moral deficiencies in global governance by adam mostafa

Running head: MORAL DEFICIENCIES IN GLOBAL GOVERNANCE 1

Moral Deficiencies in Global Governance

Adam Mostafa

National University

MORAL DEFICIENCIES IN GLOBAL GOVERNANCE 2

Abstract

Global governance is a term used by many academics to describe the interwoven

relationships of banks, corporations, governments, media, and the global economy. Poverty, debt

and environmental abuse are all globally salient phenomenon. Defining the beneficiaries of the

global economic and media systems as leaders of the world, and defining the world as an

organization, this manuscript asks the question: Is global governance lacking morality and

ethics? This paper will seek to answer this question through the exploration and comparison of

the effects of their leadership with academic research and the moral and ethical leadership

principles set forth in both the Bible and the Qur’an.

Keywords: God, morality, ethics, organization, leadership, religion, economics,

environment, responsibility, debt, interest, power, wealth, poverty, inequality, disaster.

Chapter One

The world has evolved into a complex structure. A structure that has manifested itself as

an interconnectedness that has never, that we currently know of, been experienced throughout

history. Electronic and satellite communications, the internet, and a widespread increase of

means by which to travel have “opened up” the world. High-speed trains, cars, trucks, various

types of aircraft, both small and large, are available to anyone who has the currency to purchase

a ticket. Many people are no longer limited to reading the works of authors or hearing stories of

what were once far away, unreachable places, they can now observe for themselves. According

to Statista (2014), there were 1.04 billion tourist arrivals worldwide in 2012, and that number is

expected to almost double by 2030. Even without the ability or desire to travel, if someone has

an internet connection, they can see and read about those places without ever leaving their own

country, city or couch. The International Telecommunications Union (2015) estimates that in


2015, a little less than half of the world’s population, 3.2 billion, has an internet connection. The

pages of the book that is the world are now available for many citizens of earth to read.

Leaders of the organization

The Business Dictionary defines a leader as “A person or thing that holds a dominant or

superior position within its field, and is able to exercise a high degree of control or influence

over others” (2015). An organization, depending on its structure, normally has a top, and it has a

bottom. In terms of the world, its structure has been organized in various ways and for various

purposes. But what is an organization? The Law Dictionary defines an organization as “A group

of people, structured in a specific way to achieve a series of shared goals” (What is

Organization?, n.d.). Now, one could honestly argue that within this world there are many

organizations, which have sub-divisions and that there are even smaller organizations below the

larger organizations. However, throughout this earthly structure in the human realm there is a

pervasive, overarching organizational structure.

Much research and media coverage has been focused on the so-called “1%,” coverage

which has undoubtedly stirred unrest and caused many citizens of various nations to express

frustration at their own governments. The latest data according to Shorrocks, Davies and

Lluberas (2015), however, shows that the “1%” has actually decreased to 0.7%, this smaller

percentage holding 45.2% of global wealth. For many people in the United States, this income

disparity was magnified by the Occupy Wall Street movement which began in 2011 amidst

unprecedented government bailouts of extremely wealthy bankers, with tax-payer money. In a

recent article from the online publication CounterPunch, Gupta (2015) described Occupy Wall

Street “As the first radical movement of the 21st century in the United States, Occupy revived

confrontational politics. . .” (para. 6). Protesters in New York took to the streets and occupied


public property, expressing their concern and disdain for what they perceived to be an unfair and

unequal distribution of wealth. Some considered the movement a success, due to its widespread

media and social media coverage which allowed its grievances to enter into the consciences of

many United States and global citizens. Gupta (2015) states that from the initial Occupy Wall

Street movement, many other activists and concerned citizens were reminded that they could air

their grievances towards injustice through protest. Three years later, in 2014, the United States

witnessed a strong resurgence of similar and notable protests, albeit for different causes. Even so,

with the above statistic showing the global disparity in income being driven into the hands of an

even smaller group of people, some may wonder what success actually is.

It may be true that much of what people consider to be “wealth” is concentrated amongst

a small group of people, but simply knowing that does not in any way alleviate any issues that

are products of that phenomenon’s existence. Furthermore, expressing frustration at one’s own

government in certain forms (vandalism, rebellion and violence) can most definitely destroy a

community and also be utilized as a tool to destabilize an entire country, further empowering

whatever entity it is that seeks to maintain wealth, power, and control over the overarching

structure. This misdirected frustration further perpetuates the existence of the controlling entity

at the top of the human organizational structure.

