What you must know to pass the Living Environment Regents

Scientific Method

A. Termsa. _observation__________: something seen or measured b. __inference_________ (to infer): conclusion based on evidencec. _Hypothesis__________: a prediction based on evidence

i. must state effect (If I do _______) and cause (then _______ will happen…)ii. must be able to test a hypothesis with an experiment

d. _theory________: explanation of natural events supported by lots of previous evidencei. explains many scientific facts and common results

e. Experimental Group: group being changed or testedf. Control Group: normal group with no change

i. used to compare possible changes from __experimental______ groupg. Independent Variable: variable being tested (new drug, ph, time)

i. Always plotted on the _x_ axis of the graphh. _Depedendent____ Variable: variable that is measured

(ask what is being measured?)i. plotted on the y axis

B. Sample Experimenta. Problem: Does temperature affect heart rate in

goldfish?b. Hypothesis: If _temperature increases_, then _heart

rate will decreasec. Independent Variable: __temperature________d. Dependent Variable: ___heart rate_________e.Conclusion:________________________________________________

C. Good Experiments:a. Can be easily _repeated____________b. Have _large_______ sample sizesc. Performed for longer period of _time______d. change and test only 1 variablee. Test results tell if the hypothesis was __right______ or wrong

D. Graphs and Data Tablesa. Data Tables: organize information

i. 1st column is the _Independent __ variable (what is changed)ii. 2nd column is the dependent variable (what is _measured____)iii. Columns should be titled and include _units_____

iv. data must be in ascending or descending orderb. Graphs: show information in an illustration

i. x and y axis must be labeled and include _labels with units_____

ii. _Independent___ variable is on the x axisiii. _Dependent_____ variable is on the y axisiv. x and y must be numbered in uniform

increments (by 1’s, 10’s, etc.1. each line must increase by the

_ same ____ amount2. numbers must line up with the grid lines

v. you should use as _much__ of the graph as possible

Maintaining Balance1. All living things must maintain

_homeostasis_________ to stay alivea. _Homeostasis_____: maintaining a

stable internal environmentb. illness or death is a result of not

maintaining homeostasisc. Feedback Mechanisms: cycles that

help maintain _homeostasis______d. Organisms are in a _dynamic

equilibrium______: small changes around a normal set point

2. All _living____ things carry out chemical processes. All life processes needed to maintain homeostasis are _metabolism_____

a. _Nutrition__: use nutrients for growth, synthesis, repair, and energyb. _cell respiration__ (Cell): converts energy in food (sugar) into a usable form (ATP)c. synthesis ____: put molecules together, to make thingsd. Transportation_: absorb and distribute molecules throughout the bodye. _Regulation____________: control and coordination of life processesf. _Excretion___________: remove wastes produced by metabolic processesg. _Heredity____________: pass on genes to offspring

3. Inorganic Compoundsa. Water, _H2O____ ; most common substance in living things, 60%

i. assists in chemical reactionsii. dissolves other molecules to allow for transport

b. Oxygen, _O2__ : most organisms use for __cell respiration______________i. plants release as waste product of __photosynthesis________________

c. carbon dioxide, _CO2___: used by plants to make glucose

i. waste product of _cell respiration___________4. Organic Compounds

a. _Carbohydrate (sugar, starch, cellulose): immediate energy, cell structure of plant cell wallb. Lipids (fats, oils, wax): _store__ energy, make up cell membrane, insulates and cushionsc. Protein_________ : large macromolecules that carry out all life activities

i. many functions1. Enzymes: speed up

chemical Rx, very _specific_________

a. work best at specific __temperature____________ and pH

2. Hormones and neurotransmitter: _transmit____ messages to other parts of the body

3. Cell receptors: _receive_____ messages from hormones and neurotransmitters

4. _Antibodies___________ : attack foreign substances (antigens)THE CELL

1. The _smallest______ unit of living things. Cells carry out life functionsa. Plant and animal cells

i. plant cells have cell wall, large vacuole, and chloroplastsb. Major organellesc. _nucleus___ : controls cell, contains DNAd. _cytoplasm___ : helps transport materialse. _mitochondria____ : carries out cell

respiration1. makes ATP, energy for cell

f. Ribosomes: make _proteins________

g. Chloroplast: carries out photosynthesis

h. _cell wall________ : shape and structure of plant cell

i. _cell membrane_____ : controls what moves in and out of cell1. Small molecules pass freely through membrane

a. Diffusion: molecules moving from _ high _____ concentration to low concentration

b. Osmosis: water___ moves from high concentration to low concentration

i. causes size of cell to change2. _Large or polar molecules must be transported through membrane

