multicultural personality dispositions and psychological well-being

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Multicultural Personality Dispositionsand Psychological Well-BeingJoseph G. Ponterotto a , Catarina I. Costa-Wofford a , KarenElizabeth Brobst a , Dorota Spelliscy a , Jaclyn MendelsohnKacanski a , Jennifer Scheinholtz a & Danielle Martines ba Division of Psychological and Educational Services, FordhamUniversity, New York, NYb Department of Psychology, Montclair State University,Montclair, NJPublished online: 07 Aug 2010.

To cite this article: Joseph G. Ponterotto , Catarina I. Costa-Wofford , Karen Elizabeth Brobst ,Dorota Spelliscy , Jaclyn Mendelsohn Kacanski , Jennifer Scheinholtz & Danielle Martines (2007)Multicultural Personality Dispositions and Psychological Well-Being, The Journal of SocialPsychology, 147:2, 119-135, DOI: 10.3200/SOCP.147.2.119-135

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The Journal of Social Psychology, 2007, 147(2), 119–135Copyright © 2007 Heldref Publications

Address correspondence to Joseph G. Ponterotto, Division of Psychological & Educational Services, Fordham University, 113 West 60th Street, Room 1008, New York, NY 10023-7478, USA; [email protected] (e-mail).

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Multicultural Personality Dispositions and Psychological Well-Being

JOSEPH G. PONTEROTTOCATARINA I. COSTA-WOFFORD

KAREN ELIZABETH BROBSTDOROTA SPELLISCY

JACLYN MENDELSOHN KACANSKIJENNIFER SCHEINHOLTZ

Division of Psychological and Educational Services Fordham University, New York, NY

DANIELLE MARTINES Department of Psychology

Montclair State University, Montclair, NJ

ABSTRACT. The authors investigated the empirical relationship between K. I. van der Zee and J. P. van Oudenhoven’s (2000, 2001) multicultural personality dispositions and C. D. Ryff’s (1989b) dimensions of psychological well-being. The present sample included 270 students from one primarily graduate university and one primarily undergraduate university in the northeast region of the United States. Factor analysis indicated that a three-dimensional model of the multicultural personality was the best fit structure for the sample. Correlations between multicultural personality scores and psychological well-being scores were generally positive and in the predicted directions. However, the academic setting of the participants appeared to influence the pattern of relationships. The authors identified the multicultural personality as a promising construct for research across diverse psychology specialties.

Keywords: adjustment, cross-cultural studies, interpersonal understanding, personality, psychological adjustment, quality of life

AS U.S. SOCIETY BECOMES INCREASINGLY DIVERSE ethnically, racially, and linguistically (American Psychological Association [APA], 2003), and as the field of psychology becomes increasingly international (Stevens & Wedding, 2004), researchers are devoting more attention to the topic of cultural adapt-

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ability and its relation to psychological functioning. One relatively new concep-tualization in the cultural adaptability literature is the multicultural personality (Ponterotto, Utsey, & Pedersen, 2006; Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000). Researchers have shown that a multicultural personality orientation facilitates several aspects of interpersonal effectiveness in a European multicultural setting (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000), and in this article we test its promise in predicting dimensions of psychological well-being in a U.S. sample. We believe the multicultural personality construct may hold promise for research across psychology disciplines.

Early conceptual researchers on the multicultural personality (Ponterotto & Pedersen, 1993; Ramirez, 1991) focused on the construct as a measure of a person’s ability to adapt to and negotiate life in an increasingly multicultural soci-ety. More recently, systematic theoretical and empirical work on the multicultural personality identified distinct components of the construct (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000, 2001; Van der Zee, Van Oudenhoven, & De Grijs, 2004). Researchers generated theoretical origins of these components from a review of research in organizational psychology on expatriate multicultural effective-ness, which they defined as “success in the fields of professional effectiveness, personal adjustment and intercultural interactions” (Van der Zee & Van Ouden-hoven, 2000, p. 293).

Integrating an international corpus of research on cross-cultural adaptability and intercultural effectiveness (e.g., Kealey & Protheroe, 1996) and following a series of empirical studies, Van der Zee and colleagues (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000, 2001; Van der Zee, Zaal, & Piekstra, 2003; Van Oudenhoven, Mol, & Van der Zee, 2003) identified five psychometrically robust components of the multicultural personality: Cultural Empathy, the ability to empathize with the thoughts, behaviors, and feelings of culturally diverse individuals; Open-mindedness, an unprejudiced and open attitude toward different groups and culturally diverse value systems; Emo-tional Stability, the ability to remain calm in stressful and novel situations; Social Initiative, initiative-taking and approaching social situations in an active manner; and Flexibility, the tendency to approach unknown situations as a challenge and to adjust one’s behavior to the expectations of new and ambiguous situations (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2001).