Reality Controllers

One’s view of the world is absolutely shaped by the way the information one accepts

pertaining to the world is presented, and by who presents it. A map is one way that many people

become familiar with the geographical structure, or layout, of the world, along with the borders

that are drawn onto the map. As with many sources of information, maps are produced with the

interests of their producers in mind, and are most definitely vulnerable to changes. Changes that


can be demanded from a variety of circumstances. Throughout documented history, many maps

existed that ultimately became obsolete due to wars, changes in power, unification (or dividing)

of territories, and even changes in scientific beliefs. Most importantly, however, is who authors

the map. Who gets to authoritatively define, to the rest of the world, the geographic landscape

and borders of the nations of the world? Jacob (1996) defines maps as “. . .carriers of an image of

the external reality of the world. . .” (p. 191). If this definition is correct, the implication is that

the makers of the maps influence the perceived reality of those who use their maps as a frame of

reference. Furthermore, if one can organize the earth itself onto a map, that alone inherently

depicts the world as an organization.

Maps, however, can be thought of as a metaphor for the ways in which reality can be

defined by those who exercise control over the flow of information to a given audience. In

today’s world, reality is defined in many ways, across many platforms. Whereas the flow of

information concerning the world used to be limited to only a select few senders and receivers,

the internet and television have increased the amount of both. Discussing this phenomenon,

Castell (2008) states that “New information and communication technologies, including rapid

long-distance transportation and computer networks, allow global networks to selectively

connect anyone and anything throughout the world” (p. 81). Quite some time before media and

technology were as widely accessible and pervasive as Castell (2008) describes, theorists were

questioning the effects that the media could have on a society. In 1972, McCombs and Shaw

began developing the theory of Agenda-Setting. Agenda-Setting Theory refers to the ways in

which the media can focus the attention of media viewers onto certain issues, making them more

prominent in their minds. In other words, the more attention the media gives a certain issue, the

less attention another issue may receive, all by conscious design on the part of the media content


creators. McCombs and Shaw (1972) state that “In choosing and displaying news, editors,

newsroom staff, and broadcasters play an important part in shaping political reality” (p. 176). If

one were to apply this hypothesis to today’s technological world of non-stop media content

(news and “entertainment”), to the naked eye it would seem like trying to make sense out of an

enormous, multicolored paint splattering on a wall. On the contrary, however, there is a method

to the madness. Bishop (2015) states that 90% of American (United States) media outlets are

owned by six corporations. That figure is similar to the disparity in global wealth distribution, in

that the control belongs to a few. The vast reach of the media and its ability to influence the

beliefs and perspectives of such an enormous amount of people, by definition, qualifies the

collective media as a leader. Without doubt, the owners of these corporations, and the

corporations themselves, are also among the world’s wealthiest. Moreover, the mainstream

media corporations do not turn the public’s attention to many issues concerning the global

financial institutions discussed in this paper in ways that show their true impacts around the

world. These omissions by the mainstream media suggest that, according to McCombs and

Shaw’s (1972) theory of Agenda-Setting, they as leaders do not place great importance on setting

this agenda for their consumers to think about. So what consequences can arise as a result of this

behavior? Castells (2006) states that “Without an effective civil society capable of structuring

and channeling debates over diverse ideas and conflicting interests, the state drifts away from its

subjects” (p. 78).

Banks and Business

Thomas (2001) uses the term global governance in reference to the economic governance

and political power which the World Trade Organization (WTO), the World Bank Group, and

the International Monetary Fund (IMF), among others, oversee. Acknowledging this


responsibility, Thomas (2001) states that “Global management assumes a common

understanding of a particular problem and an agreement about how it is to be addressed” (p.

170). But what exactly do these organizations do? Discussing the WTO, Jackson (2008) says that

it “. . .is often described as the most powerful international juridical institution in the world

today” (p. 437). Jackson (2008) traces the history of the WTO back to the formation of the

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), whose name explains, generally, what its

purpose was. It seems that as world trade began to increase, governments and businessmen

recognized their own need for some kind of codified framework, or law, to govern their disputes

amongst each other. Free from, or above, public input. As stated above by Jackson (2008), the

WTO is a legal organization, a court, and in relation to trading he states that it is arguably the

most powerful legal organization in the world. A legal organization that elevates certain business

disputes between participating countries (and their corporations) above their domestic legal

constraints and processes, and puts them before a stateless legal body whose framework has been

agreed on, to varying degrees, by all participating parties.

Feinberg (1988) states that originally, the IMF and World Bank were one entity known as

the Bretton Woods institutions. Feinberg (1988) also states that they only split to complement

one another’s ideological differences in approaching business (banking). Discussing the primary

difference between the IMF and the World Bank in 1941, Harry White (as cited in Feinberg,

1988) stated that “The Fund is designed chiefly to prevent disruption of foreign exchange and to

strengthen monetary and credit systems and to help in the restoration of foreign trade. . . “ (p.

546). The IMF and World Bank are both banks, their only difference being how and who they

provide services too, and when. This is proven by White’s (as cited in Feinberg, 1988)

description of the World Bank in contrast to the IMF, saying “. . .the Bank is chiefly designed to


supply the volume of capital to the United Nations and Associated Nations that will be needed

for reconstruction, for relief, and for economic recovery” (p. 546). Both of these quotes were

taken from a man who Feinberg (1988) refers to as one of the “founding fathers” (p. 546) of the

IMF and the World Bank. In terms of the World Bank, White seemed to have a clear foresight of

impending disasters, both environmental and economic.

