

The implementation of this programme must be organized in a different way at each stage. At the first stage, the work consists in calculations: the figures concern the size and type of the collections of the future museum, the proportion of exhibits to reserve stocks, annual acquisitions, all these being the factors which determine rhe areas of display rooms and storage rooms. Provision is made for special rooms for temporary exhibitions, which occupy an increasingly important place in the activities of a modern museum. The number of visitors, the rate of growth, the amount, types and methods of public information work are assessed in order to compile the list. of ancillary areas, defïning their functions and parameters-lecture rooms, club rooms, entrance hall. This is the task of the museum

ology.

c_michotte

New museums in the URSS

Appendixes 27 5

I93 GOSUDARSTVENNYJ LITERATURNYJ MUZEJ (Museum of Russian Literature), Moscow. The individual rooms are arranged according to themes round a central hall. General view (model). Architects: Y . Rabaev, V. Talikovski, G. Savchenko, I. Diachenko, L. Enchenko, E. Shpakov- skaya, T. Itkina, A. Lvov. Engineers: M. Schwechman, I. Kritchevskaya, V. Vanag.

staff, who also specify their needs in regard to services premises, restoration workshops, laboratories.

At the next stage, the design study is entrusted to the architects. The figures are now turned into concrete shapes. Museums cannot be standardized: the urban site and the nature of the collections are taken as the starting-point for the work of finding an essentially original answer to the architectural problem. In preparing their design, the architects draw on both national and foreign experience. Nevertheless, the creation of a new museum is always the outcome of a long search for the best architectural solution and a careful study of the functions to be catered for, due allowance being made throughout for possible future extensions.

The work on the design itself is preceded by a detailed study of the collections. Architects and museologists hold joint discussions from which the general plan should emerge. The purpose of their consultations, which will not be discon- tinued until the study is completed, is to determine the functional layout of the

premises, the itinerary for visitors, the arrangement of displays. The wide variety of types of museum obviously affects the details of the preparatory study. The installations, functional organization and architectural problems which are related to museum work are the subject of analytical surveys and synoptic reports undertaken at the Central Institute for Research on Buildings for Cultural Purposes and Sports. This institute is responsible for reviewing and testing the application of scientific principles in all types of public buildings, including museums.

Many new museums have sprung up in the U.S.S.R. over the past decade. Memorial museums, which are very popular, are by far the most numerous. Their purpose is to perpetuate the memory of great historical events, individual or collective exploits and great personalities, and this is why they hold a particularly strong appeal for the public. For the same reason, the style of the architecture and the aesthetic quality of the design play a leading part in the success of this kind of museum.

The group of buildings forming the

Ulyanovsk Memorial and the branch of the Lenin Museum in Tashkent, inaugurated on the centenary of Lenin’s birth, are major architectural works. Both are situated in the centre of important towns which are rapidly developing and have a rich history. (Figs.

At Ulyanovsk, Lenin’s birthplace, the great man’s memory is bound up with the steep banks of the Volga and the peaceful lanes lined with cottages, mostly timberbuilt. How was a monument on a grand scale to be fitted into the dilapidated setting of Lenin’s childhood and ado- lescence? The architects have fully succeeded in solving this problem: the memorial has merged into its urban environment as if it had always been there. The design of this multipurpose complex, comprising the museum proper, a large concert hall and a political education centre, conveys a strong sense of unity. In the centre are preserved the cottages which were the homes of the various members of the Ulyanov family. This is the memorial part of the exhibition. The original features of each cottage have been restored, inside

190, 191).

Appendixes

19 4 MuzEJ T. %&E"mJ (T. Sh"-Iko

Architects: E. Kuznetsova, O. Naumova. Engineers: M. Kashlarski, 2. Sukhanova.

as well as out. In this way, history is woven into the fabric of the architectural plan to

designed around a sing1e theme' The Lenin Memorial exhibition occupies

a room in the central building which lends itself to all manner of modifications in order to accommodate the steadily increasing number of acquisitions. Its sixteen sections are spatially differentiated only by the arrangement of the material displayed. Monumental art plays an active part in the exhibition by contributing stained glass, sculptures and mosaics. The visitors' itinerary ends in the Lenin Room, which is the thematic and architectural heart of the museum and of the whole memorial. (It is in this room that official ceremonies take place, investitures are held, etc.) The function of the memorial is not solely to perpetuate the memory of the past: it incorporates important public institutions necessary for modern urban life, such as an institute of education, a cultural centre, an opera-house, an hotel, a shopping centre.

