Chapter 06 - Motivational Needs, Processes, and Applications

SEQ CHAPTER \h \r 1CHAPTER 6 - MOTIVATIONAL NEEDS, PROCESSES, AND APPLICATIONS

I. OBJECTIVES

To present an overview of the basic motivational process with special emphasis given to the three generally recognized categories of needs, drives, and incentives. To have an understanding of various human motives (primary, secondary, extrinsic, and intrinsic), work- motivation theories (content, process, contemporary) , and the analysis of motivational application through job design and goal setting.

II. NOTES AND REVIEW OUTLINE

A.Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological need that activates behavior or a drive that is aimed at goal or incentive. Motivation consists of three interacting and interdependent elements:

.Need - a physiological or psychological imbalance or deficiency.

Drive or motive - an action-oriented thrust toward an incentive to alleviate a need, a deficiency with direction.

.Incentive - anything that alleviates a need and reduces a drive, restores physiological or psychological balance.

1.Primary motives are unlearned and physiologically based. These include hunger, thirst, and sleep, avoidance of pain, sex, and maternal concern.

2.Secondary motives must be learned and are psychologically based. Organizational behavior is particularly concerned with secondary motives such as needs for power, achievement, affiliation, security and status.

Table 6.1 on page 160 lists examples of key secondary needs.

3.Extrinsic motives are tangible and visible to others while intrinsic motives are internally generated. Many motivators have both extrinsic and intrinsic components. Cognitive evaluation theory suggests that a task may be intrinsically motivating, but that when an extrinsic motivator becomes associated with that task, the actual level of motivation may decrease, but this theory has a number of criticisms and some research does not support this position.

B.Figure 6.2 on page 162 graphically summarizes the various theoretical streams for work motivation.

1.Maslow's hierarchy of needs is based on five levels (physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization) which are hierarchically organized. Maslow believed that once a given level of need is satisfied, it no longer serves to motivate and the next level is activated to motivate the individual. This is important to organizational behavior because it is recognized that humans in the workplace have diverse motives.

Figure 6.4 on page 164 provides a diagrammatic representation of the hierarchy of

work motivation.

2.Herzberg extended the work of Maslow and developed a specific content theory of motivation. Using a critical incident research methodology technique, Herzberg concluded that job satisfiers or motivators are related to job content and that job dissatisfiers or hygiene factors are related to job context. While hygiene factors are necessary to prevent dissatisfaction, only a challenging job will motivate personnel. The hygiene factors are roughly equivalent to Maslows lower-level needs.

a. Herzbergs two-factor theory has been criticized because it oversimplifies the complexities of work motivation. However, he made a contribution by recognizing the importance of job content factors in motivation and the subsequent technique of job enrichment.

3. Porter and Lawler start with the premise that motivation does not equal satisfaction or performance. The Porter-Lawler model suggests and this is a significant turn of events from conventional wisdom that performance leads to satisfaction.

Figure 6.5 on page 168 depicts the Porter-Lawler Motivation model used to explain the complex relationships that exist among motivation, performance, and satisfaction.

a. The Porter-Lawler model is quite complex and has proved to be a difficult way to bridge the gap to actual human resource management practice.

b. The contributions which Porter and Lawler make can be expressed through guidelines that management can follow to remove barriers to the motivation - performance relationship. The barriers to be overcome include:

1.) Doubts about ability, skill or knowledge.

2.) The practical or physical possibility of the job.

3.) The interdependence of the job with other people or activities.

4.) Ambiguity in job requirements.

c. To help overcome these barriers, it is helpful to understand the role of in the effort-performance relationship.

d. In addition, Porter and Lawler suggest guidelines to improve the relationship between performance and satisfaction as follows:

1.)Determine what rewards employees value.

2.)Define desired performance

3.)Make performance attainable.

4.)Link rewards to performance.

4.Equity Theory argues that a major input into job performance and satisfaction is the degree of equity or inequity that people perceive in their work situation. Inequity occurs when a person perceives that the ratios of his/her outcomes to inputs are not the same compared to a significant other. Inputs and outcomes are

based on persons perception. Motivation under this perspective can be defined by the drive to restore equity. This may be done in several ways:

Alter the inputs or outcomes

Cognitively distorts the inputs or outcomes

Leave the field

Act on the other

Change the other

a. Feelings of inequity can occur not only when a person feels cheated or not recognized as much as others, but also in the case of over reward (the person feels overpaid). There has been research support for the theory.

b. Equity theory can be extended into what is commonly known as organizational justice. Equity theory supports on the perception of distributive justice (the belief that everyone should get what they deserve) while organizational justice explores how the distributive decision is made.

