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M u r t a g h , J i m

Constructivisms Impact on the Use of Technology in K-12 Classrooms:

An Annotated Bibliography

The selection of articles in this annotated bibliography help to explain how constructivist

theories are influencing the adoption and integration of technology in todays K-12 classrooms.The articles fall into three major groupings: case studies which embed technology and a

constructivist approach in K-12 settings, the evolution of constructivism, and the development

of student and teacher beliefs about learning and technology. Some articles span more than a

single category. I intentionally tried to capture a balance of viewpoints so that an impartial

perspective is presented. As I critiqued the articles, I began to notice common threads weaved

throughout the pieces that went beyond the factual information of learning theories, the

psychology of learning, and human development. Almost all of the articles that discussed

technology indicated that simply introducing technology, without planning and professional

development, did not have a significant impact on student learning. Some studies even showeddeclines in student achievement. Another recurring theme is that a constructivist approach is

sometimes presented as the panacea for successful technology integration. Finally, I had the

impression that teachers are feeling pressure to adopt constructivist models, even though they

dont fully understand them, or necessarily believe in the theory.

Case Studies Which Embed Technology And a Constructivist Approach in K-12 Settings

Addressing the nets for students through constructivist technology use in K-12 classroom.

Niederhauser, D., & Lindstrom, D. (2006). Addressing the nets for students through

constructivist technology use in K-12 classroom.Journal of Educational Computing

Research, 34(1), 91-128. doi:10.2190/E0X3-9CH0-EE2B-PLXG

This piece examines the notion that a constructivist approach, coupled with technology, can

improve student learning. It begins by pointing out how early technology use was ineffective as

it focused on drill and practice activities, and then how teachers gradually adopted a

constructivist mentality for using technology and results improved. Technology has shifted from

the tool to deliver content to a tool to facilitate thinking. In the conclusion, the authorrecognizes a shift in teacher attitudes towards a constructivist approach, but adds that many of

the activities failed to push students to their potential. Project based activities became more

common, but several standards in the NETS*S framework were not addressed in their activities.

This article helped me to see a theme running through other pieces I reviewed, and that is

teachers are trying to adopt constructivist reform but they dont really know how to do it. They


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are using a piecemeal approach, without a comprehensive understanding of the theory, so they

are inconsistent in their implementation.

Technology as a Tool: Applying an Instructional Model to Teach Middle School Students to

Use Technology as a Mediator of LearningReid-Griffin, A., & Carter, G. (2004). Technology as a tool: Applying an instructional model to

teach middle school students to use technology as a mediator of learning. Journal of

Science Education and Technology, 13(4), 495-504.

Infusing technology into a curriculum is not a guarantee that enhanced student learning will

take place. In this article, a middle school classroom is the focus for a nine week study of how

instruction can be organized to allow for the integration of technology within the science

curriculum. A socio-constructivist perspective provides the framework for the study, and

Vygotskys mediators of learning are emphasized. Scaffolding techniques are used to identify

the roles of teachers and students. By using the technology for data collection and analysis

purposes, the study explored the role of technology as a tool of mediation. The study involved

23 students from a gifted and talented program, so the results, while positive, could be biased.

The author repeatedly stressed the idea that proper planning for the use of technology is

critical for success, and that teachers had to reexamine their role to become a facilitator for

learning. The article made me contemplate the order in which technology gets introduced. Do

the tools precede teacher understanding, or vice-versa? If the technology isnt available, how

will teachers learn to use it? If the teachers arent supported in the use of the technology, will it

waste away, or worse, be forced into use with negative results?

Tools, Time and Strategies for Integrating Technology Across the Curriculum.

Taylor, L. M., Casto, D. J., & Walls, R. T. (2004). Tools, time and strategies for integrating

technology across the curriculum.Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 17(2), 121-136.

doi:10.1080/10720530490273908

In this article, Taylor and Walls report on the findings of a WV school that emphasized

constructivist techniques along with the integration of technology, to create an environment

where learning-by-doing and collaboration were valued. Their results showed a statisticallysignificant increase in teacher use of technology, student use of technology, and an increase in

student learning. In general, the study revealed small group use of technology was more

effective than students working alone with the technology. A major component to the study

was the involvement of the teachers. Participants had to create constructivist lesson plans

spanning at least three disciplinary content areas and attend a week of training. Teachers were

given tools, time and the strategies to build their lessons. The results were very positive, but


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the study acknowledges that the selected group of teachers volunteered to participate in the

program and the result could vary if teachers were not as invested in the activity. I am not

confident these results would be replicated in a typical school. This program made a concerted

effort to train the teachers, and the teachers committed an enormous amount of time to create

the content. The project does show that when technology is supported, great results can beachieved, but in practice many schools wont have these resources available.

Technology Integration and The Classroom Learning Environment: Research for Action.