Van der Zee and Van Oudenhoven (2000, 2001) conceived the multicul-tural personality as a narrow matrix of personality traits or dispositions that are subsumed within larger personality conceptions such as the Big Five (Costa & McCrae, 1992). Paunonen (1998) and colleagues (Paunonen, Haddock, Forster-ling, & Keinonen, 2003) have demonstrated the significant incremental value of narrow personality traits over broader aggregate traits in predicting human behav-ior in a variety of social contexts. Adapting to life in a culturally pluralistic society may be one such context (see Matsumoto, 2004; McAdams & Pals, 2006).

To put into practice their construct of the multicultural personality, Van der Zee and Van Oudenhoven (2000) developed the five-factor Multicultural Personality

120 The Journal of Social Psychology

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Ponterotto et al. 121

Questionnaire (MPQ). In a series of studies, Van der Zee and colleagues (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000, 2001; Van der Zee et al., 2003; Van Oudenhoven et al., 2003), used the MPQ to identify the following correlates of the multicultural personality dispositions. Cultural Empathy has been positively correlated with extraversion, agreeableness, life satisfaction, job performance ratings, and socially oriented vocational interests, and negatively correlated with hostility. Open-mind-edness has been positively correlated with extraversion, agreeableness, consci-entiousness, openness to experience, multicultural activity, need for change, job performance, and psychological health and negatively correlated with neuroticism and hostility. Emotional Stability has been positively correlated with extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, life-satisfaction, physical and psychological health, and social adjustment and negatively correlated with social anxiety, rigidity, hostility, and feelings of inadequacy. Social Initiative has been positively correlated with measures of extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to expe-rience, need for change, multicultural activity, socially oriented vocational interests, dominance (defined as strength and determinedness), and psychological health and negatively correlated with measures of neuroticism, social anxiety, rigidity, and inadequacy. Finally, Flexibility has been positively correlated with extraversion, need for change, international career aspirations and an international orientation, artistic interests in vocational pursuits, dominance, job satisfaction, and social adjustment and negatively correlated with rigidity and neuroticism.

In more recent work on the MPQ construct, Van der Zee et al. (2004) per-formed factor analysis on the MPQ scores of a sample of 160 Dutch university students and uncovered a higher order three-factor model. Essentially, in this revised model, Emotional Stability and Flexibility items loaded together to form a new factor that the researchers labeled Adaptation; Cultural Empathy and Open-mindedness items loaded together on a new factor that the researchers called Openness; and Social Initiative items continued to load on their own factor. Van der Zee et al. (2004) found that students scoring higher on these three factors per-ceived hypothetical intercultural situations as less threatening than did students who scored lower on the factors.

Researchers relying on the MPQ five-factor model have found some demo-graphic group differences in score patterns. Van der Zee and colleagues conducted three studies with university or nonuniversity adult samples and found that men scored higher than did women on Emotional Stability (Van der Zee & Brinkman, 2004; Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000; Van der Zee et al., 2003). Van der Zee et al. (2003) also found that women scored higher than did men on Cultural Empathy. With regard to age differences, researchers in two studies found no rela-tionship with MPQ factor scores (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000; Van der Zee et al., 2003), whereas researchers in one study (Van der Zee & Brinkmann) found that older respondents scored higher on Emotional Stability.

Much of the extant empirical knowledge on the multicultural personality stems from research on the successful and unsuccessful transitions and adjust-

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ments of English-speaking students and expatriates (particularly from the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom) living and working in international contexts (see Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000, for a review). Ponterotto and colleagues maintained that the multicultural personality can be a relevant focus of research in the United States as its citizens adapt to life in a society that is becoming increasingly diverse along cultural and linguistic grounds (Brummett, Wade, Ponterotto, Thombs, & Lewis, 2007; Ponterotto et al., 2006).

Ponterotto et al.’s (2006) work is rooted in counseling and positive psy-chology’s hygiology perspective, with its emphasis on average individuals with intact personalities (rather than psychologically troubled individuals) attempting to maximize their quality of life in an evolving and changing society (see review in Lent, 2004). These psychological specialties further focus on person–environ-ment interactions, and the need for individuals to cope with and adapt to life transitions (Gelso & Fretz, 2001; Snyder & Lopez, 2002). Speaking specifically about person–environment interaction within a cultural context, Tyler (2001) emphasized that cultural interaction and learning enhances psychological well-being. Consistent with the views of Ponterotto et al. and Tyler, we hypothesized that individuals who possess higher levels of multicultural personality disposi-tions will experience higher levels of psychological well-being.