5. Attribution refers simply to how people explain the cause of anothers or their own behavior.

Figure 6.6 on page 176 illustrates Kelleys model of attribution.

Two general types of attributions that people make:

Dispositional attributions

Situational attributions

a. Attribution theories usually share the following assumptions:

1.)We seek to make sense of our world.

2.) We often attribute peoples actions either to internal or external causes.

3.)We do so in fairly logical ways.

b. Locus of control, work behavior may be explained by whether employees perceive their outcomes as controlled internally or externally. Other dimensions besides the internal and external locus of control also need to be accounted for and studied. These could include stability dimension, bad-luck and good-luck attributes.

c. Attribution errors: Social psychologists recognize two potent biases when people make attributions fundamental attribution error and self-serving bias.

6. Other emerging theories of work motivation also are emerging from cognitive psychology.

a.Control theory focuses on analyzing the degree to which individuals perceive they are in control of their own lives, or are in control of their jobs.

b.Agency theory looks at the motivating potential of relationships between principals (i.e., owners or top management) and agents (i.e., supervisors or employees).

c.The assumption is that the interests of principals and agents diverge or may be in conflict with one another. The implication for organizational behavior involves how the principals can limit divergence by establishing appropriate rewards or incentives for the agent that leads to the desired outcomes. Agency theory has been criticized for its failure to account for intrinsic as well as extrinsic motives.

C.Job design may be defined as the methods that management uses to develop the content of a job, including all relevant tasks, as well as the processes by which jobs are constructed and revised. A summary of the major job design applications follows.

1. Job rotation is the simplest form of job design involves moving employees from one relatively simple job to another after short time periods.

2. Job enlargement involves increasing the number of tasks each employee performs.

3. Job enrichment represents an extension of the earlier, more simplified job rotation and job enlargement techniques of job design.

4. The Hackman- Oldham job characteristics model of work motivation shown in figure 6.7 on page 180, recognizes that certain job characteristics contribute to certain psychological states and that the strength of employees need for growth has an important moderating effect.

The core job characteristics are:

a. Skill variety

b. Task identity

c. Task significance

d. Autonomy

e. Feedback

The critical psychological states can be summarized as follows:

a. Meaningfulness

b. Responsibility

c. Knowledge of results

5. Specific guidelines listed in figure 6.8 on page 182 are offered to redesign jobs.

D. Goal setting is the process of motivating employees by establishing effective and meaningful performance targets.

1. Lockes theory of goal setting goes beyond expectancy theories of work motivation, because people strive to attain goals in order to satisfy their emotions and desires. Goals provide a directional nature to peoples behavior and guide their thoughts and actions to one outcome rather than another. Consequences, feedback, or reinforcement are the result of individual responses to the goals.

2. Locke relates goals to performance and satisfaction in the model shown in figure 6.9 on page 184.

a. Specific goals result in higher levels of performance and have been found to be more effective than vague or general goals.

b. Performance targets should be challenging rather than easy or routine. At the same time, goals should be reachable and not so difficult that pursing them becomes frustrating.

c. Specific goals are most likely to affect performance when employees accept and are committed to them. This ownership and acceptance of goals are best accomplished through a participative process. Self-commitment can be given to assigned goals as well as to personal or self-set goals, especially when goals are equivocal.

d. People exhibiting higher levels of self-efficacy tend to set more challenging personal goals and are more likely to achieve them, and commitment to selfset personal goals is normally also higher than commitment to goals set by others.

e. Objective and timely feedback is preferable to no feedback and, can be related to the process used to achieve a goal or the content of the goal.

f. Task complexity and leader style are the other moderators in goal setting.

3. Goal orientation, growth mindset, benchmarking, stretch target, and goal source are other performance management application techniques associated with goal setting.

4. Goal setting can be used to create psychological contracts with employees. Instances of contract violations may inhibit the success rates of goal setting. These violations include restructuring, downsizing, increased reliance on temporary workers, and globalization.