The island nation of Haiti provides an insightful and interesting example of how the IMF,

the World Bank, a transnational corporation, and a foreign power can interact with a smaller,

more economically and militarily vulnerable country, before and after a disaster. According to

Gimenez (2011), in 1991 the first democratically elected president of Haiti was removed in a

military coup supported by the United States. “As a condition for supporting his return, the U.S.,

IMF and World Bank required that he further open up the Haitian economy to foreign trade”

(Gimenez, 2011, para. 7). With the strength of a powerful military and government supporting

them, two banks were able to establish and negotiate the conditions upon which an ousted

president could return to office. An article in La Via Campesina (2010) states that after this, Haiti

was forced to depend on foreign imports of a crop (rice) that they previously grew in abundance

themselves. Furthermore, after an earthquake devastated Haiti in 2010, the transnational

corporation Monsanto “. . . announced that it had delivered 60 tons of hybrid seed maize and

vegetables to Haiti, and over 400 tons of its seed (worth $4 million). . .” (La Via Campesina,

2010, para. 3).

Controlling and managing the flow of business, media content, and money at the global

level is most definitely an enormous responsibility that qualifies one as a leader. Especially in

cases where this management is supported by threats of economic pressure and military force.

Keeping the map metaphor in mind, one has to contemplate the view of the world as seen by


humans within organizations who are responsible for managing its wealth. A publication from

MIT called The Thistle (2000) states that “It is important to realize that the IMF and World Bank

are tools for powerful entities in society such as trans-national corporations and wealthy

investors” (para. 17). If the proposition put forth by The Thistle (2000) is true, which the

situations in Haiti clearly prove, then one could assume that the owners, operators, and

beneficiaries of large corporations and banks are the human leaders of the world. What other

powers could they possibly have to not be considered the leaders of the organization that is the

world?

Global Wealth and Poverty

According to the Population Reference Bureau (2011), in 2011 the global population

reached seven billion people on the planet earth. According to many sources, this has never

happened before. Regardless, seven billion people is a staggering number. The latest statistics

from the World Bank Group (2015), say that in 2011 2.2 billion people lived on less than $3.10

per day. Over 25% of the world's population lives on less than the cost of one gallon of gasoline

for an automobile in the United States. So, every gallon of gasoline pumped into a vehicle in the

United States is equivalent to the total daily available income of one of the unfortunate 2.2

billion people, who, according to some of the monetarily and materially wealthiest people in the

world (World Bank, 2015), will not be as poor as they are now, or as they used to be, in another

15 years. Furthermore, Shorrocks, Davies, & Lluberas (2015) report that less than one percent of

the world’s adult population hold almost half of the world’s wealth. The disparity of global

wealth is too great to overlook. Global wealth distribution is beyond unequal, and the

concentration of wealth among an extremely small percentage of people is not correlated, but is

the human cause of global poverty. If there were only twenty dollars and two people on the entire


earth, and one person had 19 dollars and the other person had one, who of the two would be

responsible for the disparity in dollars?

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

Morality and ethics, although having tangible and visible applications and effects, are

themselves abstract ideas that could be derived from a number of sources or belief systems. With

this idea in mind, a literature review follows that explains the foundations of this paper’s moral,

ethical, and academic framework. Sources of statistical and definitional value are omitted from

this literature review.

Maps & Media

Jacob (1996) sought to address the cultural connections between maps and the conditions

of the societies they were created in as well as how maps can be used as what he called

instruments of power. To the extent that maps can, and are, used as instruments of power and

persuasion, cartography is not merely a novel field of research. Maps are used to plan and

execute wars. Jacob exhaustively examines numerous aspects of maps and how they can be

viewed. Even to someone unfamiliar with cartography, this article could provide valuable

perspectives and ignite an interest in that area of study.

McCombs and Shaw (1972) conducted a study of the opinions of media viewers in

relation to the topics that the news media put forth regarding political campaigns. What

McCombs and Shaw sought to illuminate was how the media was able to influence what media

viewers considered to be salient topics. McCombs and Shaw (1972) termed this phenomenon

“Agenda-Setting.” They postulate that media viewers are, in essence, told what to think about by

the media. For example, McCombs and Shaw (1972) state that “They apparently learn,

furthermore, in direct proportion to the emphasis placed on the campaign issues by the mass


media” (p. 177). Since the inception of the Agenda-Setting Theory by McCombs and Shaw in

1972, much research has been done regarding its significance, prevalence, and its impact on

society.