However, measuring psychological well-being in an integrative and com-prehensive manner has proven to be a challenge to psychology researchers. Ryff (1989b) noted that “reigning measures of psychological well-being have little theoretical grounding, despite an extensive literature on the contours of positive functioning” (p. 1069). In a series of conceptual and empirical papers, Ryff and colleagues (Ryff, 1989a, 1989b; Ryff & Keyes, 1995) methodically critiqued the construct validity of extant conceptions of well-being such as life satisfaction and happiness (Diener, 1984), positive affect (Bradburn, 1969), and quality of life (see Headey, Kelley, & Wearing, 1993). Ryff’s main criticism of these extant and varied models of well-being has been that they neglect critical components of positive functioning and that they fail to define the essential underlying features of psychological well-being.

In response to her perception that the construct validity of existing well-being conceptions was lacking, Ryff (1989a, 1989b) set out to establish a comprehen-sive, multidimensional model of well-being. In establishing her model, Ryff integrated the aforementioned research on existing conceptions of well-being with more long-standing constructs in psychology, such as Allport’s (1961) con-ception of maturity, Jahoda’s (1958) positive criteria of mental health, Buhler’s (1935) construct of life fulfillment, Jung’s (1933) perspective on individuation, Erikson’s (1959) construct of achieved identity, and Rogers’s (1961) construct of the fully functioning person.

Ryff (1989b) and colleagues (Ryff & Keyes, 1995) have presented a model of psychological well-being consisting of six theory-guided dimensions of well-ness. Self-acceptance refers to positive attitudes toward self; acknowledgement


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of multiple aspects of self, both good and bad; and positive perceptions of the life that one has lived to date. Positive relations with others refers to satisfying and trusting relationships with others and to the capacity for empathy, affection, and intimacy. Autonomy refers to self-determination and independence, the ability to resist social pressures to conform, and the ability to regulate and evaluate one’s behavior in a way that is consistent with one’s personal standards. Environmental mastery refers to a sense of competence in managing one’s environment, the abil-ity to control a complex array of external activities and to use available resources and opportunities, and the ability to negotiate surrounding contexts to meet needs. Purpose in life refers to inner directedness, existential meaning, and a thought-ful plan in life goals. Finally, Personal growth refers to a feeling of continued development and personal expansion, an openness to new experiences, and an evolving ability to integrate one’s self-knowledge and effectiveness (see Ryff & Keyes, Appendix, p. 727). To put into practice her multidimensional model of well-being, Ryff (1989b) and colleagues (Ryff & Keyes; Ryff, Lee, Essex, & Schmutte, 1994; Smider, Essex, & Ryff, 1996) developed the Scale of Well-Being (SWB). Over a series of studies, the SWB has proven to generate scores that have adequate indexes of validity and reliability.

Ryff and colleagues have found some gender and age differences on scores from the SWB. Across two studies, women scored higher on positive relations with others. With regard to age effects, younger adult cohorts have scored higher on personal growth and purpose in life, whereas older adult cohorts scored higher on environmental mastery (Ryff, 1989b; Ryff & Keyes, 1995).

At present, no researchers in the United States have tested the relation between Van der Zee and Van Oudenhoven’s (2000) construct of the multicultural personality and comprehensive measures of well-being. An additional issue that researchers need to consider when studying multicultural personality dispositions in the United States is the notion of socially desirable responding. In a review of the empirical literature on multicultural counseling competence, Constantine and Ladany (2001) suggested that researchers expend effort to control for socially desirable response patterns in empirical studies, particularly those that rely on self-report instrumentation. Therefore, our purpose in the present study was to examine the relation between Van der Zee and Van Oudenhoven’s (2000, 2001) multicultural personality dispositions and Ryff’s (1989a, 1989b) dimensions of psychological well-being, while controlling for socially desirable responding. Although some MPQ researchers (e.g., Van Oudenhoven et al., 2003) have exam-ined the relation between the multicultural personality and measures of well-being (through only a few items assessing perceived life satisfaction and physical and psychological health), the measures that they used were limited in terms of assess-ing a comprehensive, theoretically driven model of well-being in the spirit of Ryff (1989a, 1989b). Given the previous research on the MPQ scales reviewed earlier in this article, we anticipated a pattern of positive and significant relations between MPQ scores and scores of psychological well-being.

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Method

Participants

The participants for this study were 270 undergraduate and graduate stu-dents recruited from two universities in the Northeast region of the United States. One university is a tuition-dependent, private university in New York City. That university offers numerous graduate programs, and our study sample from that school was composed primarily of graduate students (65% of that sample). The second university is a state-supported university in suburban New Jersey. Because that university offers few graduate programs, the majority of students in the sample from that school were undergraduates (74% of sample). The total sample included 207 women (77%) and 63 men (23%). Student ages ranged from 18 years to 52 years (Mage = 25.7 years, SDage = 7.12 years). The sample was predominantly Caucasian American (63.3%, n = 171) and also included 25 (9.3%) African Americans, 25 (9.3%) Hispanic White Americans (n = 25), 17 (6.3%) Asian Americans and Pacific Islander Americans, 9 (3.3%) Biracial Americans, and 8 (3%) Hispanic Black Americans, with the remaining 15 (5.6%) indicating “Other” as a social category. The sample included 144 (53.3%) under-graduates and 94 (34.8%) graduate students, with 32 (11.9%) leaving this item blank. The majority of respondents were pursuing degrees in the behavioral and social sciences.