III.QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW

1. Briefly define the basic motivation process and the two types of needs. What are some examples of each type of need?

Answer

Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates a behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive. Motivation consists of these three interacting and interdependent elements:

1. Needs: Needs are created whenever there is a physiological or psychological imbalance.

2. Drives: Drives or motives are set up to alleviate needs. Physiological and psychological drives are action oriented and provide an energizing thrust toward reaching an incentive.

3. Incentives: At the end of the motivation cycle is the incentive, defined as anything that will alleviate a need and reduce a drive. Thus, attaining an incentive will tend to restore physiological or psychological balance and will reduce or cut off the drive.

The two types of needs are primary and secondary needs.

The needs that are unlearned and psychologically based are called primary needs. The most commonly recognized primary needs are hunger, thirst, sleep, avoidance of pain, sex, and maternal concern.

Secondary needs are learned motives. Examples of key secondary needs are doing better than competitors, controlling people and activities, being liked by many people, having a secure job, and having the right car and wearing the right clothes.

2. What is the difference between an intrinsic and an extrinsic motive? Can both operate at the same time? If so, how?

Answer

Extrinsic motives are tangible and visible to others. They are distributed by other people (or agents). In the workplace, extrinsic motivators include pay, benefits, and promotions. Extrinsic motives also include the drive to avoid punishment, such as termination or being transferred. Extrinsic motivators are necessary to attract people into the organization and to keep them on the job. They are also often used to inspire workers to achieve at higher levels or to reach new goals, as additional payoffs are contingent on improved performance.

Intrinsic motives are internally generated. Intrinsic rewards include feelings of responsibility, achievement, accomplishment, that something was learned from an experience, feelings of being challenged or competitive, or that something was an engaging task or goal. Performing meaningful work has long been associated with intrinsic motivation.

It is important to remember that these two types of motivators are not completely distinct from one another. Many motivators have both intrinsic and extrinsic components and can therefore operate at the same time. For example, a person who wins a sales contest receives the prize, which is the extrinsic motivator. At the same time, however, winning in a competitive situation may be the more powerful, yet internalized, motive.

3. In your own words, briefly explain Maslows theory of motivation. Relate it to work motivation and Herzbergs model.

Answer

Maslow identified five levels in his need hierarchy. They are:

1. Physiological needs: The most basic level in the hierarchy, the physiological needs generally corresponds to the unlearned primary needs. The needs of hunger, thirst, sleep, and sex are some examples.

2. Safety needs: This second level of needs is roughly equivalent to the security need.

Maslow stressed emotional as well as physical safety.

3. Love needs: This third, or intermediate, level of needs loosely corresponds to the affection and affiliation needs.

4. Esteem needs: The esteem level represents the higher needs of humans. The needs for power, achievement, and status can be considered part of this level.

5. Needs for self-actualization: Maslow portrays this level as the culmination of all the lower, intermediate, and higher needs of humans. People who have become self-actualized are self-fulfilled and have realized all their potential.

In terms of work motivation, by providing a basic amount of pay that allows employees to satisfy their needs for food, clothing, and shelter, organizations can

satisfy their employees physiological needs. Safety needs can be met by providing seniority plans, health insurance, employee assistance plans, severance pay, pension, and the like. Social needs are satisfied through formal and informal groups and teams, while esteem needs can be met through promotions, titles, etc. Self actualization can be achieved by providing employees with opportunities for personal growth and realizing their complete potential.

The hygiene factors of Herzbergs theory are preventive and environmental in nature and they are roughly equivalent to Maslows lower-level needs. These hygiene factors prevent dissatisfaction, but they do not lead to satisfaction. In effect, they bring motivation up to a theoretical zero level and are a necessary floor to prevent dissatisfaction, and they serve as a platform or takeoff point for motivation. The motivators motivate employees on the job. They are roughly equivalent to Maslows higher-level needs.

4. What is the major criticism of Herzbergs two-factor theory of motivation? Do you think it makes a contribution to the better understanding of motivation in the workplace? Defend your answer.

Answer

Herzbergs theory oversimplifies the complexities of work motivation. When researchers deviate from the critical incident methodology used by Herzberg, they do not get the two factors. Sample and setting may affect preferences for motivators and hygiene factors. Finally, there seem to be job factors such as pay that lead to both satisfaction and dissatisfaction.