3. If molecules move in from low to high energy must be used4. Receptor molecules on _surface_________ of cell membrane

PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND CELL RESPIRATIONAll organisms use cell respiration to produce _ ATP ___

1. Autotrophs- produce own food through __photosynthesis___________2. _Heterotroph_____ -consume food3. Photosynthesis occurs in plant cells in _chloroplasts____________

a. use _carbon dioxide___ (CO2) +_water___ ( H2O) → _glucose (sugar)_ + oxygen (O2 )b. benefits, include produce sugar, oxygen, and use carbon dioxide

4. Cell Respiration-used by all cellsa. sugar + oxygen (O2 ) → _ATP_______ + (CO2) + ( H2O)b. benefits: produce ATPc. usually occurs in _mitochondria______________

HUMAN BODY1. All organisms begin life as a single cell: _fertilized egg__________

a. the nucleus contains all the genes (_DNA-46 chromosomes__) to form an organism2. multicellular organisms grow as a result of _mitosis_________ (cell division)3. Cells form specific tissues

a. cell differentiation: only specific _genes___ are turned on in specialized cellsi. example: white blood cell turns off all genes for skin, nerve, muscle cell

4. Tissues work together to form _organs________5. _Organs______ work together forming organ systems6. Organ systems work together to maintain _homeostasis______ in an organism

ORGANELLE → CELL→ TISSUE→ ORGAN→ ORGAN SYSTEM→ ORGANISM

Nervous System-regulates body 1. responds to _stimulus_______ (change in the environment)2. Neurotransmitters released by nerve cells and

received by _receptors______ in cell membranea. Receptors are _specific_____ shapes and

only receive certain neurotransmitterEndocrine System-hormones to regulate body

1. _Hormone_______ is a chemical messengera. hormones move _slower______ than nerves

messagesb. hormone response are controlled by feedback

mechanisms

c. Specific _hormone____ receptors on cell membrane receive hormone signald. Blood Glucose

i. pancreas makes _insulin________ and glucagon1. control blood _glucose__________ levels2. improper regulation can result in _disease or death______

e. _Sex______ hormonesi. testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone

Circulatory System-_transports_________ materials through the body1. Components

a. _red blood cell______ (RBC): hemoglobin, a protein, binds and transports O2

b. Plasma _dissolves and transports__ all other substancesc. Platelets: clot bloodd. Molecules _diffuse____ into and out of the blood throughout the bodye. _Capillaries_________ : very small blood vessels where diffusion occurs

Respiratory System: provides O2 needed for cell _respiration_______, removes CO2

Immune System-__protects________ body against pathogens1. _Pathogens___ cause disease

a. virus, bacteria, parasites, fungi, or allergens2. _White______ Blood cells fight pathogens

a. identify pathogens→ tag for destruction--> _destroy pathogens

b. make _antibodies____________ (protein) to tag antigens (markers on surface of pathogen)

i. antibodies are _very_____ specific to a certain antigen3. _Vaccination_ : an injection of a dead or weak pathogen (virus)

a. causes body to make antibodies to fight future infectionb. vaccines CAN”T cure a disease

4. _Antibiotics_______ : drugs used to fight current bacteria infectiona. can cure a disease

5. Diseasesa. AIDS-caused by _HIV____ virus

i. weakens human immune systemii. spread through _body___ fluidsiii. can’t be cured

b. _Cancer______ -cells reproduce (mitosis division) at an uncontrolled ratei. forms tumorii. cells are not specializediii. causes include mutations___, chemicals, viruses, heredityiv. treated with surgery, radiation therapy, and _gene therapy___

c. Diabetes-inability to control blood sugar

i. treated with GE _insulin__________ d. Allergies-_immune_____ system overreacts to a harmless substancee.