Global Governance

“The major beneficiaries of neoliberalism are large trans-national corporations and

wealthy investors” (The Thistle, 2000, para. 1). This article from MIT asserts that the two of the

largest financial institutions in the world, the IMF and World Bank, are merely tools of control

and financial oppression. The Thistle (2000) article begins by speaking about massive protests

that were taking place in Prague against these institutions. Around the same time in Seattle, a

well-documented and researched protest took place against the World Trade Organization

(WTO) as well. The Thistle (2000) article goes on to claim that neoliberalism coupled with the

seemingly unchecked reach of global financial organizations is extremely harmful to not only the

economies of both developing and developed countries, but to their environments as well. Gupta

(2015) uses a more recent example of similar protests that took place against the same

organizations, Occupy Wall Street in 2011. Gupta (2015) challenges the notion that the Occupy

Wall Street movement was a failure. On the contrary, Gupta (2015) does state the Occupy Wall

Street Movement had no clearly defined goals. Gupta (2015) then goes on to discuss in-depth

some of the protests that he says were birthed from the Occupy movement which were successful

in enabling change within the current system. Gupta (2015) ends his article with what seems to

be a challenge to activists, by asking “will they settle for reform when they came to have a

revolution” (para. 14).

In Feinberg’s (1988) article regarding the IMF and World Bank, the distinction between

the responsibilities of the two organizations is examined. Feinberg (1988) states that, at the time


of his article, the distinction between the two was not clear enough for him, and that he needed to

clarify what their areas of interest were. Feinberg (1988) begins by introducing the roots of both

the IMF and World Bank and summarizing what some of the founders, at that time, insisted that

their individual responsibilities would be. Jackson (2008) focuses on the WTO, but specifically

dissects and exposes what he believes is the extraordinary power of the dispute resolution

processes of the WTO which are mandatory for all participating countries. Jackson (2008) states

that a country who has more power is most definitely favored in these processes. For example,

using a hypothetical dispute resolution process between two countries between which there is an

unequal balance of power, Jackson (2008) states that “Foreign aid, military manœuvres or

retaliatory import restrictions on other key goods would figure in the negotiation” (p. 439).

Castells (2008) discusses the intersection of modern communication and global

governance. From the very beginning of Castell’s (2008) article he builds, block by block, a well

structured argument. Castells (2008) defines the public sphere, civil society, global civil society,

global communication, and how they interact in an emerging world of global governance.

Castells (2006) believes that if the public is not included in communication processes of interest

to global (or national) governance, “the whole system of representation and decision making

comes to a stalemate” (p. 79). Focusing directly on global governance itself, Thomas (2001)

asserts that at the core of the global governance agenda should be what she terms human

security. Thomas (2001) argues that material sufficiency is the key to human security. Thomas

(2001) illustrates many shameful global statistics concerning poverty, education, and women’s

rights, and showcases who Thomas asserts are the leaders of the global governance agenda,

listing their names and locations. The World Bank, IMF, and the WTO are included in Thomas’

(2001) list.


Haiti

In Gimenez’ (2010) Huffington Post article regarding the 7.0 earthquake that devastated

Haiti, Gimenez seems to be standing on the metaphorical fence between condemning foreign

economic and military intervention, and supporting what he believes would be beneficial foreign

agricultural support. The distinction, however, seems to be between who the potential aid and

support would come from. Gimenez (2010) believes that the IMF and World Bank may have

viewed the earthquake in Haiti as an investment opportunity. Gimenez (2010) also describes

how, prior to the earthquake, a rebellion against the unjust distribution of food occurred as a

result of conditions imposed on Haiti by the IMF and World Bank. Exploring further, an article

from the International Peasant’s Movement La Via Campesina (2010) discusses how a

transnational corporation, Monsanto, actually did seize the opportunity of Haiti’s earthquake to,

literally not metaphorically, plant their seed(s). La Via Campesina (2010) states that although

Monsanto donated the seeds as what appeared to be charitable relief in the aftermath of the

earthquake, Monsanto donated the seeds to the government in order to be sold to the Haitian

farmers. La Via Campesina (2010) provides extensive evidence pertaining to how in many other

countries, once the Monsanto seed was introduced it destroyed the native crops and increased

farmer’s dependence on Monsanto.

Environmental Concerns

Hiers (1996) exhaustively details and gently analyzes numerous Biblical Verses that,

either implicitly or explicitly, show that God ordained for mankind to treat animals with respect.

Whether during sacrifice or even giving animals a break from working and sharing harvests with

them, Hiers (1996) clearly details what he believes is the Biblical proof of this Divine obligation

on mankind as inhabitants of God’s earth. Hiers’ conviction emanates from his writing, a


conviction which is fortified by extensive research and knowledge of the Scriptures. One could

argue with Hiers that, with the amount of animal sacrifices documented in the just the first five

Books of the Bible, at that time the general outlook on animals was much different. And Hiers

could reply that the amount of animal sacrifices during that time period were minimal in

comparison to the amount of animals that are now slaughtered worldwide strictly for human

consumption. Hiers (1996) also discusses the ways in which the Bible details how people should

treat the land, refraining from polluting or “defiling” the earth.