Herzbergs theory does contribute to the better understanding of motivation as it explains why organizations that provide high salaries, excellent fringe-benefit packages, and great working conditions still have unmotivated employees. According to Herzbergs theory, only a challenging job that has the opportunities for achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and growth will motivate personnel.

5. In your own words, briefly explain the Porter-Lawler model of motivation. How do performance and satisfaction relate to each other?

Answer

The Porter-Lawler model of motivation starts off with the premise that motivation (effort or force) does not equal satisfaction or performance. Figure 6.5 on page 168 in the text shows the multivariable model used to explain the complex relationships that exist among motivation, performance, and satisfaction.

Porter and Lawler point out that effort (force or motivation) does not lead directly to performance. It is moderated by abilities and traits and by role perception. Porter-Lawler model is what happens after the performance. The rewards that follow and how these are perceived will determine satisfaction. In other words, the Porter-Lawler model suggests that performance leads to satisfaction.

6. Briefly give an example of an inequity that a manager of a small business might experience. How would the manager strive to attain equity in the situation you describe?

Answer

Joe, a dedicated and hardworking line manager feels that he is being underpaid for the effort he puts into his work when he compares himself to his colleague, Samalso a line managerwho regularly shirks off his duties but is paid the same salary. Essentially, Joe perceives his outcome-input ratio to be lesser than that of his colleagues.

In such as situation, Joe might strive to restore equity by either asking for greater rewards (altering the outcomes), or by reducing the amount of work he does (altering the inputs).

He could strive to restore equity by either changing his point of reference to another colleague or by cognitively distorting the inputs or outcomes, possibly by rationalizing the inequity as temporary. Joe could also attempt to influence Sam to increase his efforts (altering others inputs). As a last resort, Joe might resign from his job all together.

7. How does equity theory relate to procedural justice? Why is this so important to todays employees?

Answer

Equity theory and procedural justice are both based on the perceived fairness of things. While the equity theory focuses on the perceived fairness of the rewards received in comparison to others in the organization, procedural justice is concerned with the perceived fairness of the procedure used to make a decision. Procedural justice can raise issues of equality as opposed to equity.

Employees perceptions of fairness not only positively affect their attitudes and performance, but also influence their fair treatment behaviors toward customers, which in turn cause the customers to react positively to both the employee and the organization.

8. What is attribution theory? How can locus of control be applied to workers and managers?

Answer

Attribution is the cognitive process by which people draw conclusions about the factors that influence, or make sense of, one anothers behavior. Attribution theory is concerned with the relationship between personal social perception and interpersonal behavior. The assumptions of attribution theory are:

1. We seek to make sense of our world.

2. We often attribute peoples actions either to internal or external causes.

3. We do so in fairly logical ways.

The attribution theorist assumes that humans are rational and are motivated to identify and understand the causal structure of their relevant environment. It is this search for attributes that characterizes attribution theory and helps explain work motivation. People will behave differently if they perceive internal attributes than they will if they perceive external attributes. It is this concept of differential ascriptions that has very important implications for motivation and organizational behavior in general.

Using locus of control, work behavior may be explained by whether employees perceive their outcomes as controlled internally or externally Employees who perceive internal control feel that they personally can influence their outcomes through their own ability, skills, or effort. Employees who perceive external control

feel that their outcomes are beyond their own control; they feel that external forces such as luck or task difficulty control their outcomes. This perceived locus of control may have a differential impact on their motivation to perform.

9. What two major attribution errors or biases have surfaced? Give an example of each?

Answer

The first attribution error is called the fundamental attribution error wherein people tend to attribute others behavior to personal factors (for example, intelligence, ability, motivation, attitudes, or personality), even when it is very clear that the situation or circumstances caused the person to behave the way he or she did.

An example of this would be a manager who attributes an employees poor performance to laziness when it is actually due to a lack of training.

Another attribution bias that has emerged from the research is the self-serving bias wherein people readily accept credit when told they have succeeded (attributing the success to their ability and effort), yet often attribute failure to such external, situational factors as bad luck or the problems inherent impossibility.

An example of this would be a manager who attributes his teams good performance to his hard work and dedication but blames his team members when the group fails to reach its goals.