REPRODUCTION1. _Asexual___ reproduction

a. Advantage: very fastb. Disadvantage: no genetic variationc. produces offspring that are genetically identical to the __parent__________d. only ___1____ parent involvede. cell division is __mitosis______

i. daughter cells are genetically _identical_________f. Types include: binary fission, sporulation, budding, cloning

2. _Sexual Reproductiona. _sexual reproduction__ -produces offspring with genetic variationb. Disadvantage: takes time and _energy_________c. __2_____ parents contribute DNAd. gametes formed by __meiosis_______ with ½ the normal chromosome numbere. recombination results in genetic __variation___________

3. Male Reproductive systema. Testes-produce and store sperm (made by meiosis)

i. _sperm_________ function is to deliver DNA to the egg4. Female Reproductive system

a. _ovary_________ -produce eggs (made by meiosis)i. contain all the organelles for the offspring to grow

b. Menstrual Cycle-lasts __28____ daysi. ovulation-release of _unfertilized egg________ii. _Menstruation_______ -shedding of the uterine walliii. Fertilized egg grows in the _uterus___________

5. Fetal Developmenta. a fertilized egg is called a _zygote___________

i. zygote is diploid (full set of chromosomes. 46________)b. egg divides and cells differentiate

i. cell _differentiation___________________: cells use specific gene information to become _different types of __ cells

1. specialized cells become tissues_____ and organs

c. fetus-most major organs are formedi. Placenta- _transfers____ nutrients, oxygen and

wastes between mother’s blood and fetus1. transfer occurs by _diffusion_________

2. blood is not mixedii. alcohol and drugs have a _greater________ impact on fetus in early stages because

organs and tissues are still formingDNA and Genetics

1. Chromosomes are found in _nucleus_________a. receive _23____ chromosome from each parent to create __homologous___ pairs

i. pairs carry genes for the same traitsii. person has 2 alleles for each _gene________iii. gene has instructions to make a __protein_______

2. _DNA______ -deoxyribose nucleic acida. chemical that makes up your genes and chromosomesb. stores __information________ to make proteinsc. shaped like a _double________ helixd. made of 4 bases _A__,_T___,_G____,_C____

i. A-T pair; G-C pairii. RNA T is replaced by _U__, A-U pair

3. Protein Synthesis-this is how genes control your bodya. DNA → RNA→ proteinb. DNA is transcribed into _RNA___c. _Ribosome_______ reads codons on RNA

i. codon is _3__ consecutive base pairsd. a codon represents a single _amino acid__________e. Ribosomes assembles amino acids to form _protein__

i. the _number and order_ of the amino acids determines the _shape__ (and function) of the protein

4. Mutationsa. any change in _DNA____b. only passed to offspring if mutation is in sex cellsc. _mutations_____ can be caused by radiation, chemicals, virus, and natural errord. some mutations cause a change of amino acid _sequence_____

i. this can change the shape and function of the protein5. Genetic Engineering

a. making changes to the DNA of an organism

b. _restriction enzymes__________ are used to cut and paste DNA segments

c. bacteria are often used in genetic engineering

i. add genes from other organisms

ii. _bacteria________ will produce protein that the gene has instructions ford. most common example is synthetic insulin to treat

__diabetes___________6. DNA fingerprint: use gel electrophoresis to create band

patternsa. unique to each _person___________b. closer relationship to another person/organism will have

more similar DNA _fingerprint__________Evolution

1. Evolution is the gradual _change_____ over timea. The earth has been constantly changing for

_billions____________ of yearsb. As the environment changes species that are best

_adapted_____ survivec. _Natural Selection_____ is the mechanism that causes a species to change

i. _Variation___________ : members of a species are different from each other due to mutations and sexual reproduction

1. no variation=no _evolution____________ii. Overproduction: too many offspring producediii. competition: offspring struggle to _survive____________iv. _survival of the fittest____________ : offspring that inherit “fit” traits are better able to

get resources, escape from predators, and find mates1. offspring with “unfit” traits will not survive as well2. fitness: how well a trait helps an organism survive and

_reproduce____________ in a certain environmentv. Survival of the Fittest (not strongest)

1. more fit organisms reproduce and pass on favorable traits2. over many generations “fit” traits become more common in a _population_

vi. _Speciation______ : process of making a new species from an existing one1. Requires _isolation_____ of populations (geographic or behavioral)2. new variations lead to _adaptations______ in different population

a. over long periods of time the difference becomes greater3. eventually _populations______ will no longer be able to breed creating a new

speciesd. Branching (Evolutionary) tree diagrams

i. used to show evolutionary relationship between _species___________e. common descent: modern species _evolved____ from earlier different speciesf. new traits arise in species from mutations and _genetic recombination_______g. species that can’t adapt to environment become __extinct___________h. species only change when _environment____ changes over long periods of time

i. environmental change includes

1. climate change2. temperature change3. change in water availability4. change in food availability5. introduction of new food (new

predator or prey)i. Environmental change does not cause

evolution to occur. If this were true all species would _evolve_____________ and there would be no extinction

j. Evolutionary Diagrams: used to show relationship between species

2. Evidence to support _evolution__________a. Fossil record: show _ancestral____ and transitional species

i. fossil rocks can be dated to determine _age__ of organismb. Comparative anatomy

i. comparing physical structures of different speciesc. Direct observation

i. bacteria evolving resistance to _antibiotics________ii. _Insects and plants_____ evolving resistance to pesticides