Gill (1999) also approaches the environment from a religious perspective, and although

he is Christian and believes in the Bible, his article is inclusive of quite a few religious traditions.

Gill (1999) believes that all human beings who have a reverence for the sacredness of life,

should extend that reverence to the earth as well. Gill (1999) does cite his own research that says

people who go to church are more likely to be altruistic, which is a questionable conclusion.

Questionable only because of the small scope of data many researchers are realistically able to

collect. Gill (1999) acknowledges this by saying that “A concern for other people is certainly not

a monopoly of churchgoers, but it does appear to be more common amongst them” (p. 414). Gill

(1999) does seem to be compassionate in his writing, and it shows in his willingness to

acknowledge other faiths and find a common thread between them all regarding life.

Morality and Ethics

In an extensive discussion and analysis of morality, Gert (2011) first divides morality into

two definitional categories: normative and descriptive (2011). It is interesting that Gert (2011)

asserts that some who adopt a normative sense of morality, do so free from religion. Gert (2011)

divides religious morality and non-religious (descriptive and normative) morality into those who

wish to do no harm as their sense of morality, and those who may or may not wish to do any


harm but also adhere to a religious code of morals. He does not specify a specific religion or set

of beliefs within a religion to make this distinction, however. Furthermore, he does not specify if

the people who have done harm in the name of their religion, of which he gives examples, and

considered it moral were properly following the religion. In any case, his exploration of morality

is in depth and otherwise takes into account many points of views. Examining ethics, Fieser

(2015) states that “Philosophers today usually divide ethical theories into three general subject

areas: metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics” (para. 1). Fieser proposes that from these

three angles one can view the past, the present and the future of ethics (morals), respectively.

Fieser then expands each category into living and abstract examples, citing various philosophers

and contexts.

Religious Texts

“The Qur’an is the concrete tangible Word of God. The Qur’an identifies itself to us and

tells us that God is its Author, as God tells us in Surah 55 verses 1 and 2: ‘God the Merciful has

taught the Qur’an’” (Zidan & Zidan, 1996, p. ix). Ahmad and Dina Zidan provide readers with

what may be the most outstanding translation of the Qur’an ever produced in the English

language. This may be due to the fact that Ahmad is a native speaker of Arabic, the original

language of the Qur’an, and Dina, his wife, is a native speaker of British English. The

combination of their linguistic comprehension of both Arabic and English shines through in the

text of the Qur’an in ways that other translations just do not do. Furthermore Zidan and Zidan

(1996) state that “We notice that many previous translations of the meaning of the Qur’an into

English have contained grievous errors and some non-Muslim translators have intentionally

distorted its meaning” (p. ix)


The translation of the Hebrew Bible by the Jewish Publication Society (JPS), referred to

as the Tanakh, “was made directly from the traditional Hebrew text into the idiom of modern

English” (1999, p. xv). According to the JPS (1999), this version of the Tanakh was the

culmination of decades of work which began at the end of World War II and ended in 1982. The

current JPS edition from 1999 is a revised edition of the previous work. The Tanakh consists of

the Books of Genesis through II Chronicles. Similar to the Qur’an by Zidan and Zidan, the

Jewish Publication Society puts forth a most excellent translation of the Hebrew Bible. However,

this version of the Tanakh is mostly laid out in a book format, and not separated verse by verse,

which can frustrate those with short memories seeking to quickly revisit certain passages.

Prophets

Emmet (1956) attempts to describe “the kinds of people we call prophets…” (p. 13).

Emmet does not specifically seek to legitimize the people who have been called Prophets, rather,

she explores the different characteristics of these people. Interestingly, Emmet also uses, though

not quite negatively, a borrowed definition of the role of a “criminal” in a society as a parallel

example to the way in which a Prophet may be received or looked upon by their own society.

Emmet (1956) uses examples from a wide and interesting variety of cultures, including the

Abrahamic Religion. Concentrating solely on the Abrahamic Faith, Waterman (1945) describes

how a number of Biblical Prophets delivered a certain message or criticism so clearly that there

was no room for unintentional misinterpretation. Waterman quotes the Prophets directly and uses

the actual contexts in which they made their statements as the proof of the clarity and directness

of their Messages. One of his most striking analyses is that of the Prophet Amos. Waterman

(1945) describes how Amos vigorously denounced the sacrificial killing of animals as a means to


please God. Waterman also refutes other literature which he believed misinterpreted, or softened,

the Message of Amos.

God chose Mohamed to be a Prophet as well, and delivered His Revelations to him

through the angel Gabriel, who taught Mohamed the Qur’an by recitation. That is why the Book

sent to Mohamed is called the Qur’an, which in English means recitation, or to recite. Many texts

outside of the Qur’an seek to illuminate who Prophet Mohamed was, and how he lived his life.