10. Briefly describe control theory and agency theory. What implications can these two theories have for work motivation?

Answer

Control theory is essentially a cognitive phenomenon relating to the degree that individuals perceive they are in control of their own lives, or are in control of their jobs. Studies show that perceived control will affect job satisfaction and absenteeism. Relevant to todays workplace environment is that a sense of control seems very helpful when increasing job demands are placed on the employee. Thus, persons who are given more work, but also the control to complete that work, may not feel as negatively about their new assignments.

Agency theory assumes that the interests of principals and agents diverge or may be in conflict with one another. The implications for organizational behavior involve how the principals (owners, board members, or top management) can limit divergence from their interests or objectives by establishing appropriate rewards or incentives for the agents (subordinates, middle management, or operating employees) for appropriate outcomes.

Agency theory helps us better understand the motivation of managers in todays organizations.

11. What are the core job characteristics in the Hackman-Oldham model? How do you calculate the motivating potential of a job? How would a professors job and a janitors job measure up on these characteristics? Be specific in your answer.

Answer

The core job characteristics are:

1. Skill variety refers to the extent to which the job requires the employee to draw from a number of different skills and abilities as well as on a range of knowledge.

2. Task identity refers to whether the job has an identifiable beginning and end. How complete a module of work does the employee perform?

3. Task significance involves the importance of the task. It involves both internal significancehow important is the task to the organization?and external significancehow proud are employees to others what they do and where they work?

4. Autonomy refers to job independence. How much freedom and control do employees have, for example, to schedule their own work, make decisions, or determine the means to accomplish objectives?

5. Feedback refers to objective information about progress and performance and can come from the job itself or from supervisors or an information system.

The five job characteristics are measured by the perceptions of the jobholder and are combined into a single index called a motivating potential score (MPS). This MPS reflects the overall potential the job has to influence the employees motivation and satisfaction.

A professors job is high on skill variety as it involves research, interaction, dealing with diverse learning styles, reasoning, evaluation, and the like. He is responsible for an entire subject and therefore his work has an identifiable beginning and end. The professors work is important to his institution and students and thus is significant. He has the freedom to exercise his teaching style in the classroom and also receives immediate feedback from his students during classes and also undergoes a formal appraisal.

A janitors work does not require a variety of skill as his work mainly involves routine cleaning. He could be responsible for cleaning either a section of or the entire premises and therefore can be high on task identity. His work has internal significance as a clean environment is important to the organization but its external significance is debatable. The janitor lacks autonomy as basic cleaning tasks are standardized. He may receive feedback from his supervisor.

Overall, it can be said that the professors job has greater motivating potential than that of the janitors.

12. In your own words, describe the theory behind goal setting. What has the research generally found in testing goal setting?

Answer

Lockes theory of goal setting says that people strive to attain goals in order to satisfy their emotions and desires. Goals provide a directional nature to peoples behavior and guide their thoughts and actions to one outcome rather than another. The individual then responds and performs according to these intentions or goals, even if the goals are not attained. Consequences, feedback, or reinforcement are the result of these responses. Over the past 15 years, numerous studies have been conducted to refine and extend goal-setting theory and practice.

The importance of specific goals

Specific goals have been found to be more effective than vague or general goals, such as do your best, as well as no goals at all. Specific goals result in higher levels of performance.

The importance of difficult and challenging goals

Performance targets should be challenging rather than easy or routine. Goals should be reachable and not so difficult that pursing them becomes frustrating.

Goal acceptance, participation, and commitment

Specific goals are most likely to affect performance when employees accept and are committed to them. This ownership and acceptance of goals are best accomplished through a participative process. Commitment tends to run higher when goals are specific as opposed to general or broad.

Self-efficacy and goals

Self-efficacy is the perception or belief of the individual that he or she can successfully accomplish a specific task and it is associated with goal commitment. People exhibiting higher levels of self-efficacy tend to set more challenging personal goals and are more likely to achieve them, and commitment to self-set personal goals is normally also higher than commitment to goals set by others.

Objective and timely feedback

Studies have also found objective and timely feedback is preferable to no feedback and can be related to the process used to achieve a goal or the content (degree of achievement) of the goal.

