WHAT IS MORPHOLOGY?

Morphology is a field of linguistics focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a language. A morpheme is the smallest indivisible unit of a language that retains meaning. The rules of morphology within a language tend to be relatively regular, so that if one sees the noun morphemes for the first time, for example, one can deduce that it is likely related to the word morpheme.

ITS PURPOSE?

The purpose of the morphology is the identification, analysis and description of the structure of a given language's morphemes and other linguistic units, such as root words, affixes, parts of speech, intonation/stress, or implied context (words in a lexicon are the subject matter of lexicology). Morphological typology represents a method for classifying languages according to the ways by which morphemes are used in a language —from the analytic that use only isolated morphemes, through the agglutinative ("stuck-together") and fusional languages that use bound morphemes (affixes), up to the polysynthetic, which compress many separate morphemes into single words.

While words are generally accepted as being (with clitics) the smallest units of syntax, it is clear that in most languages, if not all, words can be related to other words by rules (grammars). For example, English speakers recognize that the words dog and dogs are closely related — differentiated only by the plurality morpheme "-s", which is only found bound to nouns, and is never separate. Speakers of English (a fusional language) recognize these relations from their tacit knowledge of the rules of word formation in English. They infer intuitively that dog is to dogs as cat is to cats; similarly, dog is to dog catcher as dish is to dishwasher, in one sense. The rules understood by the speaker reflect specific patterns, or regularities, in the way words are formed from smaller units and how those smaller units interact in speech. In this way, morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies patterns of word formation within and across languages, and attempts to formulate rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of those languages.

DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES

Derivational morphemes create new words. They Derive new words from other words. e.g., unhappy un + happy; Happiness happy + ness; preview pre + view. Further properties Change part of speech or the meaning of a word (3) a. part of speech: us-able (V ! A), trouble- Some (N ! A), judg-ment (V ! N) B. meaning: dis-comfort, ex-boyfriend C. both: use-less (V ! A) • are not required by syntax • are not very productive: dis-like, *dis-hate • usually occur before inflectional suxes: work-er-s • can be either suxes or prexes (in english)

INFLECTIONAL MORPHEME

Inflectional morphemes, on the other hand, do not change meanings or parts of speech, but instead simply make minor grammatical changes necessary for agreement with other words. e.g., cats cat + s; cooler cool + er. There are only eight inflectional morphemes: -s, -ed, -ing, - en, -s, -'s, -er, -est They do not change meaning or part of speech: cat - cats - cat's ! nouns They are required by the syntax They are very productive They occur after derivational morphemes, usually at the very end of the word (in english) They can only be suffixes (in english)

WHAT ARE MORPHEMES?

Words are not the most basic units of meaning. They are frequently composed of even more basic Elements. a. obvious: homework, dinnertime, moonlight, classroom b. medium: fearless, quickly, shing, momentary c. dicult: walks, tenth, dog's, flipped The most basic elements of meaning are calledmorphemes. Each of the preceding examples contained at least 2 morphemes. We can take, for instance, "th" from "tenth" and say that it has a meaning all to itself { namely, "the ordinal numeral corresponding to the cardinal numeral I'm attached to”.

Content and Function Morphemes Morphemes (bound or free) can be either content or function morphemes. Content morphemes carry some semantic content as opposed to performing a grammatical function. For example car, -able, -un. Function morphemes act solely to provide grammatical information and syntactic agreement. and, plural -s Note that these are not simply different names for the derivational/inflectional distinction - D/I morphemes are all bound, while content/function morphemes may be free as well (e.g, prepositionsare free function

morphemes)

CLASSICATION MORPHEMES

Free And Bound Morphemes A morpheme is free if it is able to appear as a word by itself. It is bound if it can only appear as part of a larger, multi-morphemic word. Every morpheme is either free or bound. Free morphemes are also referred as roots. Bound morphemes are also referred to as affixes,among which there are prefixes, infixes,

andsuffixes. a. prefixes: un-happy, re-write, pre-view b. suffixes: writ-ing, quick-ly, neighbor-hood c. infixes: (very rare in English) speech-o-meter Bound morphemes may be derivational or inflectional A stem can be defined as a root to which an affix can be added. Thus, the root dog is also a stem, because, even though it contains no affix(es), an affix could be added to it - to form, e.g., dog-s. This notion is necessary because not all roots are such that axescan be added to them - e.g., of, or, I, e