From a financial perspective, 88 (32.6%) indicated being fully self-supported; 134 (49.6%) indicated being partially self-supported; and 48 (17.8%) indicated being fully dependent on family. Specific personal annual income levels varied widely, with 118 (43.7%) earning $10,000 or less, 54 (20%) earning between $10,001 and $20,000, 31 (11.5%) earning between $20,001 and $30,000, 35 (13%) earning between $30,001 and $40,000, 26 (9.6%) earning between $40,001 and $50,000, and 2 (0.7%) earning more than $50,000, with 4 (1.5%) not responding.

Measures

The survey packet that we used to collect data for this study included four parts. Part 1 requested basic demographic information as reflected in the Partici-pants section. Parts 2–4 presented the main instruments of the study: the MPQ, the SWB, and the 13-item version of the Social Desirability Scale (SDS-13) in counterbalanced fashion (Reynolds, 1982).

MPQ. The MPQ (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000, 2001) is a 91-item, Likert-type self-report instrument that comprises five factors: Cultural Empathy (18 items; e.g., “understands other people’s feelings”), Open-mindedness (18 items; e.g., “is interested in other cultures”), Social Initiative (17 items; e.g.,


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“makes contacts easily”), Emotional Stability (20 reverse-scored items; e.g., “suf-fers from conflicts with others”), and Flexibility (18 reverse-scored items; e.g., “wants to know exactly what will happen”). Van der Zee and Van Oudenhoven initially developed the MPQ in the Netherlands with English-speaking samples of primarily Dutch university students.

We presented the MPQ items on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (totally not applicable) to 5 (completely applicable), where the respondents rated the degrees to which statements applied to them. The 91-item version of the MPQ that we used in this study was the most recent version (K. I. Van der Zee, personal communication, May 20, 2002) and was generated from an initial pool of 138 items through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000, 2001).

Across five studies, coefficient alphas for the MPQ scales ranged from a low of .64 (Flexibility) to a high of .91 (Emotional Stability; Van der Zee & Brinkmann, 2004; Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2001; Van der Zee et al., 2004; Van der Zee et al., 2003; Van Oudenhoven et al., 2003). Table 1 lists the coefficient alphas for all present study variables. With regard to test–retest stability, Van der Zee and Van Oudenhoven (2001) reported 2-month test–retest stability coefficients ranging from .64 (Cultural Empathy) to .74 (Emotional Stability), although it should be noted that Van der Zee et. al. did not present the coefficient alphas for the most recent three-factor model—Adaptation, Openness, and Social Initiative—in their 2004 study.

Several previous studies have established the construct and criterion-related validity of the MPQ. Van der Zee and Van Oudenhoven (2001) reported that there were highly significant correlations between self-report ratings and ratings of par-ticipants completed by significant others such as partners, close friends, or family members (Mdn r = .48). Additional work by Van der Zee and colleagues (Van der Zee & Brinkmann, 2004; Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000; Van der Zee et al., 2003) indicated that MPQ scores predicted variance in multicultural activities and orientations, intercultural competence, international career aspirations, and behavioral work performance evaluations that was above and beyond what could be accounted for by scores on Costa and McCrae’s (1992) Big Five measure, the NEO-PI. Using hierarchical regression modeling, Van Oudenhoven et al. (2003) also found various MPQ scale scores predictive of scores on life satisfaction, physical well-being, psychological health, and professional and social adjustment above and beyond the variance accounted for by various biographical data. In the current study, we made slight wording changes to five MPQ items to make them more consistent with English language usage in the United States (versus the United Kingdom).

SWB. The SWB is an 84-item scale developed by Ryff and colleagues (Ryff & Essex, 1992; Ryff et al., 1994; Smider et al., 1996) to measure six dimensions of psychologi-cal well-being that they developed from an integration of various theoretical formula-tions of well-being (see Ryff, 1989a). Ryff’s (1989a, 1989b) goal was to create a more parsimonious construct of well-being, given her perception that the extant literature

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on well-being and related constructs was scattered and poorly anchored theoretically. Each of the six SWB subscales consists of 14 items on a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree).