The Lenin Museum in Tashkent is the first memorial of this kind in Central Asia. The project features the national characteristics of Uzbek architecture, which is distinguished by the simplicity of its general form and the very elaborate style of the decorative elements.

In particular, the link with tradition is implicit in a ground-plan boldly designed around one central point and in the orna- mental character of the façades. The central point is the great hall around which display areas are provided on two levels. The red stone surface of the walls, broken by the white stone of the plaques bearing inscriptions, combines with the abundance of light to create a most impressive atmosphere of majesty. The exhibition, which is not divided up by partitions, opens on to the central hall. It includes nearly 3,000 texts, first editions of Lenin's works, models of memorial sites, works of art inspired by his life, A great deal of the museum's activity is concerned with lectures and excursions, for most visits terminate in the lecture room.

The same desire to produce an original

Museum Of Art), (Kazakhstan)* form a monument which is harmoniously

monumental work is reflected in the architecture of the Velikie Luki Museum. This building, which perpetuates the memory of the young people killed in the Great Patriotic War, bears the name of Aleksandr Matrosov, who met a hero's death at the age of 19. The white wall area rising above the entrance to the glass- enclosed ground floor serves as a support for a symbolic composition in sheet-steel. The wall overhangs the spot where Matro- sov's k.o7~~~onzaZmembership card is displayed, this being the centre-piece of the exhibition. In the semi-darkness, a shaft of light falls on it from above. The memorial also comprises the tomb of the young hero with a funerary sculpture and the obelisk erected to the memory of the soldiers who fell in action when the town was liberated in 1943. The centre of the complex is Alek- sandr Matrosov Square, which is an open space raised above the surrounding area, on which there stands the main part of the memorial, namely, the museum. The slope down from the square has been made into an amphitheatre for assemblies, meetings and big demonstrations.

The memorial complexes and the museums built at Salaspils, Krasnodon, Katyn, Erevan and Baku are also famous. An essential feature of this type of museum is that it represents a synthesis of all the arts.

There is practically no end to the variety of themes handled in museum work. It is clearly the main task of the architect to reflect the specific aspects of each theme.

The project for the new Museum of Literature to be built in the centre of Moscow has been prepared by architects and museologists working together. The aim of the exhibition is ro offer a panoramic introduction to the history of Russian literature, to throw the crucial periods into relief, highlight the work of the great writers, show the broad trends in modern times.

The visitors' itinerary follows a vertical pattern, starting on the third level and going down in chronological order from the beginnings of Russian literature to our own time. A room is devoted to each

Appendixes 277

trend or school, all the rooms being arranged around the central hall. The exhibition as a whole is so designed as to give a very comprehensive picture of the general development of Russian literature (Fig. 193).

This museum will have a rich collection of works of art and objects used in the home, which recreate the atmosphere of a period. Lighting poses a special problem in this type of museum. As the keeper’s main concern is to ensure that the conservation of manuscripts and old books is not jeopardized by exposure to full daylight, there are no windows in the walls. Skylights in the ceilings spread a diffused natural light, which is combined with artificial lighting. The highly varied layout of the internal display areas contributes to the effectiveness of the exhibitions.

More and more art museums are bcing designed and constructed in most of the Soviet Republics. Fine arts museums are being completed at Tashkent, Frunze, Nukusgand Erevan. At Alma-Ata, capital of Kazakhstan, the construction work on the Taras Shevchenlio Art Gallery is nearing

completion. This museum will put the finishing touch to the general appearance of the centre of the city, which already has a theatre, a circus and a wedding hall.

The gallery’s collection comprises 10,000 works by artists from Kazakhstan, Russia, the U.S.S.R. and Western Europe, and includes products of the craftsmen of India, China and Japan. The collection is steadily increasing, at the rate of about 300 items a year.

