Lillard/Montessori:AModernApproach

ALSOAVAILABLEFROMSCHOCKEN

MontessoriToday:AComprehensiveApproachtoEducationfromBirthtoAdulthoodbyPaulaPolkLillard

Dr.Montessori’sOwnHandbook:AShortGuidetoHerIdeasandMaterialsbyMariaMontessori

TheMontessoriMethodbyMariaMontessori

Copyright©1972bySchockenBooksInc.

AllrightsreservedunderInternationalandPan-AmericanCopyrightConventions.PublishedintheUnitedStatesbySchockenBooksInc.,NewYork.DistributedbyPantheonBooks,adivisionofRandomHouse,Inc.,NewYork.OriginallypublishedbySchockenBooksInc.in1972.

PHOTOGRAPHICCREDITS

RichardMeyer:photographs2,7,11,12,17,19,takenattheWintonTerraceHeadStartClass,Cincinnati,Ohio;photographs6,8,9,16,26,takenattheXavierUniversityMontessoriClass,Cincinnati,Ohio;photographs4,10,13,14,takenattheSandsSchool,Cincinnati,Ohio;photographs5,15,18,20,21,23,takenattheMercyMontessoriCenter,Cincinnati,Ohio.JamesF.Brown:photographs3,24,25,takenattheXavierUniversityMontessoriClass,

Cincinnati,Ohio.

TerryArmor:photographs1,22,takenattheCincinnatiCountryDaySchool,Cincinnati,Ohio.

LibraryofCongressCatalogCardNumber78-163334eISBN:978-0-30776133-0

v3.1

TOMYHUSBAND,JOHN,

forhisencouragementandsupport,andtoourdaughters,Lisa,Lynn,Pamela,Angel,andPoppy,whomademanysacrificesfor“mother’spaper.”

THISBOOK isnotjustapopularintroductioninMontessorieducation.It isalsothat,ofcourse: a well-chosen and coordinated presentation of its basic principles andtechniques,precededbyahistoricalsurveyofitsvicissitudesintheStatesandaprefacegiving a flash of a classroom at work, and ending with some considerations of itspresent-day value plus a perspective of ongoing research. As such, it offers to anyeducated person wishing to know what’s what a condensed, all-around view of thewholefield,basedonreliable,well-documentedinformation.But its particular merit is its use for those working in the field of education and

related sciences. No serious person thus engaged will deny the influence of MariaMontessori’s ideas on modern thinking about the child and human development ingeneral.Themessageof thiswomanmust indeedhavebeen forcefulandprofound tohavehadthiskindofimpactwithoutlosingitsfreshnessuptothepresentday.Mrs.Lillardhassucceededinbringingitoverloudandclearforallwhocaretohear.

ShehasnotgivenintothetemptationofmanyauthorswritingonMontessorieducation—togivetheirowninterpretationof itortopresentits fundamentalfeaturestogetherwithready-madecriticisms.Shelets,asitwere,MariaMontessorispeakforherself.Thereaderscandrawtheirownconclusions.Consequently,thisbookcanberecommendedasanintroductionofMontessori’sideas

toallprofessionalsdealingwiththehumanbeing.Parentsandothereducatorsshouldreaditasamatterofcourse.It’sthebestinitsclass.

M.M.MONTESSORI

July1973

Preface

IN1961,aclose friendofminegavemeabooktoread,entitledMariaMontessori:HerLifeandWork,byE.M.Standing.IwasmostinterestedinthebookbecauseIknewmyfriendhaddeterminedherownchildrenmusthaveaMontessorieducationifatallpossible.Ididnotrememberever having heard of Montessori before, although after readingStanding’s book I think I must have read some of her work whilemajoringineducationatSmithCollege.Shewasnotpopularatthetime,but I’m certain I remember her ideas concerning playpens, children’ssleepinghours,and severalother ideas that impressedmeandwhich Ihadfollowedinraisingmyownchildren.Standing’sbookonMontessorididnotimpressme,however.Itstruck

me as outdated, not very well organized, and offensive in its neardeification of Montessori. More important, Montessori’s description ofthechildreninherschoolsseemedunrealistictome.Ihadbeenapublicschool teacher, and I could not reconcile her accounts of children’sbehaviorwithmyownexperience. IdismissedMontessoriasa turn-of-the-centuryItalianromantic,andfeltsomeconcernthatmyfriendwhohadnobackgroundineducationhadbeensoimpressed.At this point, William Hopple, Assistant Headmaster of Cincinnati

Country Day School, the private school that two of my childrenattended, visited the Whitby School in Greenwich, Connecticut. ThisschoolwasfoundedbyNancyMcCormickRambuschinthelate1950’s,and represents the initial re-introductionofMontessori toAmerica.Hewas so impressed by what he saw that he came back to Cincinnatidetermined tobeginaMontessori class for three-to six-year-olds inhisownschool.Becauseofmyrespectforhisjudgment,Idecidedtotakeanotherlook

atMontessori—particularlywithmy three-year-olddaughter inmind. Imet Hilda Rothschild, the Montessori teacher who was to direct theclass,andwasfavorablyimpressedbyher.WhenBillHoppleaskedifIwould serve as her assistant for the year, I agreed.My husband and I

thenenteredourchildintheclass, feelingthat, ifsomethinghappenedin theclassroomwedidn’t approveof,wewouldknow it immediatelyand could withdraw her. Like most parents, we are cautious when itcomestoourownchildren!What followed in the days ahead was beyond any imagining orexpectationIcouldhavehad.Thereweresixteenthree-andfour-year-oldchildrenintheclass,onlyfourofwhomweregirls.Theyhadnotbeenpre-selectedbytheteacher;infact,shehadnotseenthemuntilthedayschoolopened.Someofthechildrenhadspecialproblems.Perhapssomeof theparentswhowere interested in thisclasswere looking toanewformofeducation foranswerseither to their children’sproblemsor toinadequaciesinthemselvesasparents.What seemed so amazing tome that fall was the teacher’s constantreachingouttothechildren,andtheresponsesshearousedinthem.Shepersistently called them away from aimless, destructive, sometimeschaotic behavior, and toward something in themselves that seemed topull them together, to bring them into focus, and to free them for aconstructiveresponsetotheirworld.Becauseofthepersonalintegrationtheyachieved,theatmosphereintheclassroomwasspontaneous,joyful,andpurposeful.Therewasapeaceandfreedomfromtensiontherethatseemedtoreleasethechildrentolivetheirlivestothefullest.Theways inwhichMrs.Rothschildhelpedthechildrentocreate theuniqueenvironmentintheclassroomparticularlyimpressedme.Ishouldsay, firstofall, that she isanunusuallywiseandexperienced teacher.HavingtrainedunderDr.MontessoriinFranceandtaughtinMontessorischools there, she fled to theUnitedStateswhen theGermans invadedFrance inWorldWar II. In America, she became interested in specialeducation, receiving a master’s degree in this field from SyracuseUniversity. She had taught a variety of classes for young children fortwentyyearsbeforetakingarefreshercourseinMontessorieducationinthe United States, and becoming once again the teacher of a classrecognizedanddefinedas“Montessori.”Herapproachtothechildrenintheclassroomcouldbesummedupbyoneword—respect.Sheaccordedtothemthedignity,trust,andpatiencethat would be given to someone embarked on the most serious ofendeavorsandwhowas,at thesametime,endowedwiththepotentialanddesiretoachievehisgoal.Thereismuchlipservice,ofcourse,paid