Sample SWB items were as follows: for Autonomy, “My decisions are not usually influenced by what everyone else is doing”; for Environmental mastery, “In general, I feel I am in charge of the situation in which I live”; for Personal growth, “I think it is important to have new experiences that challenge how you think about yourself and the world”; for Positive relations with others, “I enjoy personal and mutual conversations with family members or friends”; for Purpose in life, “I enjoy making plans for the future and working to make them a reality”; and for Self-acceptance, “In general, I feel confident and positive about myself.” Coefficient alphas for the 14-item scales have ranged from a low of .82 to a high of .91 across studies. Scale correlations between an original 120-item version and the present 84-item version were very high, ranging from .97 to .98 (see Ryff & Essex, 1992; Smider et al., 1996).

SDS-13. We used Reynolds’s (1982) 13-item short form of the original 33-item Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (Crowne & Marlowe, 1973). Fischer and Fick (1993) reported that the coefficient alpha for scores on the 13-item SDS was .76, and correlation between the short version and original version was .93.

Procedure

After receiving study approval from the Institutional Review Boards of both participating universities, we contacted colleagues at both institutions and requested assistance in distributing and collecting anonymous survey packets. We were also affiliated with one of the two participating universities and thus were on hand to supervise data collection at both institutions. Surveys were distributed to classes or small groups while a member of the research team was present. All groups that we approached for participation consented to study involvement, and no participant declined to complete the survey packet.

Results

Preliminary Analyses

Given that the Van der Zee research teams identified both a five-factor and a three-factor model of MPQ scores (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000, 2001; Van der Zee et al., 2003, 2004; Van Oudenhoven et al., 2003) we conducted a prin-cipal component analysis (PCA) forcing both three-factor and five-factor oblique and orthogonal structures. The three-factor oblique model was by far the best fit in the present sample and matched the most recent aforementioned Van der Zee et al. (2004) factor structure. The three-factor model accounted for 30.89% of the cumu-


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lative variance. Factor 1, Openness (eigenvalue = 15.56), included items from the original Openness and Cultural Empathy factors; Factor 2, Adaptation (eigenvalue = 7.30), included items from the original Flexibility and Emotional Stability fac-tors; and Factor 3, Social Initiative (eigenvalue = 5.25), retained its original item structure.1 Given the results of our PCA, we used the three-factor structure as a basis for further data analysis to maintain statistical parsimony.

Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, skewness statistics, and coefficient alphas for the study’s variables. Skewness scores were slightly negative on the MPQ subscales and positive on the SWB subscales and the SDS. However, all skewness statistics were well within the range of –2 to +2 range that George and Mallery (1999) deemed as acceptable. Coefficient alphas across study variables were generally satisfactory, with 7 of 10 values reaching .70 or higher, and the remaining values falling between .60 and .70.

Gender and Educational Effects

Given that some gender and developmental effects arose in previous studies on both the MPQ and the SWB, we wanted to test those associations in the pres-ent sample. Results of a MANOVA with MPQ scores indicated a significant main effect for gender, F(3, 264) = 5.90, p < .001. Follow-up univariate tests indicated a main effect only for the Adaptation factor, F(1, 266) = 9.43, p = .002, with men (M = 3.24, SD = 0.39) scoring higher than women (M = 3.07; SD = 0.38). There were no significant gender differences across the six SWB scales.

TABLE 1. Means, Standard Deviations, Ranges, Skewness Scores, and Coefficient Alphas of Measurements of Multicultural Personality Disposition, Psychological Well-Being, and Social Desirability

Scale or subscale M SD Range Skewness α N

Multicultural personality disposition Openness 3.91 0.47 2.72–4.89 −.21 .91 268 Adaptation 3.11 0.47 2.08–4.21 −.19 .86 270 Social initiative 3.54 0.55 1.82–4.88 −.26 .87 268Psychological well-being Autonomy 3.99 0.60 2.57–6.00 .98 .66 268 Environmental mastery 3.99 0.55 2.29–6.00 .63 .61 268 Personal growth 4.17 0.63 3.00–6.00 1.30 .75 268 Positive relations with others 4.09 0.67 2.79–6.00 .99 .71 268 Purpose in life 3.73 0.66 2.79–5.64 1.48 .70 268 Self-acceptance 3.88 0.65 1.43–6.00 1.12 .70 268Social Desirability Scale 1.44 0.23 1.00–2.23 .08 .66 267

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We also tested group differences across university because our study samples varied significantly in their proportions of undergraduate and graduate students (65% graduate students in the sample from one university versus 73% undergraduate students in the sample from the other university). There were no significant differences across universities on the 3 MPQ factors. However, there was a significant MANOVA main effect for university on the SWB, F(6, 261) = 8.66, p < .001, with follow-up univariate tests uncovering significant differences across five of the six SWB factors. Students at the primarily undergraduate insti-tution scored higher on Autonomy, F(1, 266) = 25.77, p < .001; Personal growth, F(1, 266) = 23.70, p < .001; Positive relations with others, F(1, 266) = 21.01, p < .001; Purpose in life, F(1, 266) = 33.97, p < .001; and Self-acceptance, F(1, 266) = 11.19, p < .001. Table 2 lists the respective means and standard deviations across the five factors. In all cases, both the means and variances for scores of well-being were higher for the primarily undergraduate student sample than for the primarily graduate student sample.