AFFIXATION we are going to explore are some of the ways in which complex words are

formed by creating bases which contain several derivational morphemes. Let us take the latinate root-dict-meaning speak, say which is found in diction, dictate, dictational, contradict, benediction, etc. starting with-dict-, we can form complex words such as contradictory and contradictoriness by attaching several afixes to the root, i.e. we can have multiple affixation. this process can take place in anumber of rounds, with the output created by one round of affixation serving as the input to later round:

Root -dictvOutput Base: -dictv (round one: prefixation: contradictv Add contra-preposition) Base: contradict(round two: first contradict-oryAdj Suffixation: add-oryAdj Base: contradictoryAdj(round three: second contradictorinessN Suffixation: add –nessN STEPHANIE DE LA TORRE

COMPOUNDING

ENDOCENTRIC COMPOUNDS: It is a constituent syntactic compound that is clear of a core, that it is an indispensable element, and of other insignificant elements that they complement to the core. The verbal syntagms are constructions clearly endocéntricas, since always they contain a lexical verb in his interior.

EXOCENTRIC: An adjective that it allows to name to the subject that possesses a rare or extravagant character or personality.

WORD COINAGE

COINAGE: It is a piece of a resistant material, of weight and composition

EPONYMS: It is a name derived from a person and that designates a people, place, concept or object of any class

BLENDIG: Phrases like that one of the title that seem to us to the first sight

CLIPPING: They are words abridged not to put the whole content of a prayer.

BACKFORMATION: It is a base text for the elements of the results of every prayer.

ACRONYMS: It is named an abbreviation to each of the letters that form the mentioned word.

PAST OF SPEECH NOUNThey are words which modals are classes of entities. VERBS: It is the part of speech or category lexical that expresses

existence, action, attainment, condition or condition of the subject, semantically it expresses a complete preaching. In the prayer, the verb works as the core of the predicate.

ADJETIVES: It is a part of speech or class of word that it complements to a noun or name to qualify it; it expresses characteristics or properties attributed to a noun, already be concrete

PRONOUNS: They are words or morphemes which modal is not fixed but it decides in relation with others that normally already have been named.

DETERMINERS:In the determinants they are included: the article and those that the traditional grammar was calling determinative adjectives and that are the demonstrative, possessive, indefinite determinants, interrogative and exclamatory numeral

PREPOSITIONS:It is the class of invariable word that introduces the so called prepositional system. The prepositions generally have the function to introduce enclosures, and in cause also obligatory complements tying the name or noun phrase which they precede immediately with a verb or another name that precedes them.

CONJUCTIONS:It is the set of the forms of a verb according to the person's categories, number, time, aspect, way, voice. Though not all the languages of the world include all these categories being able to be absent someone). Sometimes to the set of these forms there is called he also a verbal paradigm, being the flexion or verbal conjugation the set of rules that allow to construct the above mentioned paradigm.

AUXILIARIES: To intervene in the formation of the times consisted of the conjugation, the verbal periphrases and certain passive constructions.

PHRASAL CATEGORIES NOUN PHRASE:To intervene in the formation of the times

consisted of the conjugation, the verbal periphrases and certain passive constructions.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE: There is constituted by a preposition (or another type of apposition) that works as syntactic core.

ADJETIVE PHRASE: It is a prayer that depends structurally on the core of another prayer, so called principal prayer.

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE:Grammatical prayer. Set of words with complete sense

CLAUSE/ SENTENCE:It is a collection of words used in order a sense makes, even more when it is not constituted in any prayer

PHRASE:It is a collection of words used in order a sense makes, even more when it is not constituted in any prayer.

By: Jimena Alvarez Martinez

GRAMATICAL RELATIONS

SUBJECTThe subject has the grammatical function in a sentence of relating its constituent (a noun phrase) by means of the verb to any other elements present in the sentence, i.e. objects, complements and adverbials.The subject is a phrasal constituent, and should be distinguished from parts of speech, which, roughly, classify words within constituent.