intraditionaleducationtotheconceptofrespectingyoungchildren;yetit was obvious to me that what I was observing was something verydifferentfromanythingIhadseenbefore.Thisteacherseemedtohavetheknackofbeinginsideachild’sskin.Sheabsolutelyknewhowdeeplyhehadbeenhurtbysomeslightorhowfrustratedhefeltwhenhewasunabletomakehisneedsknown.Becauseshetrustedhisabilitytotellherwhatwastroublinghim,shewasconstantlyinalisteningstate,Nomatterhowoccupied shewaswithone individual child at a time, shewas alert to the others. The antennaewere always out.As one personobserved after watching her class, “Why, that woman has eyes in thebackofherhead!”She had an uncanny way of never letting herself get backed into acorner with children. No situation was allowed to deteriorate into ashowofauthorityinthe“It’syouorme”sense—abattlethechildmustalways lose and which causes him to lose some of his self-respect aswell. She was amaster of the light touch, and had amagical way ofappealing to the imagination and love of drama in young children aswell.Shecouldclosehereyeswhentheclassroomseemedtoborderonthechaoticside,perhapsturnoutthelightsandstandasastatuecaughtinaction,andeitherthroughsilenceorawhisperhelpthechildrentore-orient themselves so that theywerebothcalmerandmorealert to theworldoutsidethemselves.As she struggled in those early weeks to help the children developtheir potential for being in touch with themselves and involved withtheirenvironmentinameaningfulway,shewasoftendiscouraged,andwould express her concern tome. I,whowas so amazed at howwellthingsweregoing,couldn’timaginewhyshewassoupset.Bytheendofthe year I understood. While I thought things were going beautifullybecausetheclassroomwassosuperiortoanyof thoseIhadeverseen,shehadinmindwherethingsweregoing—andthatfalltheywerestillalong way off. It really wasn’t until two years later, when the oldestchildrenhadbeenintheclassforthreeyears,thatitseemedtoreachanoptimalfunctioning.Thisseemsobvioustomenow,forIhaveseentherole the older Montessori children play in guiding, inspiring, andprotecting the younger, but Iwas ignorant of this phenomenon at thetime.Byspringofthefirstyear,thechildrenwerehappyandworkinghard.

IknewthenthatthiswasaneducationalapproachsuperiortoanyIhadseenbefore,andthatIwantedtosupportit.Ididnotknow,however,ifitwasMontessoriasamethodthathadimpressedmeorthisparticularlyexcellent teacher. Perhaps this was only her own interpretation,influenced as she had been by her work with crippled and retardedchildren,orbyhertwentyyearsofexposuretoAmericanchildrenafterher initial Montessori training. A method developed with Europeanchildren fifty years earlier might have needed a good deal ofinterpretationinordertobesuitableforAmericanchildreninthemid-twentieth century. Was the classroom that inspired me really aMontessoriclassroom?By chance, Helen Parkhurst, the teacher of the gold medal-winning

Montessori classroom at the San Francisco World’s Fair before WorldWar I,was inCincinnati in1964.Shewasvisitingaclose friend,MissMary Johnston, with whom she had traveled to Italy to learn aboutMontessori’sworkin1913.MissParkhursthadstayedontobecomeoneof Montessori’s most important teachers, and the woman MontessorientrustedtodirecttheintroductionofhermethodtotheUnitedStatesinthe years following the World’s Fair. After an hour or so in theobservation room, I asked her my question: “Was this a Montessoriclassroom?”Heranswerwasdirect.“ThisisaMontessoriclassroom,anditisthebestoneI’veseeninalongtime.”IknewthentheapproachtochildrenIhadsoadmireddidindeedhaveaname,andthatIwantedtodirectmyenergiestowardsupportingandspreadingthisapproachwhereIcould.IworkedintensivelyforthenextfewyearsforMontessoriprogramsin

the Cincinnati community: a teacher-training program, Head Startclasses, a public school class for graduates of Head Start, a six-yearresearchprogram.IalsosawotherMontessoriteachersandclassesinthecountry,andbecameawareoftheproblemsencounteredwhenattemptsaremadetotranslateidealsintoreality.IunderstandwhymanypeoplefindtheMontessoriclassroomtheyhappentovisiteithertoorigidortoopermissive,dependingontheteacher’spersonality,lifestyle,ortraining.IcanunderstandwhyJohnHolt(authorofHowChildrenFail,andoneoftoday’s best-known educational writers) is concerned about theunevennessofqualityinMontessoriclassroomsandtherelativeisolationofMontessori educators. In a letter tome inMarchof1971,hewrote

that he had seen Montessori schools he liked in places as diverse asCincinnati,Ohio;FortWorth,Texas;andStamford,Connecticut,butonlylastfallhehadseenaMontessoriclassinIndianawhichwas