However, one need not look further than the Qur’an to learn these things. Throughout the Qur’an

God is speaking to Mohamed through the angel Gabriel about all aspects of his life, and

especially about matters of Faith. For example, in Qur’an 94:1-8, God says to Prophet Mohamed:

“Have we not comforted your chest for you; And relieved you of your burden; Which weighed

down your back? And raised your renown? Surely with hardship comes ease: Most surely, with

hardship comes ease. . .” (Zidan & Zidan, 1996, p. 596).

“On the prophets rested the hope of the future” (Geikie, 1883, p. 243). Geikie’s

enthusiasm cannot be ignored; it resonates strongly through his words describing the account of

the Prophet Elijah. It seems that what Geikie is doing is showing a deep reverence for the

courage and strength of Elijah, a courage that in his mind, was unmatched at its time. So much

so, that during Elijah’s time, he was able to deliver his Message against odds that many people of

today would cower before. Geikie discusses the little known historical origins of Elijah, his

physical characteristics and abilities, and the lasting impact his actions and words left on many

people.

Financial Considerations

Bonner (2005) examines Qur’anic Verses which discuss the obligation of all those who

submit to the will of God to practice various types of charity, called Zakat. Bonner also briefly


contrasts various texts outside of the Qur’an which do not place as much importance on Zakat,

texts which are widely perpetuated as accurate sources of historical fact and guidance. The

article concisely illustrates how the idea of Zakat can keep a community, as a whole, on a level

financial playing field by sharing with those in need on a consistent basis. Bonner concludes that

the Qur’an places poor people at the center of the “economic universe” of its adherents (2005).

Benthall (1999) also concisely examines the Qur’anic obligation of giving Zakat. Benthall

(1999) relies on firsthand knowledge gained from traveling to countries where Zakat is

considered obligatory and has been implemented as a social responsibility, discussions with

locals, and also on the literature of various figures who have put forth their own interpretations

of what Zakat is, or should be. Benthall also briefly contrasts this obligation with Biblical beliefs,

from both the New and Old Testament.

“The Hebrew Bible contains a thrice repeated prohibition against the taking of interest on

loans” (Meislin & Cohen, 1964, p. 250). After providing the Biblical Verses to support this

statement, Meislin and Cohen then explore the various ways in which each Verse has been

interpreted and the ways in which the varying interpretations have transformed into actual

economic practices. Investigating further, Meislin and Cohen examine pre-Exilic civilizations

such as Mesopotamia and Sumeria, which they believe could possibly be pre-cursors to the

manifestation of the Biblical prohibition on loan interest. In a scholarly discussion regarding

Islamic financial alternatives, a quote from Kuran, Benthall, & Maurer (2001) can be extracted

which is: “. . .the Qur’an categorically bans every form of interest, regardless of context. . .” (p.

28). This quote has purposely been taken out of context for this review. In the context of the

article, Kuran, Benthall, & Maurer state that this idea has been widely debated. However, in the

Qur’an itself, God makes very clear the repercussions of charging interest. Aside from this, the


article discusses specific financial transactions in the world and local business markets and how

they coincide, or conflict, with Qur’anic morals and values.

Chapter Three

Some people believe in God, some do not, and some believe there are multiple gods. This

paper is not a representation of the beliefs of every human on earth. It is also not a refutation of

the beliefs of those who do not believe in God or who believe that there are multiple gods.

People have free will to believe whatever they choose, free from any human consequences. With

respect for one another and respect for the beliefs that each follows, regardless if they contradict

one another, people should aspire to behave in a way that is the most representative of the

highest moral standard of their chosen belief system, if it has one.

The Books of Wisdom

The Scriptures and the Qur’an are Books that were revealed by God to His chosen

Messengers during times of great corruption and oppression. The Words of God were sent down

as guidance to people who needed help, who had lost their way, and as a warning to those among

them who were perpetrating heinous acts against the people and against themselves. The

Scriptures and the Qur’an are filled with accounts of people who, inspired by God, had to stand

up for what was right. For example, Geikie (1883) discusses the Prophet Elijah, saying ”He

shows how one man, strong in the support of God and the right, can by fearless courage and

absorbing zeal change the whole course of history in his time” (p. 243). Emmet (1956) further

illuminates the characteristics of these people, stating that “Prophets can of course be studied

historically and biographically as exceptional individuals, as critics, rebels, or reformers of their

societies” (p. 13).