DIRECT OBJECTA direct object will follow a transitive verb [a type of action verb]. Direct objects can be nouns, pronouns, phrases, or clauses. If you can identify the subject and verb in a sentence, then finding the direct object—if one exists—is easy. Just remember this simple formula: subject + verb + what? or who? = direct objectHere are examples of the formula in action:Sandra and Manuel played soccer with a grapefruit pulled from a backyard tree.Sandra, Manuel = subjects; played = verb. Sandra and Manuel played what? Soccer = direct object.

ADVERBIALSAn adverbial is a construction that modifies, or describes, verbs. When an adverbial modifies a verb, it changes the meaning of that verb. For example, a prepositional phrase, an infinitive phrase, and a nominal clause can all modify verbs. In every sentence pattern, the adverbial tells where, when, why, how, etc. There can be more than one adverbial in a sentence. Also, there is not a certain slot fixed for adverbials. They are movable. One way to analyze sentence structure is to think in terms of form and function. Form refers to a word class--such as noun, verb, adjective, adverb, and preposition--as well as types of phrases, such as prepositional phrase, nominal clause, and adverbial clause. Function refers to the function of the form in a sentence. For example, the function of a prepositional phrase in a sentence may be adverbial; that is, it modifies a verb.

  SUBJECT COMPLEMENT

A subject complement is the adjective, noun, or pronoun that follows a linking verb.

The following verbs are true linking verbs: any form of the verb be [am, is, are, was, were, has been, are being, might have been, etc.], become, and seem. These true linking verbs are always linking verbs.

examples: Brandon is a gifted athlete.

Brandon = subject; is = linking verb; athlete = noun as subject complement.It was he who caught the winning touchdown Friday night.It = subject; was = linking verb; he = pronoun as subject complement.Brandon becomes embarrassed when people compliment his skill.Brandon = subject; becomes = linking verb; embarrassed = adjective as subject complement.Brandon's face will turn red.Face = subject; will turn = linking verb; red = adjective as subject complement. [Will turn is linking because if you substitute this verb with an equal sign, the sentence still makes sense.]

ATRIBUTEAn attribute of an object usually consists of a name and a value; of an element, a type or class name; of a file, a name and extension. Each named attribute has an associated set of rules called operations: one doesn't add characters or manipulate and process an integer array as an image object— one doesn't process text as type floating point (decimal numbers).It follows that an object definition can be extended by imposing data typing: a representation format, a default value, and legal operations (rules).

THEMATIC ROLES

AGENTAgent grammar the participant of a situation that carries out the action in this situation; also the name of the thematic role (also known as the thematic relation) Agent noun (or nomen agentis), word that is derived from another word denoting an action, and that identifies an entity that does that action.

  THEME

A theme is the central topic, subject, or concept the author is trying to point out, not to be confused with whatever message, moral, or commentary it may send or be interpreted as sending regarding said concept. While the term "theme" was for a period used to reference "message" or "moral", literary critics now rarely employ it in this fashion,[citation needed] namely due to the confusion it causes regarding the common denotation of theme: "[t]he subject of discourse, discussion, conversation, meditation, or composition; a topic."[1] One historic problem with the previous usage was that readers would frequently conflate "subject" and "theme" as similar concepts.

EXPERIENCERDefinition Experiencer is the semantic role of an entity (or referent) which receives accepts experiences, or undergoes the effect of an action.

Discussion Normally an experiencer is an entity that receives a sensory impression, or in some other way is the locus of some event or activity that involves neither volition nor a change of state.

Examples (English) He was scared. Lucretia saw the bicycle. It was Bill who smelled the bacon first. The explosion was heard by everyone.

  BENEFICIARY

Definition A beneficiary is the semantic role of a referent which is advantaged or disadvantaged by an event.Example John sold the car for a friend.

 

INSTRUMENTDefinition Instrument is the semantic role of an inanimate thing that an agent uses to implement an event. It is the stimulus or immediate physical cause of an event.Discussion Instrument words are usually nouns occurring in the noun phrase of a clause: Someone cut the bread with a knife.

Examples The cook cut the cake with a knife. She used a crayon to scribble a note. That window was broken by a hammer.