amost tense andanxiousplace inwhich thenun in chargedefendedeverything shewasdoingby referring toMadameMontessoriherself.Theproblem,ofcourse,isoneof“image,”as they say, and perhaps your bookwill do a great deal tochange this. I remember saying when I spoke at the[AmericanMontessoriSocietyConvention]dinner fiveyearsagothatquiteliterallyallofthepeoplethatIknowwhowereinterested in libertarian education expressed astonishmentwhen I told them I was to speak at the Montessoriconvention. What was I doing with those people? Nothingmuchhashappenedsincethentochangethisimage.Thereisbynowaverylargemovementinlibertarianeducationwithallsortsofpublications,journals,etc.—abigcommunicationsnetwork,sotospeak.ItwouldbeeasyenoughforMontessoripeople to plug into this network and use it to speak theirpiece and clear up misunderstandings and misconceptionsabout their work, but it hasn’t been done. I wonder howmany Montessori schools know about the New Schools’Exchange Newsletter or are listed in their directory, orcorrespondwiththematall.Thatwouldhavebeenanidealplace for a running discussion in which some of thesemisunderstandingsmighthavebeenclearedup.Butperhapsyouaretheone,asIsay,toleadMontessorieducatorsoutofwhatIwouldcalltheirisolation…I suggested at the seminar that people consider droppingthelabelMontessorifortheirschools.Istillthinkitisagoodsuggestion.Thereissomethingalittlecultishabouthavingawholemovementnamedafterthefounder—asinthecaseoftheRudolfSteinerschools.Ithinkthatmostpeoplehavetheimpression of Montessori as of Steiner that they are ratheresoteric and that they feel as if they have some sort ofhammerlockonthetruth.Tocaricatureitalittle,somethinglike:“Whatisallthisfussabouteducation,we’veknownfor

yearsexactlywhattodo.Allyouhavetodoisfollowus.”

IhopeallfriendsofMontessoriwilltaketheconcernsofMr.Holtandothers like him seriously, for I think the danger of Montessori beingmisusedandmisunderstoodinanumberofdifferentwaysisarealonein1971.WeknowMontessori identifiedhitherto-undefinedqualitiesofchildnature:principally,theconstructionbythechildofhisowninbornpowers—a construction that takes place within him, hidden from ourview,andyetwhoseprocesswecanbealerttobycarefulobservationofhisouteractions;hisuncompromisingneed,andthereforedemand, forliberty;andhiscontributiontothewholenessoflifeasthe“otherpoleofhumanity.” These we can defend. But unfortunately Montessorians,justifiedornot,havedevelopedareputationofbeingunwillingtoacceptthe opportunity for growth that communicationwith others and open-mindednesstocriticismprovides.EdmundHolmeswrotein1913,

Orthodoxies—systemswhichhavecomeunderthepatronageand control of the average man—are always wrong. WhentheMontessori heresy becomes an orthodoxy, the period ofits decadence—as a system, not as a principle—will havebegun…ToregardasfinalthesystemwhichDr.Montessorihas elaborated would indeed argue a radicalmisunderstandingofherandofit.

Ihopethisbook,inwhichIhavetriedtoputtogetherinanorganizedway,andprincipally inherownwords, theessenceofMontessori,willinspire others to learn as much as they can about Montessori’scontribution so that those who can will go beyond it. Dr. Montessoriherselfgaveus thebestadvice to follow. InherconcludingremarksattheNinth InternationalMontessoriCongress inLondon,May1951, shesaid,“Thehighesthonorandthedeepestgratitudeyoucanpaymeistoturnyourattention fromme in thedirection inwhich Iampointing—TheChild.”

Acknowledgments

IAMMOSTGRATEFULforthegeneroushelpandadviceofMrs.HildaRothschildand theGraduateSchool staffofXavierUniversityand inparticular toMartha McDermott of Xavier and Sister Mary Jacinta of the MercyMontessoriCenter for theirhelpwithChapter5. Iamalso indebted toMildredMontgomeryandtheparentsofthechildrenintheSandsSchoolandWestEndPresbyterianChurchMontessoriclassesforthecommentson Montessori they contributed to Chapter 6. Without theencouragementandsupportofBarbaraFinbergofCarnegieCorporationofNewYorkandJohnHoltthisbookwouldnothavebeenwritten,andIowespecialthankstothem.IammostappreciativetoJudithElliottforthefinetypingandsecretarialhelp,andtoEdithWilliams,whohelpedmetokeepmyhouseholdgoingduringthesebusymonths.

Contents

Cover

OtherBooksbyThisAuthor

TitlePage

Copyright

Dedication

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Epigraph

1.HISTORICALINTRODUCTIONTOMONTESSORIMontessori’sEarlyProfessionalLifeTheCasadeiBambiniOtherMontessoriSchoolsFirstIntroductionintheUnitedStatesAnAmericanRevival

2.THEMONTESSORIPHILOSOPHYChildhoodasanEntityinItselfTheChild’sInbornPowersTheRoleofEnvironmentandFreedomThePsychicUnityofMindandBodyTheIntrinsicMotivationoftheChildTheSensitivePeriodsTheAbsorbentMindANewGoalforEducationTheNaturalLawsofDevelopment

3.THEMONTESSORIMETHODThePreparedEnvironmentPrinciplesoftheMontessoriMaterialsTheFundamentalLessonTheDevelopmentofActivity

CategoriesofMaterialsTheDevelopmentofCommunityLifeTheMontessoriTeacherTheMontessoriClassroom

4.MONTESSORIANDPARENTSTheParent’sMissioninSocietyTheParentandtheChildTheHomeEnvironmentTheGrowingConflictTheChild’sInstinctforWorkTheEstablishmentofFreedom

5.THEMONTESSORIAPPROACHAPPLIEDTOWRITINGANDREADINGTheIndirectApproachTheDailyLivingandSensorialExercisesLanguageDevelopmentMotorDevelopmentTheSoundGameTheSandpaperLettersTheMovableAlphabetTheMetalInsetsVocabularyEnrichmentTheTransitiontoWritingTheTransitiontoSynthesizationThePhoneticObjectGamePhonogramsand“PuzzleWords”TheFunctionofWordsSentenceAnalysisTheChild’sExpansionintoCompositionandAdvancedReading

6.WHYMONTESSORITODAYDevelopmentofHumanPotentialApproachtoWorkRelationshiptoNatureFamilyLifeTheInterdependenceofChildandAdultTheInnerCityChildPracticalProblemsofMontessoriARevolutioninEducation

APPENDIX:ResearchResults

NOTES

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Byeducationmustbeunderstoodtheactivehelpgiventothenormalexpansionofthelifeofthechild.

—MariaMontessori,THEMONTESSORIMETHOD,p.104

Scientificobservationthenhasestablishedthateducationisnotwhatthe teacher gives; education is a natural process spontaneously carriedoutbythehumanindividual,andisacquirednotbylisteningtowordsbutbyexperiencesupontheenvironment.