Harwell, S. H., Gunter, S., Montgomery, S., Shelton, C., & West, D. (2001). Technology

integration and the classroom learning environment: Research for action. Learning

Environments Research, 4(3), 259-286. doi:10.1023/A:1014412120805

The foundation for this article is a joint endeavor between a university and a grade 6 school

which focused on learning environments, constructivist viewpoints and integrating technology

into the curriculum. The results did not show any statistical significance that student

perceptions of the classroom learning environment changed over the study period. The article

cites research that says teachers who are not skilled with the technology use it primarily for

productivity uses. The learning environment approach puts the students as active participants

in the education process. The piece frequently refers to the need for careful consideration of

teacher and student epistemology and their motivational factors. Genuine use of technology

requires ongoing commitment from teachers. I was disappointed that the study did not show

an improvement in student performance because these are the types of activities I have seen

used in my school district. The article reinforces the notion that there are a multitude of factors

that need to be considered to achieve positive outcomes when integrating technology, and

simply just providing technology available offers little to no educational value.

Use of Technology for Constructivist Learning in a Performance Assessment Class.

Juniu, S. (2006). Use of technology for constructivist learning in a performance assessment

class. Measurement In Physical Education and Exercise Science, 10(1), 67-79.

doi:10.1207/s15327841mpee1001_5

Susana Juniu explores a project-based learning activity that exemplifies a constructivist

approach to using technology to support problem solving. She emphasizes the role educationaltechnology can play when student tasks are meaningful and authentic. In this article, she

presents a group of software applications that can be used to support a constructivist

approach, such as databases, concept map and spreadsheets. She also goes over the design of

an inquiry based curriculum unit for a health and physical education class which challenges

students to identify the level of obesity in their high school, and then conclude how this data

relates to physical activity. Throughout the piece, the Importance of creating a context that


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resembles an authentic activity is stressed repeatedly. While the author offers an interesting

argument for linking a constructivist approach to educational technology, the piece does not

offer much supporting data, or any justification that this approach is more effective than

another.

Evolution of Constructivism

Constructivism and Science Education: Some Epistemological Problems

Matthews, R. (1993). Constructivism and science education: Some epistemological

problems.Journal of Science Education and Technology, 2(1), 359-370.

This article traces constructivism back to the empiricist epistemology of Aristotle and then

describes its influence on current science and math curricula. Matthews explores multipletheories that have shaped the current understanding of constructivism. He delivers one of the

easier to read summaries of competing and supporting theories of constructivism. There is little

mention of technology in this article, but his focus areas of math and science are often where

technology is typically deployed in schools, so I found the information aligned with my topic. By

examining a multitude of theories, and the connections amongst them, it became easier for me

to understand why defining any single learning theory is such a difficult task.

The Warrant for Constructivist Practice within Educational TechnologyBopry, J. (1999). The warrant for constructivist practice within educational technology.

Educational Technology Research and Development, 47(4), 5-26.

This is an interesting article, though I found it challenging to comprehend. The author questions

whether technology can be integrated into a constructivist approach, and proposes that in a

truly constructivist reality that instructional design is pointless. Bopry cites several formal

definitions of constructivism, objectivism and then explains the idea of representational

realism. There are several informative tables that compare representational realism and

enactive constructivism. Without these tables, I would not have understood many of the

concepts. After the extreme ideas presented in the introduction, Bopry offers a more moderate

representation of constructivism, and stresses the importance for critical consideration of the

epistemological foundations of the field of educational technology. The aspect I liked most

about this article was its focus on educational technology. While other articles addressed

integrating technology into classrooms from a teacher or student perspective, this piece


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connected learning theories to the work of educational technologists, like myself, so I felt more

connected to the material.

Technology in a Constructivist ClassroomFerguson, D. (2001). Technology in a constructivist classroom. Information Technology in

Childhood Education Annual. 2001(1), 45-55.

This article begins by offering the idea that a constructivist approach to education could be the

solution needed to seamlessly embed technology into curricula. It explains how technology has

changed the culture of a generation of children, but schools are struggling to catch up with the

rapid advancements. Ferguson presents the idea that a guiding philosophy for educational

reform is needed and that constructivism could be at the center. The tone is optimistic and the

author presents constructivism in a very positive manner. Very little supporting data is

presented, but many references to other works are included. An approach for building

constructivist web-based technology projects is presented in detail. The article reads like a call

to action for changing how technology should be used in educational settings.

The Development of Student and Teacher Beliefs About Learning and Technology

Accounting for the Child in the Design of Technological Environments: A Review of

Constructivist TheoryFreier, N. (2009). Accounting for the child in the design of technological environments: A

review of constructivist theory. Children, Youth and Environments, 19(1), 144-169.

While this article focuses on the design of technology, the same reasoning could apply to the

appropriate selection of technology within a classroom setting. I believe this piece can easily be

reinterpreted with a classroom mindset, and that is why I chose to include it. Freier explores

the idea that designing a technology rich environment must account for the six facets of

interactional constructivist development in a child: embodied, situated, dynamic, intentional,

social and moral. He examines competing theories such as constructivism, and the nativist and

empiricist positions on learning. Cognitive and biological development are discussed from the

nature versus nurture prospective. Vygotskys zone of proximal developmentresurfaces in this

piece, as it has in several other articles. Freier concludes by providing a detailed examination of

the design process for technology with regard to each of the six facets above. I have not seen

many other publications which presented a moral argument in the design of technology. It


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made wonder, that as technology specialists, do we have obligations that go beyond just the

intended learnings of the lesson plan when we expose students to technology?