The display areas are arranged around an inner courtyard so that all the sections are easily accessible to visitors enabling them to choose whether to see them consecutively or selectively. The building is completed by the glass-sided pyramid of the central hall, which houses the display of sculpture. The museum is also equipped with a group of special exhibition rooms, storage areas, studios, a library, restoration workshops and technical services (Fig 194).

A large number of smaller art museums have also been opened recently in many places. The Csurlionis Museum at Kaunas is a noteworthy example. The intimate cha-

racter of the exhibition ‘devoted to the work of the remarkable Lithuanian painter and composer of that name dictated the simple compact lines of the building and the quiet style of the interior decoration. Works by Csurlionis can be heard in the music room, while his pictures are hung in display areas built as projecting units on different levels rising from the entrance, each row representing one period. The distemper painting on cardboard is protected by special glass frames.

A series of new museums is to be built in Moscow in the next few years. The Academy of Sciences is to have a Museum of Palaeon- tology and museums are planned for music, the theatre and the applied arts. Construction work on the U.S.S.R. Art Gallery is being completed. Lastly, we should mention the events of major importance which are the competitions organized recently for designs for the new premises of the country’s biggest museums, the Lenin Museum and the Museum of the Revolution.

IRINA ANTONOVA and V. REVYAKIN

IV The building starts with a programme- but where does the programme end?

You have been given the responsibility of producing the programme for a new museum building. Simple? No. Just put down on a piece of paper a list of all the functions you would like to see included, with a number next to each item for the amount of space it should have. Then hand it over to the best architect you can find, and he will translate thcse concepts into beautiful forms. I

There are, in reality, at least three basic fallacies to such an Arcadian formulation. The first is that the god Mammon raises his head from the very outset, and that whatever is done must involve an analysis of the available and potential resources in a world where construction costs may be rising, as in the United States, by I per cent a month, or 12 per cent a year. To match the scope of a project to its probable cost requires the involvement from the outset of an architect (not necessarily the eventual designer of the building), people versed in construction, and people involved in the provision of the funds. At this stage it seems that the costs cannot be known until the building is designed, and the building cannot be designed until the costs are known. The only solution is to recognize that program-

ming is a process, and to proceed by successive approximations, starting with the roughest ratios of cost per square unit of floor space.

The second fallacy lies in the reality that, in practice, the flow of even pro- grammatic ideas is not one way. As the building begins to take shape, it is apt to suggest functions. Some space allocations are negotiable according to opportunities introduced by the design and priorities set up by the client. Whatever the fashionable shibboleths of our post-Bauhaus age, function follows form in the real world as much as the other way around (although a well-kept secret among the architectural fraternity). There is no need to feel guilt; symbiosis is just as fashionable and probably healthier. The key, however, is again the recognition that programming is a process, analogous in some ways to the more familiar one of expository writing. The architect, too, proceeds from a very rough outline through succeeding stages of greater and greater specificity, down to the final working drawings for every centimetre of the finished structure.

The character of the undertaking as process is further dramatized if the owner

278 Appendixes

I 9 J NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART, Washington. Left, the ancient building; right, the new extension building. Plan of the concourse level, underground.

chooses ro construct the project by the so-called ‘fast-track ’method. In a period of rising costs, the most economical way to proceed may be to begin the time- consuming excavation before the building is designed in complete detail. Particularly if the project is large and complex, one saves the money otherwise eaten away while waiting for the finished plans. This method precludes putting a final set of documents out for competitive bidding; but the theory is that in the case of a unique building such as a museum, which is apt to be out of the experience of most builders, a contractor would have to put such a large contingency factor inro bis bid that the owner is better off with a contract based on cost plus a fixed percentage. Priorities for design completion are then set by the ‘critical path’ of what needs to be built next, and the programming thus continues actively long after the basic design of the building has been arrived at.

The third fallacy is in many ways the most important, the most complex and the most unexpected. It is that any architect good enough to be chosen for a project of the cultural importance of a museum is going to be subtly but fundamentally a t

cross-purposes with his client. This phenomenon is all the more unexpected since, particularly in the case of an art museum, both client and architect share to such an unusual degree an aesthetic orientation. One of the functions prescribed in a museum building’s programme should be beauty; the structure should embody in its design the standards of visual imagination and cultural excellence that the institution it houses strives to foster. By virtue of its civic importance, and the values the museum strives to preserve, a degree of monumentality is inevitable. But no one in the business of operating a museum need be told that beauty and monumentality are not enough. To end with a museum that works takes more than presenting an architect with a sheet of paper. The museum professional must, as a continuing process, fight for every function that he wants the new building to perform.