—MariaMontessori,EDUCATIONFORANEWWORLD,p.3

1HistoricalIntroductiontoMontessori

MARIAMONTESSORIwasbornintheprovinceofAncona,Italy,in1870.Whenshe was three, her parents moved to Rome in order that their onlydaughter might receive a better education. They encouraged her tobecomeateacher,theonlycareeropentowomenatthetime.However,Montessori was a women’s liberationist before her time, and wasdetermined not to accept a traditional woman’s role. She was firstinterestedinmathematics,anddecidedonacareer inengineering.Sheattended classes at a technical school for boys, but eventually becameinterested in biology, and finally determined to enter medical school.Her struggles for admissionarenot recorded, except that shewas firstrefused,andsubsequentlyaccepted,earningscholarshipseachyearandtutoringprivately to pay for a largeportionof her expenses. Thiswasimportant, as her father highly disapproved of her chosen career, andfinancial independencewas necessary in order for her to continue herstudies.In1896shebecamethefirstwomantograduatefromtheUniversity

of Rome Medical School, and joined the staff of the university’sPsychiatric Clinic. As part of her duties there, she visited the childrencommitted to the general insane asylums in Rome. She becameconvinced that these mentally deficient children could profit fromspecialeducation,andtravelledtoLondonandParis tostudytheworkoftwoearlierpioneersinthisfield,JeanItardandEdouardSéguin.Uponherreturn,theItalianMinisterofEducationaskedMontessorito

giveacourseoflecturestotheteachersofRome.Thiscoursedevelopedinto the State Orthophrenic School, and Montessori was named itsdirectorin1898.She worked with the children there for two years, basing her

educational methods on the insights she had gained from Itard andSéguin.Allday,from8:00A.M.to7:00P.M.,shetaughtintheschool,and

thenworked far into the night preparing newmaterials,making notesand observations, and reflecting on her work. These two years sheregarded as her “true degree” in education. To her amazement, shefound these children could learn many things that had seemedimpossible.Shewrote,

I succeeded in teaching a number of the idiots from theasylumsbothtoreadandtowritesowellthatIwasabletopresentthematapublicschool foranexaminationtogetherwith normal children. And they passed the examinationsuccessfully.…Whileeveryonewasadmiringtheprogressofmyidiots, Iwassearchingfor thereasonswhichcouldkeepthehappyhealthychildrenofthecommonschoolsonsolowaplanethattheycouldbeequalledintestsofintelligencebymyunfortunatepupils!Ibecameconvincedthatsimilarmethodsappliedtonormalchildren would develop or set free their personality in amarvelousandsurprisingway.

This conviction led Montessori to devote her energies to the field ofeducationfortheremainderofherlife.Toprepareforhernewroleasaneducator,Dr.Montessorireturnedtothe University of Rome to study philosophy, psychology, andanthropology. She made a more thorough study of Itard and Séguin,translating their writings into Italian, and copying them by hand. “Ichosetodothisbyhand,”Montessoriwrote,“inorderthatImighthavetimetoweighthesenseofeachword,andtoread,intruth,thespiritoftheauthor.”During this timeshealsomadeaspecial studyofnervousdiseases of children, and published the results of her researches intechnical journals. In addition, she servedon the staff of theWomen’sTrainingCollege inRome (oneof the twowomen’s colleges in Italyatthattime),practicedintheclinicsandhospitalsinRome,andcarriedonaprivatepracticeofherown.In 1904, she was appointed Professor of Anthropology at theuniversity,andcarriedonherotheractivitiesaswelluntil1907,whenheractivelifeasaneducatorbegan.Shewasaskedtodirectaday-carecenter in a housing project in the slum section of San Lorenzo, Italy.

Montessori accepted, seeing this as her opportunity to begin herworkwithnormalchildren.Shewastohavethecareofsixtychildrenbetweentheagesofthreeandsevenwhiletheirilliterateparentswereworking.Becauseofherotherduties,sheactedinthecapacityofasupervisortotheproject,hiringayoungservantgirltoserveastheteacher.

Montessoridescribedherpupilsas

tearful, frightenedchildren, so shy that itwas impossible toget them to speak; their faces were expressionless, withbewildered eyes as though theyhadnever seenanything intheirlives.Theywereindeedpoor,abandonedchildrenwhohadgrownup…withnothingtostimulatetheirminds.

A simple, bare room was provided for the children in an apartmentbuildingoftheproject.Thesparsefurniturewassimilartothatusedinanofficeorhome,andtheonlyeducationalequipmentwasthepiecesofsensorial apparatus Montessori had used with her mentally defectivechildren.Montessorisaysshehadnospecialsystemofinstructionshewishedto

testat thispoint.Shewantedonly tocompare the reactionsofnormalchildren to her special equipmentwith those of hermental defectives,and in particular to see if the reactions of younger childrenof normalintelligencewere similar to thoseof chronologicallyolderbut retardedchildren. She did not structure the environment for a scientificexperiment. She stated that the artificial conditions required forscientific experimentswould prove a great strain on her children, andwouldnotrevealtheirtruereactions.Instead,sheattemptedtosetupasnaturalanenvironmentaspossibleforthechildren,andthenreliedonher own observations of what occurred. She considered a naturalenvironmentforthechildtobeonewhereeverythingissuitableforhisage and growth, where possible obstacles to his development areremoved, and where he is provided with the means to exercise hisgrowingfaculties.Afterinstructingtheteacherintheuseofthesensorialapparatus,sheremainedinthebackground,andwaitedforthechildrentorevealthemselvestoher.Thattheywould,infact,doso,shehadnodoubts.Shebelievedthattheyoungchildis

at a period of creation and expansion, and it is enough toopenthedoor.Indeedthatwhichheiscreating,whichfromnotbeing ispassing into existence, and frompotentiality toactuality,atthemomentitcomesforthfromnothingcannotbe complicated … and there can be no difficulty in its

manifestation. Thus by preparing a free environment, anenvironment suited to this moment of life, naturalmanifestation of the child’s psyche and hence revelation ofhissecretshouldcomeaboutspontaneously.

Whathappenednext,Montessorisays,broughtheraseriesofsurpriseswhich lefther“amazedandoften incredulous.”Thechildrenshowedadegree of concentration inworkingwith the apparatuswhichwas notobservableinthementallydeficientchildrenattheInstitute,andwhichseemed astonishing in children so young. Even more astonishing, thechildrenseemedtobenotonlyrested,butsatisfiedandhappyaftertheirconcentratedefforts:

It took time forme toconvincemyself that thiswasnotanillusion. After each new experience proving such a truth, Isaidtomyself,“Iwon’tbelieveyet,I’llbelieveitnexttime.”ThusforalongtimeIremainedincredulousand,atthesametimedeeplystirred.