In a modern world of ambiguity and blurring of lines, it may not be easy to see the

greater reality, the bigger picture that clearly shows the state of affairs and the foresight to

imagine their consequences. To those who believe in the guidance God has sent down, it is God

and only God who can bestow this vision upon whoever He chooses. Waterman (1945), referring

to Prophets, calls this vision ethical clarity. Waterman (1945) uses the Messenger Amos as an

example of a man who, contrary to the beliefs of the leaders and many people of his time,

denounced animal sacrifices and economic injustice. “Amos thus proclaimed an ethical God so

clearly that only ethical relations between men could assure divine favor; and nothing in his

words indicates that he recognized any other approach to God” (Waterman, 1945, p. 300).

Still, the Books are not merely inspirational stories. In a historical context, these Books

are historical lessons. In a modern context, when God’s principles are properly applied, these

Books have guided billions of people away from many detrimental habits and to a better way of

life, and kept others almost entirely away from what many consider to be a bad way of life. Some

scholars of morality and ethics would love to argue what good and bad is, that good and bad is

subjective or contextual, and that wrong and right is situational. Gert (2015) discusses this,

saying “. . .many anthropologists used to claim that morality, like law, applies only within a

society” (para. 5). That argument is the antithesis of a universal code of ethics or morality,

which Gert does acknowledge. Those scholars must not believe in a universal code of ethics,

they must believe that depending on where they are, and who is around, some things would be

permissible that would otherwise be intolerable, in their own opinion. On the topic of normative

ethics, Fieser (2015) postulates that ethical behavior “. . .may involve articulating the good habits

that we should acquire, the duties that we should follow, or the consequences of our behavior on

others” (para. 1). The Scriptures and the Qur’an have for ages fulfilled every requirement, and


more, of Fieser’s definition of ethical behavior in the context of normative ethics. Aside from

some modern scholars perpetuating contextual morality, who at their oldest were born in the

1900’s, the world had Divine Scriptures and Revelations sent down long before them that are

still followed (correctly and incorrectly) by billions of people.

Contrasting Values

Proverbs 29:7 of the Bible says that “A righteous man knows the rights of the poor; a

wicked man does not understand such knowledge” (Smith, 2015). As one walks or drives

through the world, they may notice something: a man or woman holding a sign, asking for

money. Any number of circumstances, be they self-inflicted or not, could have persuaded that

human being to have the courage to stand outside and ask strangers for money. They could be a

war veteran, or someone who had an unloving childhood so they turned to drugs or alcohol, a

victim of abuse, or even a runaway teenager. Furthermore, according to the US Human Rights

Network UPR Housing Working Group, “In no U.S. jurisdiction can a person working full time

at the federal minimum wage afford a one-bedroom apartment” (2014, p. 3). In any case, as one

passes by them they know none of these things, all they know is that that human being needs

something that they have. They may need food, water, or money. Maybe hundreds of people pass

them by, a few give them some change or a kind word. This happens every day, all around the

world. One has to ask their self, at what point (and how) did human beings become so

desensitized and insensitive to the needs of their fellow human beings? What is missing within

one’s self to manifest this absence of empathy? What are the spiritual effects of neglecting those

who need help? The Bible says to not understand the rights of the poor is wicked. One form of

charity that is mandated as obligatory by God in the Qur’an is Zakat. Bonner (1999) states that

“Zakat derives from the word zaka, which means to purify (also with the connotation of growth


or increase)” (p. 29). Maybe the only way to purify one’s self from the wickedness of ignoring

the poor as described in the Biblical Proverbs is to help those who need help.

The Qur’an and Bible

Qur’an, 34:39 - “Say, ‘My Lord extends and straitens His Bounty to whom He pleases of His

servants, and whatever you shall expend, He will replenish it and He is the Best of Providers’”

(Zidan & Zidan, 1996).

Proverbs, 28:6 - “Better is a poor man who walks in his integrity than a rich man who is crooked

in his ways” (Smith, 2015).

Exodus, 22:24 - “If you lend money to My people, to the poor among you, do not act toward

them as a creditor; exact no interest from them” (JPS, 1999).

Qur’an, 90:11-16 - “Yet he has not attempted the ascent; And how would you know what the

ascent is? It is the freeing of a slave, Or the feeding on a day of hunger. Of an orphan near of kin,

Or a needy one down in the dust.” (Zidan & Zidan, 1996).

Proverbs, 21:13 - “Whoever closes his ear to the cry of the poor will himself call out and not be

answered” (Smith, 2015).

Exodus, 23:6 - “You shall not subvert the rights of your needy in their disputes” (JPS, 1999).

Quran, 102:1-3 - “Rivalry for worldly gain distracts you, Until you visit the graves, No indeed,

you shall know.” (Zidan & Zidan, 1996).

Proverbs, 19-17 - “Whoever is generous to the poor lends to the Lord, and he will repay him for

his deed” (Smith, 2015).

Deuteronomy, 15:11 - “For there will never cease to be needy ones in your land, which is why I

command you: open your hand to the poor and needy kinsman in your land” (JPS, 1999).