From the early days, some six years ago, in which the writer was assigned by the trustees to begin planning for a second building for the National Gallery of Art in Washington, everyone consulted who had recently completed a building project of his own gave the same advice. One cannot

Appendixes 7-77

be too Careful about reviewing what the architect proposes, down to the placement of a thermostat on an office wall. Some of those asked even suggested hiring an additional architect just to sit on the client’s side and review the plans. Not even the professional designer can ever visualize completely the effect of a finished structure in three dimensions, and for the layman it is all the trickier. The non-specialist finds himself in a new medium, where he generally must rely for alternative options on the same designers who are pushing their own solution as the best one possible And that solution will be the best, if they are competent, according to an underlying set of criteria that do not, however, necessarily match yours.

To illustrate the range of functions the process of programming must oversee would be to fill this special issue of Museum. Suffice it to touch here on the three basic areas of display, public services and behind-the-scenes.

If it is an art museum you are building, the loyalty of the museum staff will be to the individual works of art; that of the architect, to the aesthetic integrity of the building as a whole. As buildings are experienced over time, inside and out, in three dimensions, and at very large scale, no individual art object can compete with them. At the same time, the experience of that object is this kind of building’s ultimate point. The architect will naturally want visual control over everything the public sees; he must be led to realize that the nearest analogy to what he is designing is that of a theatre, where the beauty and excitement of the building should put the audience in a mood of heiglitened awareness, but where, ultimately, other artists must be allowed to take the stage.

Objects require settings of their own. Most critical, perhaps, is the relationship between the scale of the object and the scale of the spatial volume with which it must contend. The object cries out for containment, dominance of its environment, and insulation from an architectural schema too large for it to handle. Modern architecture, on the other hand, revels in open, interpenetrating spaces, and reminders of the structural system that subordinate subspaces to the total building.

As requirements for display will undoubtedly change in the future, ‘the museum needs flexibility, This is particularly true as the activities of a museum develop, and it comes to serve a variety of civic and quasi-performing-arts functions. The architect, however, naturally wants to set the forms once and for all.

The security and preservation of the work of art on display will inevitably mean more to the museum’s staff than to the architect. Atmospheric control, the preven- tion of theft or of damage in times of violence, all tend to require a building in the form of an air-conditioned vault. Modern architecture, on the other hand, cherishes openness and a sense of invitation. Percep- tion of the out-of-doors and the flow of indoor-outdoor space rank high in the architect’s desiderata; but if introduced at all, they must be rigorously controlled as at the Gulbenkian Museum in Lisbon, if the

visitor is to avoid being blinded and his rapport with the imaginative world of the object is not to be intruded upon unnecessarily. Lighting of the works of art is the most difficult and controversial problem both the architect and his client must face. It may well be that no completely satisfactory solution has ever been reached. Without attempting to discuss it here, it should be remembered that conservation of objects demands less light; excitement by the architecture demands more.

In the area of service to the public, functions of the most prosiac kind must be championed by the planning staff if they are not to be ignored by architects for whom they become blemishes on the design purity of the conception. Drinking fountains, lavatories, public telephones, smoking lounges, checkrooms; shelter while waiting for opening time, places to meet others or have coffee in pleasant surroundings; wheelchair storage, ramps and lavatories for paraplegics; places to write a postcard, and post it; information desks, inventory storage space for the sales facility, signs that communicate without cluttering- the lists never seem to end.

Finally, all the areas off view to the public will naturally tend to inspire less of the architect’s enthusiasm than the public spaces. Here, therefore, the process of programming the building must be particularly vigilant. Adequate art’ storage for the future, designed for convenient study and research; well-thought-out and secure spaces for packing and unpacking; support for heavy sculpture all along its route to display; adequate space for the preparation of exhibits and the storage of unused cases and pedestals; elevators and corridors of suitable dimensions for very large objects; a logical flow from shipping dock to registrar to photo lab to conservation to storage; convenient places for guards to rest and provision for both female and male guards; conduits for possible future requirements of audio-visual and computer technologies; perimeter and internal security systems; services for scholarship, including provision for library growth and future automated data retrieval systems; housing for mops and floor-cleaning machines, access to light fixtures for re-lamping, and in general the maintenance implications of every aspect of the design-here again no amount of concentration will ever seem to produce an exhaustive list.