Thepatternthatledtothisphenomenonwaseachtimeobservedtobethesame.First,thechildwouldbegintouseapieceofapparatusintheaccustomedway.But, insteadofputtingtheequipmentawaywhentheexercise had been completed, the child would begin to repeat it. Hewould show “no progress in speed or skill; itwas a kind of perpetualmotion.” One childwas observed to repeat such an exercise forty-twotimes, and to be concentrating so deeply that she was oblivious todeliberateattemptstodisturbher,includingpickingherupinherchairandmovinghertoanotherpartoftheroom.Suddenly,fornoapparentreason,shewasfinishedwithhertaskandputtheequipmentaway.But“whatwas finishedandwhy?”questionedMontessori, andwhy shouldthe children actually be rested and appear to have “experienced somegreatjoy”aftersuchacycleofactivity?Asecondsurprisingphenomenon in thechildren’sbehavioroccurredquite by accident. The teacher was accustomed to distribute thematerials to the children. However, one day she forgot to lock thecupboardwheretheequipmentwaskept.Shearrivedattheclassroomtofind that the childrenhad already chosenwhatpieces theywished for

themselves,andwerebusilyatwork.Montessoriinterpretedtheincidentas a sign that the children now knew the uses of the materials, andwantedtomaketheirownchoice.Sheinstructedtheteachertoletthemdo this, and constructed low shelves so the materials would be moreaccessible to them. She noticed that they consistently left some of thematerials unused. She removed them, reasoning that the ones chosenmust represent to them some particular need or interest, and that theothers would only create confusion. Shewas quite surprised to noticethat the “toys” she had placed in the room were among those thingsvirtuallyuntouched.Theseshealsoeventuallyremoved.Other unexpected phenomena occurred. The children seemedindifferenttorewardsorpunishmentsrelatedtotheirwork.Theywould,in fact,often refusea rewardorgive itaway.Theyshowedan intenseinterestincopyingthesilenceofababybroughttoclassoneday.Fromthis experience, Montessori developed an “exercise of silence.” Itconsistedofcontrollingallmovementsandlisteningtothesoundsoftheenvironment. The children’s enjoyment in this group effort seemed toreflect some need for communication with each other and the worldaboutthem.Thefactthattheseyoungchildrenpossessedadeepsenseofpersonaldignityalsobecameapparent.Oneday,theyweresopleasedatbeing shown how to blow their noses, they burst into applause!Eventually the children began to demonstrate a newly developed self-possession. They greeted visitors, who were now coming in ever-increasingnumberstoseetheclassroom,warmlyandrespectfully.Theyseemed proud of their work and happy to show it to them. Theydemonstrateda senseofcommunityandconcern foreachother.But itwas the discipline, concentrated attention, and spontaneity of thechildren,evidentinthepeacefulatmosphereoftheclassroom,thatmostimpressedvisitors.Montessorisays,“Thiscouldneverhavecomeaboutif someone like a teacher teaching byword ofmouthhad called forththeirenergiesfromtheoutside.”There was one startling development of more direct academicsignificance.Montessorihadnotintendedtoexposechildrensosmalltoany activity bearing on writing and reading. However, their illiteratemothersbegan tobegher todo so. She finallygave the four-and five-year-olds some sandpaper letters to manipulate, and trace over withtheirfingers.Thechildrenwerequiteenthusiasticaboutthelettersand

wouldmarchabouttheroomwiththem,asiftheywerebanners.Someeventuallybegantoconnectsoundswiththeletters,andtotrytosoundoutandputtogetherwords.Soon,theyhadtaughtthemselvestowrite.Inaburstofactivitytheybegantowriteeverywhere.Theywouldreadthewordstheyhadwritten,butwereuninterestedinthoseanyoneelsehadwritten.Itwasanothersixmonthsbeforetheyseemedtounderstandwhat it is to read words. They then began to read with the sameenthusiasmthattheyhadwritten,readingeveryextraneousitemintheirenvironment—streetsigns,signsinshops,etc.Theyshowedlittleinterestin books, however, until one day a child showed the other children atornpagefromabook.Heannouncedtherewasa“storyonit,”andreadittotheothers.Itwasthenthattheyseemedtounderstandthemeaningofbooks.They began reading them with the explosion of energy they had

previously exhibited in writing and reading words encountered atrandom in their environment. The process was interesting on threecounts: one, the spontaneity and direction of this activity from thebeginning belonged to the children; two, the usual process, of readingprecedingwriting,wasreversed;three,thechildreninvolvedwereonlyfourandfiveyearsofage.In observing all these developments in the children, Montessori felt

she had identified significant and hitherto unknown facts aboutchildren’s behavior. She also knew that, in order to consider thesedevelopments as representing universal truths, she must study themunderdifferentconditionsandbeabletoreproducethem.Inthisspirit,asecond school was opened in San Lorenzo that same year, a third inMilan,andafourthinRomein1908,thelatterforchildrenofwell-to-doparents. By 1909, all of Italian Switzerland began using Montessori’smethodsintheirorphanasylumsandchildren’shomes.In these schools, Montessori found a significant and consistent

difference in the initial response of children fromwealthy homes andthose of poor families. The children of the poor, generally, respondedimmediately to the equipment offered them. The children who hadintelligent and loving parents to watch over them and had beensaturatedwithelaborate toys typically tooka fewdays toanumberofweekstopayanyrealattentiontothematerialsoffered.However,oncean intense interestwasaroused in thesechildren,phenomenabeganto

appear similar to those seen in the first Casa dei Bambini. First, thechildren’s cycle of repetition, concentration, and satisfaction wouldbegin.Itwouldleadtoadevelopmentofinnerdiscipline,self-assurance,and preference for purposeful activity. Montessori called this processwhichtookplaceinthechild“normalization.”Itappearedtoher,infact,to be the normal state of the child, since it developed spontaneouslywhentheenvironmentofferedthenecessarymeans.WordofMontessori’swork spread rapidly.Visitors fromallover theworldarrivedattheMontessorischoolstoverifywiththeirowneyesthereportsofthese“remarkablechildren.”Montessoribeganalifeofworldtravel—establishingschoolsandteachertrainingcenters, lecturing,andwriting. The first comprehensive account of her work, The MontessoriMethod,waspublishedin1909.In1929,shecouldwrite,

There is not one of the great continents in which[Montessori]schoolshavenotbeendistributed—inAsiafromSyria to the Indies, in China and in Japan; in Africa fromEgyptandMoroccointhenorthtoCapeTownintheextremesouth; the two Americas: in the United States and Canada,andinLatinAmerica.