  Agent: A participant which the meaning of the verb specifies as doing or causing

something, possibly intentionally. Examples: subjects of kill, eat, hit, smash, kick, watch.

  Patient: a participant which the verb characterizes as having something happen to it, and

as being affected

by what happens to it. Examples: objects of kill, eat, smash but not those of watch, hear, love.

  Experiencer: A participant who is characterized as aware of something. Examples: subject

of love, object of annoy.   Theme: A participant which is characterized as changing its position or condition, or

as being in a state or position. Examples: objects of give, hand, subjects of walk, die.

  Location: The thematic role associated with the NP expressing the location in a

sentence with a verb of location. Examples: subjects of keep, own, retain, know, locative PPs.

  Source: Object from which motion proceeds. Examples: subjects of buy, promise,

objects of deprive, free.

TENSES

SIMPLE PRESENTUse the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is repeated or usual. The action can be a habit, a hobby, a daily event, a scheduled event or something that often happens. It can also be something a person often forgets or usually does not do.

The Simple Present can also indicate the speaker believes that a fact was true before, is true now, and will be true in the future. It is not important if the speaker is correct about the fact. It is also used to make generalizations about people or things.

  Examples: •I play tennis. •She does not play tennis. •Does he play tennis? •The train leaves every morning at 8 AM.

PRESENT PROGRESSIVEThe present progressive is formed by combining the verb "to be" with the present participle. (The present participle is merely the "-ing" form of a verb.)

Examples: I am studying.

I am studying with María. In English, present progressive can be used to

describe what is happening now, or what will happen in the future.

PRESENT PERFECTUse the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet.

  SIMPLE PAST

FORM [VERB+ed] or irregular verbs

Examples: •You called Debbie.

•Did you call Debbie?•You did not call Debbie.

SIMPLE FUTURESimple Future has two different forms in English: "will" and "be going to." Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings. These different meanings might seem too abstract at first, but with time and practice, the differences will become clear. Both "will" and "be going to" refer to a specific time in the future.

  FUTURE PERFECT

Future Perfect has two different forms: "will have done" and "be going to have done." Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Perfect forms are usually interchangeable.

FORM Future Perfect with "Will" [will have + past participle]

Examples: •You will have perfected your English by the time you come back from

the U.S.•Will you have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.?•You will not have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.

SENTENCE TYPES

DECLARATIVES:Noun 1. declarative - a mood (grammatically unmarked) that represents the act or state as an objective fact

common mood, declarative mood, fact mood, indicative, indicative moodmodality, mood, mode - verb inflections that express how the action or state is conceived by the speaker Adj. 1. declarative - relating to the use of or having the nature of a declarationasserting, declaratory interrogatory, interrogative - relating to the use of or having the nature of an interrogation 2. declarative - relating to the mood of verbs that is used simple in declarative statements; "indicative mood"indicativegrammar - the branch of linguistics that deals with syntax and morphology (and sometimes also deals with semantics)

INTERROGATIVESInterrogatives – Definition, examples, sentence structure, and usage If you listen to an every day conversation, you’ll notice the exchange isn’t simply statements of facts or ideas. Of course, these types of statements (called declarative sentences) are part of the dialogue, but unless the conversation is entirely one-way, chances are you’ll also hear requests or commands (imperative sentences), exclamations (exclamatory sentences) or questions (interrogative sentences). That’s how normal dialogue occurs and in order for your writing to be engaging and interesting, you need to do what comes naturally in every day language.Sentences that ask a question are called interrogative sentences. They’re easy to spot -they always end with a question mark (?). But it’s not quite as simple as that. All interrogative sentences are not the same.There are 4 types of Interrogative sentences.

1.Yes/No interrogatives 2.Alternative interrogatives. 3.Wh-interrogatives

IMPERATIVESImperatives are used for giving orders, encouraging people to do things, making suggestions and following instructions.

  EXCLAMATIVES

Definition: Exclamative sentences are used to make exclamations. These are also referred to as exclamative sentences or exclamatives. These are used to express strong feelings, strong emphasis or emotion.Exclamative sentence can begin with "what" or "how"

For example •What a naughty dog he is! •What an amazing game that was! •How well everyone played! FABIOLA BARRETO