Tracing Teachers' Use of Technology in a Laptop Computer School: The Interplay of TeacherBeliefs, Social Dynamics, and Institutional Culture

Windschitl, M., & Sahl, K. (2002). Tracing teachers' use of technology in a laptop computer

school: The interplay of teacher beliefs, social dynamics, and institutional culture.American

Educational Research Journal, 39(1), 165-205.

The authors, Windschitl and Sahl, provide details about a two-year study of three middle school

teachers, and show how the presence of technology can cause teachers to shift their pedagogy

to a more constructivist approach. They explain how technology can become a catalyst for

change, but point out that current literature does not offer clear evidence as to why this

changes occurs. They connect sociocentric perspectives and situative theory to explain howteachers rely on social networking and collaboration with peers using technology, to advance

the integration of technology in their own practice. Data supports that when schools have a rich

technology infrastructure and social support networks for teachers, that constructivist practices

are more likely to be used. The focus of their investigation takes place at a middle school

implementing a laptop initiative. The article offers compelling arguments for understanding the

environment, and teacher willingness to embrace the use of technology in innovative manners,

before undertaking such an initiative. The social aspect of learning which was presented was

the most interesting for me. I often think of technology use taking place in individual settings,

but this article made a compelling argument that technology works best in small groups. Itreminded of the work of Sugata Mitra and his SOLE concept.

Science Teachers Beliefs as Barriers to Implementation of Constructivist-Based Education

Reform

Feyziolu, E. (2012). Science teachers' beliefs as barriers to implementation of

constructivist-based education reform.Journal of Baltic Science Education, 11(4), 302-317.

This article was intriguing because it focused on teachersbeliefs and not student learning. It

also did not include a technology component. I included this article because it approached

constructivism from a different slant. I found the language and presentation to be thought

provoking. The author mentions how teachers might need to be convinced to adopt a

constructivist belief. If you believe in something, how much convincing is really required? He

offers a paradox where the same teacher represents himself as a constructivist in a science

lecture setting, but not in a science laboratory class. Has this teacher really adopted the


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constructivist approach, or is he simply applying a technique? Throughout the piece, I get a

sense of a constant struggle between the individuals beliefs, and the beliefs that the teachers

feel they should adopt, such as constructivism.

Emerging Theories and Strategies

Beyond the Theoretical Impasse: Extending the applications of Transactional Distance Theory

Gokool-Ramdoo, S. (2008).Beyond the theoretical impasse: Extending the applications of

transactional distance theory. International Review of Research in Open and Distance

Learning, 9(3).

Transactional distance theory tries to explain the unique problems that occur when there is

physical distance between the student and teacher. Technology, specifically the Internet, has

accelerated the rate that distance learning classes are being offered. I found this to be an

interesting article, as I have experienced many of the issues discussed in the paper. I think the

author did a thorough job presenting the issue. Especially interesting was the progression that a

student goes through as they reach the end of their academic studies. These students require

less support and can work with greater transactional distance. It is also important to recognize

that TDT requires students that are independently motivated.

Epistemological and methodological issues for conceptualization, development, and

assessment of ICT-TPCK: Advances in technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK)

Angeli, C. & Valanides, N. (2009).Epistemological and methodological issues for

conceptualization, development, and assessment of ICT-TPCK: Advances in technological

pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK). Computers & Education, 52, 154-168.

This is a great article. It is well written and easy to understand. The content connected with me

as I have been a proponent of TPCK for several years. My role as a technology integration

specialist relies on assisting teachers to develop their technological and pedagogical knowledge.

The ICT-TPCK framework clearly identifies the areas to focus on and helps define roles and

responsibilities. For teachers that are struggling integrating technology into their classroom,

this is a great approach. The content also is important for administrators, as it can serve as the

basis for tailoring professional development.


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Connectivism: Learning theory of the future or vestige of the past?Kop, R., & Hill, A. 2008. Connectivism: Learning theory of the future or vestige of the

past?The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 9(3).

This article helped me understand just how difficult it is to define a theory. The authors lay out

arguments for the adoption of connectivism as a formal theory of learning. At times theauthors appear desperate in their arguments, or maybe it is just frustration. As I progress

through this course, sometimes I feel the same way. Just when a theory starts to align with my

beliefs, I learn another theory, and my beliefs are challenged. I keep trying to find a single

theory that works for me, but the more theories I learn about, the more difficult this appears.

Connectivism does align nicely with Web 2.0 tools, and in the end the authors conclude that

connectivism may not be a separate theory, but rather plays a role in the emergence of new

pedagogies.

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