MontessorimadeherfirstvisittotheUnitedStatesforabrieflecturetour in 1912. She was given an enthusiastic welcome, including areceptionattheWhiteHouse.ShegaveherfirstlectureatCarnegieHalltooverflowingcrowds,andstayedatthehomesofsuchfamouspeopleas Thomas Edison, who admired her work. An American Montessoriassociationwas formedwithMrs. Alexander GrahamBell as Presidentand Miss Margaret Wilson, President Woodrow Wilson’s daughter, asSecretary. So pleased was Montessori with her reception here shereturnedin1915,thistimetogiveatrainingcourseinCalifornia.DuringthisvisitaMontessoriclasswassetupattheSanFranciscoWorld’sFairandreceivedmuchattention.Montessori schoolswerestartedallover thecountry,oneof the firstbeingestablished inAlexanderGrahamBell’shome.A floodofarticlesonMontessorieducationappearedinthepopularpressandeducationaljournals. However, this initial burst of enthusiasm for Montessorigradually met with an equal torrent of criticism by those American

professionals who espoused the established psychological andeducational theories of the period. Most influential of these was thenoted professorWilliamKilpatrick. In 1914, he published a book,TheMontessori System Examined, in which he dismissed Montessoritechniquesasoutdated.Kilpatrick’sbook is important in thehistoryofMontessori in theUnited States, not only because it is credited as thestrongestsingleinfluenceindissolvingtheenthusiasmthathadgreetedMontessori in this country, but also because some of the areas ofdisagreement it outlined are the principal ones still being advanced.Kilpatrick himself was a man to be reckoned with in the educationalworld. A leading exponent of John Dewey’s philosophy, he was apopular and respected professor at Teacher’s College, ColumbiaUniversity.Whateverhehadtosaywaslikelytohaveaprofoundimpacton his fellow professionals. He addressed his small volume onMontessori to public school teachers and superintendents because hesaidtheywere

concernedtoknowthemeaningofthisagitation.…Theyarecritical, if not skeptical.…Theyare tolerant enoughofnewdogmaandexperiment,[butthey]wouldweigheveryitemofthe idealistic projects of radicals, and even of the practicalsuccessesofexperimentsbornamongthedifferingconditionsofforeignsoil.

Professor Kilpatrick based his evaluation of Montessori on her firstbook,TheMontessoriMethod,whichhadjustbeenpublished,andonaninvestigatingtriptoRometovisitclassroomsthere.Inaddition,hehadaprivateinterviewwithDr.Montessori.Her theories viewing the child’s nature as essentially good and

education as a process of unfolding what has been given the child atbirth,herbelief in libertyasanessential ingredient for thisunfolding,andherutilizationofsenseexperiencesinthisprocessofdevelopment,hesawas“containingagreaterorlessamountoftruth,”butneeding“tobestrictlyrevisedinordertosquarewithpresentconceptions.”Further,duetothefactthatoneoftheprimaryinfluencesonMontessori’sworkwasSéguin,amanwhoseworkwasfirstpublishedin1846,andthatshe“still holds to the discarded doctrine of formal or general discipline,”

Kilpatrickwrote, “we feel compelled to say that in the content of herdoctrine, she belongs essentially to the mid-nineteenth century, somefiftyyearsbehindthepresentdevelopmentofeducationaltheory.”KilpatrickfocusedhiscriticismofMontessoriontwoareas:thesocial

lifeof theclassroomand theMontessori curriculum.Therewasa tidalwaveintheearly1900’spushingAmericanthoughttowardviewingtheschool primarily as a place not for individuals to acquire intellectualknowledge,ashadbeentrueinthepast,butforthemtodevelopsociallifeandaction.Therewasa “world-widedemand that the school shallfunction more definitely as a social institution.” Kilpatrick criticizedMontessoribecause

she does not provide situations for more adequate socialcooperation.The Montessori child, each at his chosen task, works, as

stated, in relative isolation, his nearest neighbors possiblylookingon.[He]learnsself-reliancebyfreechoiceinrelativeisolation from the directress.He learns in an individualisticfashion to respect the rights of his neighbors.… It is thusclearly evident that in theMontessori school the individualchildhasunusuallyfreerein.

In contrast to this individualistic approach, Kilpatrick would “put thechildren into sucha sociallyconditionedenvironment that theywillofthemselvesspontaneouslyuniteintolargerorsmallergroupstoworkouttheirlifeimpulsesastheseexistonthechildishplane.”Kilpatrick was extremely critical of the materials Montessori

constructedforthechildren’suseintheclassroom.Heconsideredtheminadequate, because he found little variety in them and because theiraimwasnotsufficientlysocial.

The didactic apparatus which forms the principalmeans ofactivity in the Montessori school affords singularly littlevariety [and] by its very theory presents a limited series ofexactly distinct and very precise activities, formal incharacter and very remote from social interests andconnections.Sonarrowandlimitedarangeofactivitycannot

go far in satisfying the normal child.… The best currentthought and practice in America would make constructiveand imitativeplay, socially conditioned, the foundationandprincipal constituent of the program for children ofkindergartenage.

He also found fault with thematerials because he felt they did notstimulate the child’s imagination sufficiently. “On the whole, theimagination,whetherofconstructiveplayorofthemoreaestheticsortisbutlittleutilized”intheMontessoricurriculum,andthereforeit“affordsveryinadequateexpressiontoalargeportionofchildnature.”Although agreeing with Montessori’s concept of “auto-education,”Kilpatrickfoundit“moreawishthanafact”inhermethodbecause

it is too intimately bound upwith themanipulation of thedidactic apparatus.… Life itself and situations that arisetherefrom [give] abundant instances of evident self-education.…Thenearertheconditionstonormallifethattheschool can be brought, themorewill real problems presentthemselvesnaturally(andnotartificiallyatthesay-sooftheteacher).Atthesametime,thepracticalsituationwhichsetsthe problem will test the child’s proposed solution. This islife’sauto-education.

Kilpatrick was particularly critical of the sensorial materials in theMontessori curriculum. “The didactic apparatus—the most strikingfeatureofthesystemtothepopularmind—wasdevisedtomakepossibleapropertrainingofthesenses.”Hethenwentontodismissthisconceptoftrainingthesensorialpowersbecause“theoldnotionoftheexistenceof faculties of the mind and their consequent general training is nowentirely rejected by competent psychologists. We no longer speak ofjudgmentasageneralpowerofobservation.”Whatever isnecessary intermsof“concepts,suchashardness,ofheat,orofweight,etc.,comeinthenormallyrichexperienceofthechildlife;andconverselythosethatdo not so come are not then necessary.” The Montessori doctrine ofsensetraining

isbasedonanoutwornandcast-offpsychological theory.…Thedidacticapparatusdevisedtocarrythistheoryintoeffectis insofar worthless … What little value remains to theapparatus could be better got from the sense experienceincidental to properly directed playwithwisely chosen butlessexpensiveandmorechildlikeplaythings.