Main Findings

Table 3 presents bivariate correlations. Given that we examined a total of 18 correlations across the five MPQ subscales and six SWB subscales, we used the more conservative p < .01 as the cut-off for interpreting statistical significance. MPQ Openness correlated with SWB Autonomy, Environmental mastery, Per-sonal growth, and Purpose in life. MPQ Social Initiative correlated with SWB Environmental mastery, Personal growth, Purpose in life, and Self-acceptance. MPQ Adaptation correlated with SWB Environmental mastery and Purpose in life, and with social desirability based on the SDS. Using Cohen’s (1988) effect size standards where r < .30 indicates a small effect size, r = .3–.49 indicates a medium effect size, and r = .5+ indicates a large effect size, we found that all of


TABLE 2. Means and Standard Deviations of Subscale Scores on the Scale of Well-Being (SWB) across the Primarily Undergraduate Student (University 1) and Primarily Graduate Student (University 2) Samples

University 1 University 2

Subscale M SD M SD

Autonomy 4.15 0.68 3.79 0.38Personal growth 4.33 0.74 3.97 0.35Positive relations with others 4.25 0.76 3.88 0.44Purpose in life 3.92 0.76 3.47 0.36Self-acceptance 3.99 0.76 3.73 0.42

Note. There were no significant group differences across the Environmental Mastery subscale.

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the aforementioned correlations were small effect sizes, except for MPQ Social Initiative–SWB Environmental mastery, which reached medium effect size. Of the 18 correlations between MPQ and SWB scale scores, 9 reached statistical sig-nificance in our predicted direction. The strongest pattern of relationships was for SWB Environmental mastery and Purpose in life, which correlated significantly with all three MPQ factors. Furthermore, SWB Personal growth correlated with two of the three MPQ factors, Openness and Social Initiative.

The social desirability measure (SDS-13) correlated significantly with only one of the nine tested subscales, MPQ Adaptability (small effect size). To control for variance that we accounted for by social desirability, we conducted partial correlations across the MPQ and SWB subscales, partialing out SDS scores. The pattern of partial correlations was almost identical to that in the bivariate correla-tions, highlighting the minimal contamination of socially desirable responding in our sample.2

Given the aforementioned effects of group differences, we also examined the bivariate correlations separately across gender and university groupings. The cor-relations between MPQ subscale scores and SWB subscale scores across gender were quite similar, with the following exceptions. The correlation between MPQ Openness and SWB positive relations with others was significant for men, r = .32, but not for women, r = .00. Similarly, the correlation between MPQ Openness and SWB purpose in life was significant for men, r = .36, but not for women, r = .12. Finally, the correlation between MPQ Social Initiative and social desirability was significant in women, r = .20, but not in men, r = –.01.3

TABLE 3. Bivariate Correlation Coefficients Between Multicultural Personality Dispositions and Psychological Well-Being

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SDS

1. Openness — .48** .33** .18** .22** .20** .08 .19** .12* .14*

2. Social Initiative — .40** .12* .36** .21** −.04 .22** .16** .15*

3. Adaptation — .03 .17** .15* .01 .25** .12 .22**

4. Autonomy — .53** .68** .54** .63** .59** .045. Environ. mastery — .63** .54** .54** .68** .116. Personal growth — .69** .81** .72** .007. Positive relations — .70** .68** .048. Purpose in life — .76** .089. Self-acceptance — .04

Note. Openness = Multicultural Personality Questionnaire (MPQ) Openness; Social Initiative = MPQ Social Initiative; Adaptation = MPQ Adaptation; Autonomy = Scale of Well-Being (SWB) Autonomy; Environ. mastery = SWB Environmental mastery; Personal growth = SWB Personal growth; Positive relations = SWB Positive relations with others; Purpose in life = SWB Purpose in life; Self-acceptance = SWB Self-acceptance; SDS = Social Desirability Scale. *p < .05. **p < .01.

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The pattern of correlations between the MPQ and SWB subscales suggested more variance across the two universities. Table 4 presents the separate correla-tions by university above and below the diagonal. There were 14 correlations out of 21 (including the social desirability scale) that reached significance at one university but not the other. In 13 of the 14 differential cases, the primarily under-graduate institution witnessed stronger relationships with the MPQ subscales. For the primarily undergraduate institution, MPQ Openness and MPQ Social Initia-tive were correlated with five of the six SWB subscales, and MPQ Adaptation was correlated with four of the SWB subscales and with the SDS. The only cor-relation reaching significance in the primarily graduate sample that did not also reach significance in the undergraduate institution was between MPQ Adaptation and SWB Autonomy, and that relationship was negative, r = –.34.