Ecology (most important information to know)

1. Organisms interact with the _biotic___ (living) and _abiotic (non-living) parts of their environment through food webs and nutrient cycle

2. _Energy___ is needed to keep an ecosystem going

a. energy comes from the _sun____

i. energy is made usable by _producers____ (plants and other autotrophs)b. _energy________ passed on to consumers as foodc. most energy _lost as heat and waste__ before it is passed to the next trophic (food ) level in

the food chaini. organisms high up the food chain (apex

predators/carnivores) have _less____ energy available to them

ii. producers have much _larger__________

populations than higher trophic levels3. Environmental Factors-determine which organisms can

_survive_ in an ecosystem and how large population can get

a. factors include-air, water, light, temperature, pH, food, predators, etc.b. the maximum size of a population is the _ carrying capacity________

4. There are many roles in an _environment___ (niche)a. competition usually results in only one species occupying a niche at a timeb. organisms with similar need (birds and bats

that eat insects) occupy different _niches___ (day and night)

5. Describe the basic process of ecological successiona. series of predictable changes that occur in a

community over __time__________b. land will develop over 100’s or 1000’s of

years6. Ecology definitions

a. producer - organism that makes its own _food___

b. _Consumer__ - gets food by eating other organismsc. omnivore - eats animals and __plants________d. herbivore - eats only __plants________e. _Carnivore________ - eats only animalsf. predator - hunts other _animals________ for foodg. parasite - lives on or in a host and _harms____ ith. _Habitat________ - place where an organism lives

i. niche - the role of an organism in its _environment______j. population - a group of one __species_ in an areak. community - a group of _populations____ in one area (all the cats, dogs, ants, people, etc in

syracusel. _Ecosystem______ - all living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) things in an aream. biosphere - all the places on the _earth that life lives (includes, land, water, and air)n. _Pollution_____ - harmful substance to the biosphereo. renewable resources - resource that can be replaced after a time or __________

7. Human Actions- development, industrialization, pollution, farming, over-hunting, overgrazing, clear cutting, introduction of _invasive_ species, soil erosion often have _negative__ consequences for ecosystems

a. most negative effects are due to increasing human __populations_________i. _ecosystems___ are decreasing to make room for building and homesii. more wastes are produced

8. Biodiversity- the variety of life on _earth__________a. when habitats are lost species become _extinct__, reduces biodiversity

i. ecosystems with low diversity1. _less___ stable than high diversity ecosystem2. take longer to recover from environmental changes

b. humans use organisms for many things including _food____ and medicinei. losing organisms means losing valuable resources

9. Environmental Actions- aimed at reducing or repairing damage done by _humans____a. Recyclingb. conservation of available resourcesc. Using clean energy _sources_______ (solar, wind, and water power)d. Protection of habitats and _endangered____ speciese. Using biological controls (natural predators) instead of pesticides and _herbicides___f. farming native plants (cocoa in the rainforest)g. planting _trees_________ to replace those cut downh. rotating crops to reduce soil lossi. creating laws to control pollution, land management, hunting and fishing, etc

10.Common Ecological problemsa. Acid Rain

i. cause- nitric and sulfuric acids released by industryii. negative effect- kills plants and _animals___, pollutes wateriii. Fixing- place filters on smokestacks

b. _Deforestation______ (loss of habitat)i. cause -cutting down treesii. negative affect-soil erosion, loss of habitats, less CO2 taken out of the atmosphereiii. fixing- selective cutting, recycle paper

c. loss of diversity

i. cause-habitat destruction/fragmentationii. negative effect-unstable ecosystemsiii. fixing- nature preserves, protection laws

d. Global _Warming__________i. cause- increase in carbon dioxide due to burning fossil fuelsii. negative effect- ice caps _melting______, more severe weatheriii. fixing- use alternate energy sources

e. loss of ozone layeri. cause-use of CFC’sii. negative effect-less protection from UV _radiation____________iii. fixing- ban the use of CFC’s

f. Invasive speciesi. cause- foreign species accidentally or purposely brought into habitat by _humans __ ii. negative effect- out-compete native speciesiii. fixing-increase natural predators?

Diagrams you must know how to read