Programming a new museum is thus not an act. It is an ongoing, painstaking and continuously interacting process. The ability of a good architect to come up with imaginative and functional solutions that satisfy the programme and are also beautiful is an uncanny phenomenon to watch. But architects will often repeat the truism that a building can be no better than its client; and the opportunity of those engaged in the professional aspects of museums to help a new museum happen, and keep it from happening wrong, presents one of the most rewarding challenges that any career could offer.

J. CARTER BROWN

196 HIRSHHORN MUSEUM AND SCULPTURE GARDEN, Washington. This photograph reached us just as the issue was going to press. It shows a new and important construction by the Smithsonian Institution to which we shall return in a subsequent issue. We are hoping that readers will keep us informed of new museum ventures in different ‘parts of the world so that we can draw attention to them in the review’s ‘Museum Notes’. (Editor’s note.) 1.:

I’ 1

280

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LINICE, S.; NAGEL, S. Bautetz fur Bildung and Forscbutg2 Museen, Biblìotheken, Instit&. Giitersloh, Verlagsgruppe Bertelsmann, 1971.

B A S I C S C I E N C E S

ARNHEIM, Rudolf. KWst und Seherz. Berlin,

--. Anscbauliches Denken. Cologne, Verlag

BAHRDT, Hans Paul. Die moderne Grosstadt.

Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1965.

DuMont Schauberg, 1972.

Hamburg, Christien Wegner-Verlag GmbH, 1969.

-. Humaner Sfädtebaa. Hamburg, 1968. GRAN JEAN, E. Physiologische Arbeitsgestal-

tang. Munich, Ott Verlag, 1967. KIEMLE, Manfred. Ästbetische Probleme der

Arcbitektiir unter dem Aspek t der Informationsästhetik. Quickborn, Verlag Schnelle, I 967.

LYNCH, Kevin. Das Bild der Stadt. Berlin, Frankfurt and Vienna, Verlag Ullstein GmbH, 1965.

MALES, Abraham A. Informationstheoriee und ästhetiesche Wahrnehminig. Cologne, Verlag DuMont Schauberg, 1971.

Stüdtebari. Stuttgart, Karl Kriimer Verlag, 1968.

SENKENBURG MUSEUM. Several publications. Frankfurt.

SCHMIDT-RELENBERG, Norbert. So?iologiee

Museum architecture: projects and recent achievements. Mzisewz (Paris, Unesco), vol. 17, no. 3, 1964, p. 1r4-41, illus, plans.

Qu pb icated COU rses Physiologie du musée: conservation. By

Georges Henri Rivitre, Universities of Paris I and IV. (UER art et archéologie.)

Articles G E N E R A L

r‘

v.d. OSTEN, Gerd. Der Neubau von ICunst- und ICulturmuseen. Celebration speech for Rudolf Hillebrecht on 26 February 1970.

WAETZOLD, Stephan. Planung fiir die Museen am Tiergarten. Reprint from: Jahrbuch Preussìscber Kdtarbesit?, vol. IV, West Berlin, 1971.

WALTERS, Christian. Konservatorische Gesichtspunkte im Museumsbau. From: Em$>hlnngen der Sachverstätzd&n- kommissieon Jìir den Bazr eines nezren Walraff- Richart?- Museums.

I) O C U M E N T S P U B L I S €I ED

BY M U S E U M S

Arcbifectwe of M2ise~1ms (MONA). New York, November 1968.

Concours international pour la réalisation du Centre Beaubourg. Rapport du jury. Revne de Z’UIA (Paris), no. 12, 1971, p. 20-33.

The Denver Art Museum, Denver. Japan Science Foundation, Tokyo. Museum architecture. Masez{?~s-Assoctieo~z

of India. New Delhi, February 1971. Das Museum fiir Völkerkunde in Berlin-

Dahlem, Berlin. New Museums, Moscow. Singapore Science Centre. From: SIAJ

(Singapore Institute of Architects Journal), November-December I 971.