Discussion

Given that a few of the researchers who conducted the aforementioned surveys in Europe attributed some variations in MPQ scores to gender and age (Van der Zee & Brinkmann, 2004; Van der Zee et al., 2003), we wanted to test those associations in the present sample. The only gender-related difference that we found was for the Adaptability factor, where men scored higher. This finding replicates the European studies in which men scored higher on the Emotional


TABLE 4. Correlation Coefficients Between Multicultural Personality Dispositions and Psychological Well-Being by Data Source

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SDS

1. Openness — .52** .39** −.02 .15 .09 −.08 .15 −.08 .16 2. Social Initiative .46** — .48** −.10 .31** .18* −.21* .20* −.05 .19*

3. Adaptation .28** .34** — −.34** −.00 .04 −.16 .26** −.17 .19*

4. Autonomy .30** .26** .21* — .25** .23* .22* .17 .25** −.06 5. Environ. mastery .26** .42** .25** .60** — .40** .26** .35** .35** .05 6. Personal growth .28** .27** .23** .73** .68** — .35** .45** .53** −.19*

7. Positive relations .16* .06 .10 .57** .60** .73** — .40** .48** −.09 8. Purpose in life .25** .29** .31** .67** .71** .85** .72** — .51** .06 9. Self-acceptance .22** .29** .26** .64** .76** .74** .70** .80** — −.1210. SDS .14 .14 .25** .04 .13 .03 .07 .05 .09 —

Note. Graduate university data is above the axis; undergraduate university data is below the axis. Openness = Multicultural Personality Questionnaire (MPQ) Openness; Social Initiative = MPQ Social Initiative; Adaptation = MPQ Adaptation; Autonomy = Scale of Well-Being (SWB) Autonomy; Environ. mastery = SWB Environmental mastery; Personal growth = SWB Personal growth; Positive relations = SWB Positive relations with others; Purpose in life = SWB Purpose in life; Self-acceptance = SWB Self-acceptance; SDS = Social Desirability Scale. *p < .05. **p < .01.

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Stability dimension in the five-factor model (Van der Zee & Brinkmann, 2004; Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000; Van der Zee et al., 2003). As noted previ-ously, the Adaptation dimension subsumes the Emotional Stability dimension in our three-factor model. Furthermore, we found no age- or education level-related differences on MPQ scores when we compared scores across the two samples (primarily graduate student population versus primarily undergraduate student population). This finding is consistent with the majority of the MPQ research (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000; Van der Zee et al., 2003).

With regard to group differences on the SWB, which has been used exten-sively in the United States, we found no gender differences, but we did find marked university-based differences. On five of the six SWB factors, students at the primarily undergraduate institution scored higher than did students at the primarily graduate student university. Our findings replicate, in part, the decre-mental age profiles for Personal growth and Purpose in life that Ryff and Keyes identified (Ryff, 1989b; Ryff & Keyes, 1995).

In interpreting our SWB group findings, we looked closely at the context of the two samples. The primarily graduate student sample (49% master’s degree students and 17% PhD students) was enrolled in a prestigious, highly competitive, private, tuition-dependent university in New York City. The primarily undergradu-ate sample (78% undergraduate) hailed from a state-supported, less competitive, suburban campus in New Jersey. It is understandable that the stressors of graduate school life, where students are likely to have more family and financial obliga-tions, would cause lower levels of psychological well-being. Well-being is not necessarily a stable trait (Ryff, 1989b; Ryff & Keyes), and can vary from one life context to another. However, multicultural personality dispositions represent by definition fairly stable patterns of behavior across contexts (Ponterotto et al., 2006; Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000), and therefore it is logical that levels of multicultural personality did not vary across our two samples.

Given the results of the Van der Zee et al. studies in Europe, in this study we expected to find a pattern of significant positive relationships between the three MPQ factors and the six SWB factors. We did find that the MPQ Openness factor, which is a combination of the Cultural Empathy and Open-mindedness factors in the five-factor MPQ model, was positively correlated with SWB Autonomy, Environmental mastery, Personal growth, and Purpose in life. These findings are consistent with previous studies on the five-factor MPQ model, in which researchers found that Cultural Empathy and Open-mindedness were predictive of extraversion, agreeableness, life satisfaction, a social orientation, and a general sense of mental health (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000, 2001; Van der Zee et al., 2003; Van Oudenhoven et al., 2003). In the present study, we also found that MPQ Social Initiative was positively related to SWB Environmental mastery, Purpose in life, and Self-acceptance. These findings are consistent with results of the aforementioned series of studies in which Social Initiative was correlated with psychological strength, determination, agreeableness, and conscientiousness.