Kilpatrick had a “difficult interview” with Montessori because theinterpreterwasnotversedinpsychology,buthe“cameawayconvincedthatMadameMontessorihaduptothattimenotsomuchasheardofthecontroversyongeneraltransfer.”KilpatrickendedhisexaminationoftheMontessoricurriculumwithadiscussion of her academic materials, specifically her approach towriting,reading,andarithmetic.First,hefounditunnecessarytobeginthe foundation for these activities as early as three or four, as inMontessori practice. Therefore, it was not important to discuss howtheseskillsmightbepresentedtothechildundersix.Attheendofthesixthyearitwassufficientthatthechild

shouldhaveacertainuseofthemothertongue…reasonableskill,usingscissors,paste,apencilorcrayonandcolors.Ifheisabletostandinline,marchinstep,andskip,somuchthebetter.Heshouldknowenjoyablegamesandsongsandsomeof the popular stories suited to his age.He should be able,within reason, towait on himself in thematter of bathing,dressing, etc. Propriety of conduct of an elementary sort isexpected.Does any one question that knowledge and skill such asthiscanbegainedincidentallyinplaybyanyhealthychild?Indeed,sosatisfiedhavemanyparentsbeenofthispointthattheybelieveakindergarten courseunnecessary, feeling thathomelifesuffices.Withoutacceptingsuchaposition,wemayaskwhetheragroupofnormalchildrenplayingfreelywithafewwell-chosen toys under thewatchful eye of awise andsympathetic young woman would not only acquire all thisknowledge and skill andmore, but at the same time enjoythemselveshugely?Surely,toaskthequestionistoanswerit.

Forher efforts inmathematical apparatus,Kilpatrick found “there islittletobesaid.Abouttheonlynoveltyistheuseoftheso-calledlongstair.… On the whole, the arithmetic work seemed good, but notremarkable;probablynotequaltothebetterworkdoneinthiscountry.”As to Montessori’s approach to reading, he found its phonetic basisunsuitabletotheEnglishlanguage.

Any attempt tomeet these difficulties could but result in aplan identical with one or another of the quasi-phoneticmethods familiar enough to American primary teachers. Itthus turns out that the Montessori method of teachingreadinghasnothingofnoveltyinitforAmerica.TheappraisalofMadameMontessori’s contribution in the

caseofwritingisdifficult.Onthewhole,itappearsprobableshehasinfactmadeacontribution.OfhowmuchvaluethiscanprovetothosewhousetheEnglishlanguageisuncertain.Probablyexperimentationonlycandecide.

He closed his discussion of the academic materials by agreeing “withthose who would still exclude these formal school arts from thekindergartenperiod,”notbecauseitisdifficultforasix-year-oldtolearntoreadandwrite,

butthatthepresenceofthesetendstodiverttheattentionofparent, teacher, and child from other, and for the time,possiblymorevaluablepartsofeducation.Educationislife;itmust presume first-hand contact with real vital situations.The danger in the early use of books is that they lead soeasily to themonopoly of set tasks foreign to child nature,lead soalmost inevitably toartificial situationsdevoidalikeof interest and vital contact. An unthinking publicmistakesthe sign for the reality, and demands formulation where itshouldaskexperience;demandsthebookwhereitshouldasklife.

The one area of Montessori materials Kilpatrick regarded favorablywere the practical life exercises. He saw them as having “immediate

utility”andmeeting“anactualand immediate socialdemand” suchascookingfoodformeals,takingcareoftheschoolenvironment,etc.Kilpatrick concluded his book with a comparative discussion of

MontessoriandDewey.Hefound

the twohavemany things incommon.Bothhaveorganizedexperimental schools; both have emphasized the freedom,self-activity,andself-educationofthechild;bothhavemadelargeuseof“practicallife”activities.Inaword,thetwoarecooperativetendenciesinopposingintrenchedtraditionalism.

Hesawwidedifferences,however,inthatMontessori“providesasetofmechanicallysimpledevices”which“inlargemeasuredotheteaching.”She could do this because she held “to an untenable theory as to thevalue of formal systematic sense training.” Montessori also “centeredmuchofhereffortupondevisingmoresatisfactorymethodsofteachingreadingandwriting.”Dewey,ontheotherhand,“whilerecognizingthedutyoftheschooltoteachtheseacts,feelsthatearlyemphasisshouldbeplaceduponactivitiesmorevitaltochildlifewhichshouldatthesametime lead toward the mastery of our complex social environment.”KilpatrickstatedthatDewey’s

conception of the nature of the thinking process, togetherwith his doctrine of interest and of education as life,—notsimply a preparation for life,—include all that is valid inMadameMontessori’s doctrine of liberty and sense trainingand, besides, go vastly farther in the construction ofeducationalmethod.

Kilpatrick finished his book by saying “they are ill advised who putMadameMontessori among the significant contributors to educationaltheory.Stimulatingsheis;acontributortoourtheory,hardly,ifatall.”Thetremendousoutpouringofenergythathadcreatedsuchastartling

beginning forMontessori inAmericapeaked soonafter thepublicationofKilpatrick’sbook,andsubsidedasrapidlyas ithadbegun.By1918,therewereonlysporadicreferencestoMontessoriinthejournals.Duringthe years 1916–18,Montessori herself travelled between Spain, where

she was directing the Seminari Laboratori di Pedagogia at Barcelona,and theUnitedStates.After this time shedidnot return to theUnitedStates. The dismissal of Montessori as insignificant and outdated byKilpatrick and others stood virtually unchallenged inAmerica for overfortyyears.ThisAmericanphenomenonofboomandbustwasunique.Except for the temporary closing of Montessori schools in countriestaken over by the Nazi and Fascist regimes, Montessori continued toflourish in other parts of theworldwithout interruption.Muchof thisactivity today is directed by the AssociationMontessori InternationalewithheadquartersinAmsterdam.MontessoriwasappointedGovernmentInspectorofSchoolsinItalyin

1922. However, she was increasingly exploited by the Fascist regime,andby1931shehadbeguntoworkchieflyoutofBarcelona.Montessorimade her last visit to Italy in 1934 for the Fourth InternationalMontessori Congress in Rome. In 1936 revolution broke out inBarcelona,andsheestablishedpermanentresidenceintheNetherlands.Herworkwasinterruptedin1939whenshewenttoIndiatogiveasix-monthtrainingcourse,andwasinternedthereasanItaliannationalforthe duration of WorldWar II. She established many schools in India,however,andtodayitisanactiveMontessoricenter.MontessoridiedintheNetherlands in1952, receiving inher lateryearshonorarydegreesandtributesforherworkthroughouttheworld.It was five years after her death that an American renaissance for

Montessorieducationbegan.Itwasaccomplishedinitiallybythesingle-minded determination and energy of Nancy Rambusch, a youngAmerican mother who became interested in Montessori during hertravels in Europe. After receiving herMontessori teacher training andcertificationfromtheAssociationMontessoriInternationale,shefoundeda Montessori class in New York. This class later became the WhitbySchool inGreenwich,Connecticut.Mrs.Rambusch lectured extensivelytoAmericaneducatorsandparents,andthistimetheclimatewasright.OveronethousandMontessorischoolsarenowestablishedintheUnitedStates,andthenumberincreasesrapidlyeachyear.