Victorian Arts Centre, Melbourne. Walker Art Center, Minneapolis.

Aufhor

MANFRED LEHMBRUCK

Professor, Dr. Ing., born Paris 1913. (Son of the sculptor Wilhelm Lehmbruck.) Began his studies with the architect Mies van der Rohe in Berlin and continued them at the Technischen Hochschulen in Berlin and Stuttgart. Obtained his doctorate at the Technische Hochschule in Hannover with a thesis on 'Fundamental Problems of Modern Museum Construction'. Worked with Auguste Perret in Paris, until the war and afterwards in several Swiss architectural offices. In 1950 went to Stuttgart to work independently as a freelance architect and in 1967 was appointed professor of building and draft plan at the architectural university of Brunswick. Since 1962 has been an active member of ICOM. Constructions carried out: Reuchlinhaus Cultural Centre, Pforzheim; Wilhelm Lehmbruck Museum, Duisburg; Federsee Museum, Bad Buchau; school, industrial and residential buildings, hospital, library at Hallenbad. Projects: Cultural Centre, Rottweil; Cultural Centre, Nicosia (Cyprus), etc. Work taken over from other architects: Art Museum, Neuss; Literary Archives, Marbach; etc.

ColZaborafor (Co-author of chapter on 'Siting')

BERND RAUTENSTRAUCH Engineer, scientific assistant to Professor Lehmbruck at the Technische Universität, Brunswick

Picttrre credits

I , Roger Viollet, Paris; 3, Leonard Freed/ Magnum; I I , Musée de l'Horlogerie, La Chaux-de-Fonds; 22, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; 23, 183, Hildegard Weber, Itöln; 26, Victoria Arts Centre, Melbourne; 27, Siorid Neubert, Miinchen; 28, 86(b), Bernd Kirtz, Duisburg; 31(b) , Jorn Freddie, Kcabenhavn; 34, Heinz Oeberg, Berlin, 3j, Centre Culturel du Plateau Beaubourg; 40, Stadsontwikkeling Dienst Publieke Werken, Amsterdam; 41, Ecomusée de la Communauté Urbaine du Creusot-Montceau-les-Mines; 42, Thomas HÖpkerlMagnum; 60, Gil Amiac, New York; 64, University Art Museum, Berkeley (Colin McRae); 7o(b ) , Ryoo Hata, Tokyo; 80, Sketch after

Frederick Kiesler, Werk, February 1959; SJ, Henie Onstad Museum, Oslo; 89, Collection, Museum of Modern Art, New York; y j , Hakone Open Air Museum; 97(a) , (b) , Sepp Mayer, Rottweil; 104, 138, 170, I ~ J , 177,179,182, Manfred Lehmbruck; 112, Wayne Thom, Santa Barbara; 140, Musée des Arts et Traditions Populaires, Paris (A. Guey); 147, Colin Westwood, London; 1j3, Western Australian Museum (Vera MacKay), Perth; r j j , National Science Museum, Tokyo; r j 8 , Rüdiger Dichtel, Stuttgart; I ~ J , A. Pelegrie, Anvers; 166, Laurent Rousseau; Paris; 168, Ernest Mayer, Winnipeg Art Gallery; 169, Kulturhistorisk Museum, Randers (Lars Johansson); r71, Ezra Stoller Associates; 173, Fototeta A.S.A.C. Biennale, Foto A.F.I., Venezia; 174, Reinhard Friedrich, Berlin, 178, The Japan Architect (Taisuke Ogawa), Tokyo; 180, Cornell University Photograph, Office of Public Information, Ithaca, N.Y.; 184, Striiwing, Birkerod; 18j-8, 190, Omar Prakash Agrawal, Delhi; I 89, Archaeolo- gical Survey of India, Government of India; 191, Novosti Press Agency; 192, Filial Central'nogo Muzeja V. I. Lenina, Tashkent; 193, Gosudarstvennyj Literaturnyj Muzej, Moskva; 194, Muzej T. SevEenkogo, Alma-Ata; 196, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

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