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Finally, the MPQ Adaptability factor, which combined items from the Emotional Stability and Flexibility factors in the five-factor model, was correlated with SWB Environmental mastery and Purpose in life, as well as with social desirability. These findings are also consistent with aforementioned previous research that indicated that scores on the five-factor MPQ Emotional Stability and Flexibility scales were related to life satisfaction, psychological and physical health indica-tors, social adjustment, and need for change.

The above-mentioned findings relate to our combined sample across two dis-tinct university populations. The pattern of correlations between MPQ and SWB factors within each university varied considerably. Clearly, the pattern of relation-ships between multicultural personality dispositions and indicators of psychologi-cal well-being were more pronounced in our primarily undergraduate suburban sample. This differential finding is likely accounted for by the fact that SWB scores in the primarily undergraduate sample exhibited higher general magnitudes and more scale variance. This finding raises a host of important research questions. First, though multicultural personality score patterns were generally similar across gender and university type, and though internal consistency reliabilities were sat-isfactory, the predictive validity of MPQ scores appears to be dependent on the context surrounding the criterion variable. In this case, MPQ scores were more pre-dictive of psychological well-being when well-being levels were generally higher. These results suggest the need for more U.S.-based research across contexts. For example, is the construct and predictive validity of multicultural personality traits stable over diverse income groups, over rural versus urban populations, or over “normal” versus “clinical” populations? These questions indicate a need for more extensive testing of the MPQ measure across diverse U.S. samples.

Specifically, large-sample confirmatory factor analysis is necessary to test more reliably the goodness of fit of the competing five-factor and three-factor MPQ models. In the present study as well as in the Van der Zee et al. (2004) samples, the three-factor model clearly had the most parsimonious fit. However, researchers have found the five-factor model to be the appropriate choice in most of the factor-analytic work and in most of the research generally (Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven, 2000, 2001; Van der Zee et al., 2003). Given the decremental age profiles that Ryff found in her studies, (Ryff, 1989b; Ryff & Keyes, 1995), we were not surprised to see differential psychological well-being levels, as measured by Ryff’s (1989b) SWB, across student cohorts. However, the findings in this study indicated generally more pronounced score differences between developmental levels than Ryff and colleagues found. Furthermore, we found no incremental age profile for Environmental mastery, a finding inconsistent with Ryff’s previous research. One difference between the present studies and the Ryff studies is that our samples were restricted to university students, whereas the Ryff studies included a general adult population (including elderly individuals) with much more age variance. Nonetheless, more developmentally based research on psychological well-being is now indicated.


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The present study has limitations that researchers need to consider when weighing the impact of the findings. First and foremost, because this was a correlational study, we cannot imply cause and effect between multicultural per-sonality dispositions and well-being. The question arises: Does the multicultural personality lead to higher states of well-being, or does well-being lead to more multicultural openness and more comfort with diversity? Obviously, this is an experimental question and not a correlational one.

Second, our criterion variable exclusively concerned psychological well-being. Additional research is necessary to examine the relation between mul-ticultural personality dispositions and a variety of outcome measures across the lifespan, including physical health, quality of life, emotional intelligence, and cognitive complexity (see Ponterotto et al., 2006; Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2004).

Third, the methodology of the present study is limited in that it relied exclusively on quantitative, self-reported survey data. Future researchers need to assesses criterion variables through observer-report and behavioral indexes of functioning and well-being.

Finally, quantitative research anchored in postpositivist research paradigms has dominated psychology research in North America (Rennie, 2004), and it would be useful for future researchers to study the construct of the multicultural personality using qualitative approaches that are more anchored in constructiv-ist research paradigms. Such studies might include the analysis of life stories of noted multicultural figures, or of long interviews with Americans who have suc-cessfully adjusted to culture shock transitions, either internationally or through U.S. migration experiences.

In summary, the present study has highlighted the potential utility of Van der Zee and Van Oudenhoven’s (2000, 2001) multicultural personality construct for research in counseling and positive psychology. As American citizens of all races, ethnicities, and religions work to adapt to a more diverse society (APA, 2003; Ponterotto et al., 2006), constructs that tap into this adaptation are fruitful for theoretical and empirical work. We hope that the present study stimulates ongoing research in this topical area.

NOTES

1. The complete structure matrix for the three-factor PCA with oblique rotation is avail-able from Joseph G. Ponterotto.

2. The partial correlation matrix controlling for social desirability is available from Joseph G. Ponterotto.

3. Separate correlation matrices across gender are available from Joseph G. Ponterotto.

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Received March 7, 2006 Accepted May 24, 2006

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multicultural personality dispositions and psychological well-being

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