13. How does goal setting relate to goal orientation, benchmarking, stretch targets, and psychological contracts?

Answer

All of these concepts are based on motivating employees by establishing effective and meaningful performance targets which is the focus of goal setting.

In goal orientation, the concepts of learning goal orientation and the growth mindset can be directly related to goal setting as they both focus on improving performance by developing competence and qualities (targets).

Benchmarking incorporates the use of goal setting to set targets that are pursued, identified, and then used as the basis for future action. The benchmarking process involves looking both inside and outside the organization for ways of improving performance.

Stretch targets may be defined as objectives or goals that force organizations to significantly alter their processes in ways that involve a whole new paradigm of operations. Stretch targets seek to integrate and align the internal operation and culture with external best practices.

Goal setting can be used to create psychological contracts with employees. In any exchange situation at work, there are both formal and informal expectations regarding what is given and what should be received in return. Imposing new goals may violate existing views of what is present in the psychological contract, creating either resistance to the program or a renegotiation of the rewards to be received. Goal setting in part constructs a social role at work that is intertwined with other elements of a psychological contract.

IV.HINTS FOR INTERNET EXERCISE: What Types of Jobs Motivate You?

1.Select one of the jobs listed. What motivational theories explain why or why not you would be a good, motivated employee in this job?

Students choice of theory would vary depending upon the nature of the job and the position selected. Considering the example of the job position of a financial analyst at Mosby Associates, the Maslows hierarchy of needs could be used to explain why an individual might be motivated. It fulfills the physiological needs (through the salary and other monetary benefits); safety needs (through seniority plans, union, health insurance, employee assistance plans, severance pay, pension); social needs ( through formal and informal work groups or teams); esteem needs (through promotions, status symbol); self actualization needs ( through the personal growth at work and realization of self potential.)

2.Would this job provide you motivation in each of Maslows levels? How? How, if at all, would this job relate to Herzbergs two factors?

The financial analyst at Mosby Associates would likely fulfill the physiological needs (through salary and benefits); safety needs (since job security is strong due to the well established nature of the company); love/belongingness needs (due to the constant interaction with coworkers and customers); and esteem needs (with the opportunity to advance and become a chief financial officer).

Using Herzbergs two-factor theory, hygiene factors would include: low salary, benefits, and good working conditions (no late nights required, state of the art equipment). Motivator factors might include the ability to work autonomously, be self-directed, opportunity for career advancement, and the immediate constructive feedback received from the supervisors.

3.Using this job as a reference point, as best as you can trace through each step (the boxes in figure 6.7) in the Porter and Lawler expectancy model of motivation.

Use the models steps which are skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.

V.HINTS FOR INTERNET EXERCISE: What Is the Motivation Potential of Jobs at Southwest Airlines?

1. From a job design standpoint, which job would seem to have the most motivation potential? The least?

For each individual the motivation potential obtained from a job would vary. It would depend on an individuals skills and interest and the job profile. Job design is the specification of the contents, method, and relationships of jobs to satisfy technological and organizational requirements as well as the personal needs of job holders.

The air hostesses, stewards, and pilots would have the most motivation potential, as the post of pilot is the most crucial in the aviation industry, and demands passion for the job, enthusiasm, and the drive to achieve success.

The air hostesses and stewards are very essential in an airline industry as they are the representatives of the company, they are the public faces.

Additional to this, the benefits which come along with such profiles are very good.

On the other side, cleaners of vehicles and equipment, office clerks, and service technicians would have the least motivation potential. Their scope of work is very narrow and the benefits offered are average or sometimes below average.

2. Of the jobs that you consider poorly designed, discuss some ways that they might be

improved.

Few ways in which poorly designed jobs can be improved are job analysis, job design, characteristics of desirable jobs and fine tuning of jobs through job enrichment and adjusted work schedules to further increase their capacity to motivate and challenge employees.

3. Compare these jobs to other companies that post jobs on their websites. Now go to company websites in manufacturing and the public sector in your local area that provide job openings and/or descriptions. Do you think some industries tend to have more motivating potential jobs than others?

Yes, some sectors do have more motivating potential jobs than others. But which sector offers more motivating potential jobs depends on an individuals perception. Not every one is motivated with the same factor, it would vary across.

In some cases the job description listed on the websites may not be very clear. In such a situation its difficult to say which job would be more challenging.

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