Qur’an, 3:134 - “Those who spend (in charity) whether in prosperity or in adversity, who restrain

anger, and pardon people, and God loves the charitable” (Zidan & Zidan, 1996).

Discussion

Many people absentmindedly approach every issue or problem with the notion that

humans control even the smallest things. The Qur’an say that not even a leaf falls from a tree that

God does not know about (Zidan & Zidan, 1996). Humans are only responsible for their own

individual behavior. This behavior may be directed towards another human being, but ultimately

the result of that directed behavior reflects back onto the director. In terms of poverty and

charity, both the Qur’an and the Bible provide guidance on how to conduct one’s self in a

righteous way. For example, Bonner (2005) puts forth that “The Qur’an provides a blueprint for

a new order in society, in which the poor will be treated more fair than before” (p. 391). It is

difficult to imagine one Prophet, Messenger or righteous leader of any society or organization

who would perpetuate the neglect of the poor and needy during times of extreme wealth and

consumption. And without one inkling of a doubt, in all texts of the Abrahamic Religion, God

Commands all people to help those in need who live with less. Regarding the poor, God

Commands Moses in Deuteronomy 15:10 to tell his people, “Give to him readily and have no

regrets when you do so, for in return the Lord your God will bless you in all your efforts and in

all your undertakings” (JPS, 1999). King Solomon, in Proverbs 31:8-9 says, “Open your mouth

for the mute, for the rights of all who are destitute. Open your mouth, judge righteously, defend

the rights of the poor and needy” (Smith, 2015).

Along with extreme wealth and consumption, people and countries of the world are

burdened with extreme debt that accrues substantial interest. Once again, King Solomon says in

Proverbs 22:7, “The rich rules over the poor, and the borrower is the slave of the lender” (Smith,


2015). Meislin and Cohen (1964) stated concisely and clearly that God strictly prohibited loan

interest in the Bible. Some would argue that this prohibition only applies to certain people, but if

all people are descendants of Adam, who does that not include? Furthermore, in the Qur’an God

says that whatever anyone puts out seeking an increased return from the people, increases them

nothing with God (Zidan & Zidan, 1996). Kuran, Benthall, & Maurer (2001) say that many have

argued over whether the Qur’an categorically prohibits profiting from interest on loans, but from

reading the Qur’an and its principles it seems extremely clear. “O you who believe! Fear God

and relinquish whatever remains from usury if you are believers” (Zidan & Zidan, 1996, p. 47).

How can one truthfully argue that? McCarthy (2015), citing a 2015 study by the Mckinsey and

Global Institute, writes that “Since 2007, global debt levels have increased by $57 trillion,

reaching $200 trillion in total by the second quarter of 2014” (para. 1). God cautions those who

do not relinquish and forgive what they hold in interest against the people by saying, “But if you

do not, then be warned of a war from God and His Messenger, yet if you repent you shall have

your capital fairly” (Zidan & Zidan, 1996, p. 47).

Hiers (1996) says that “. . .major Biblical covenants leave no doubt that God was

understood to be concerned for the well-being of all life forms, not only for that of humans” (p.

131). If human beings are failing to maintain compassion and charity amongst themselves, than

the environment and its resources will most definitely suffer along with them. Discussing the

intersection of religion and environmentalism, Gill (1999) states that “Land is to be preserved

unharmed for the sake of life yet unborn - for generations upon generations upon generations” (p.

413). Gill (1999) refers to this human responsibility of environmental preservation as

“trusteeship” (p. 413). The Qur’an repeatedly informs us that God is truly the only Trustee, but

all of the Abrahamic Books teach that God created the heavens and earth in perfect harmony,


without any imperfections. Gill (1999) gracefully makes this point by stating that “For Jews,

Christians and Muslims God created the universe in love and brings order to what would

otherwise be chaos” (p. 413). But even if a human being decides to consider themselves a trustee

over the land that God created, why would they destroy the land that God subjected to them and

created perfectly? The Qur’an answers this question first by telling human beings that God has

power over all things, even corruption and disaster. Furthermore, God states in Qur’an 30:41 that

“Corruption has overtaken in land and sea, for what the hands of the people have earned, that He

may let them taste some of what they have done, in order that they may return” (Zidan & Zidan,

1996).

It may be that many people in the world do not want to believe in God anymore, and

maybe the life of this world has made many people forget about God. Or maybe the humans who

God has allowed to be in charge of the world’s wealth know that God has prescribed an

economic and environmental protocol for earth’s citizens to comply with, and have internally

accepted that they are going to be punished for disobeying, and have chosen to live in a way

contrary to God’s teachings, dragging many others into their delusion by various means.

Regardless, we all have a choice at the most personal level and in the smallest ways to help

ourselves by helping others, we can never help enough. “’Because of the groans of the plundered

poor and needy, I will now act,’ says the Lord. ‘I will give help. . .’” (JPS, 1999, p. 1119).


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