WhathadhappenedinAmericainthosefortyyearsthatcausedalertprofessionals and laymen alike to reconsider the contribution of

Montessori?Twomajorfactorsappearresponsible.First,Americawasadisenchantedlandeducationallyinthelate1950’s.ForadecadeDewey’stheories and practices supposedly held sway in the classroom. Howexpertly these were carried out by the convinced, or how stubbornlytheywereresistedbyunbelievers,arequestionswellworthconsidering.The point remains, however, that Americans—particularly parents—were alarmed by the results of our educational system. A significantnumberofchildrencouldn’treadabovethemostrudimentarylevelaftertwelve years of schooling. Too many students were choosing the firstopportunity to drop out of school, even though it meant they weregivingupanyhopeofultimatelymakingtheirownwayinourevermorecomplexsociety.Perhapsworstofall,excellentstudentswerebetrayingtheirindividualityandthedevelopmentofwhateveruniquetalentstheymight possess to play the “school game.” They were functioning likecomputers:expertsatabsorbingwhattheteacherputforth,sortingoutwhatshewantedback,andregurgitatingitinthemannerinwhichshemost liked to receive it. Americans were clearly alarmed by thesephenomena. In addition, Sputnik had startled a nation accustomed tofeeling smugly superior in the field of scientific technology. A kind ofpanicsweptover the land,andintheir fearmanypeopletookacloserlookattheeducationalsystemtheyhadcountedontoinsuretheirsafetythrough advances in scientific knowledge and superior weaponry. Thegrowthofpopulationandaspirationsforcollegecareershadalsocreatedtremendous competition for entrance to good schools, colleges, anduniversitiesacrossthecountry.This,too,meantthatmanyparentsweretakingaseriouslookattheeducationoftheirchildrenforthefirsttimein a decade. Americans were not only receptive to new ideas andapproachesineducationwhenNancyRambuschbeganherpromotionofMontessoriintheUnitedStates;theywereactivelyseekingthem.A second factor involving the reception ofMontessori in the 1950’s

was the gradual evolution that had taken place in the conceptualframeworkofAmericanculture,particularlyinregardtopsychologyandeducation.Allthroughthe1940’sand1950’s,post-Darwinianinfluences,theFreudianimpact,theacceptedtheoriesofmotivation,ofthebrain’soperation, and of the maturation and growth of the child were beinggradually absorbed and reconstructed. This re-thinkingwas sparked inlarge measure by dramatic new discoveries in the laboratories of

psychologists and physiologists.Most important for our purposes here,these discoveries began to substantiate, one after another, the veryMontessori theories and practices which had been so dissonant withpreviously accepted educational and psychological theories. It isinterestingthatMontessoriherselffeltitwouldbethroughthesciencesthat her newly identified needs of the child would be recognized. In1917,shewrote,

It is obvious that a real experimental science, which shallguideeducationanddeliverthechildfromslavery,isnotyetborn;when it appears, itwill be to the so-called “sciences”that have sprung up in connection with the diseases ofmartyredchildhoodaschemistrytoalchemy,andaspositivemedicinetotheempiricalmedicineofbygonecenturies.

ThefourareasofMontessorieducationthathadbeenmostoutofstepwith the theoriesof theearly1900’s involvedtheMontessoriemphasisonintellectualorcognitivedevelopment,sensorytraining,thesensitiveperiods of the child’s growth, and the child’s spontaneous interest inlearning.Cognitivedevelopmenthadalwaysbeenaprimaryconcernofeducators. However, Freud’s discoveries of the emotional and sexualdevelopment of the human being, and its influence on his behaviorthroughout his life, had had a stunning impact on the Americaneducationalscene.Progressivethinkersandeducatorswereforthefirsttime recognizing the instinctual drives and needs of the child. It wasperhaps inevitable that there would be an extreme swing away fromintellectualdevelopmentand towardanattempt todealdirectly in theclassroom with these newly recognized phenomena. Impressed byFreud’s discovery of the havoc that repressed hostility and desires canplay, educators and parents adopted a somewhat permissive attitudetowardbehaviorthathadpreviouslynotbeentolerated.Evenphysicallydestructivebehaviorwassometimesaccepted.Itwasfelttobegoodforchildrentopunchdolls,beatclay,knockoverblocksandtoys,andbangthings in order to work out their repressions. (I am referring to suchbehavior in the home or school environment, and not in the therapysituation.)Itisonlyrecentlythatmanyparentshavebecomeawarethattheirpermissivenessandlackoflimit-settinginthisandotherareashas

ledtoundisciplined,unhappychildren.Montessori felt that physically abusive behavior in children wasdestructive. Far from making the child feel better about himself, sheobservedthatitlefthimmoredissatisfiedthanever.Shedidnotpermitsuchbehaviorintheclassroom,feelingitwasnotapartofrealfreedom.Sheemphasized in itsplace the child’s ability todiscoverhimself, andhiscapacitiesforapositiveresponsetohisenvironmentthroughthejoyofdiscoveryandcreativework.Shebelievedaloweringofstandardsofconduct or intellectual development would only lead to an inferioreducationandsociety.

Ifeducationistobeanaidtocivilization,itcannotbecarriedout by emptying the schools of knowledge, of character, ofdiscipline,ofsocialharmony,and,aboveall,offreedom.

Darwin’s theory of evolution based on natural selection had left theAmericancultureoftheearly1900’swithabelief infixedintelligence.Montessori’semphasisonearlycognitivedevelopmentwasclearlyoutofstepwiththisconcept.Whybeconcernedaboutcognitivedevelopmentifintelligenceisaconstant,notsubjecttosignificantmodification?TheacceptedtheoryofpredetermineddevelopmentwasalsoaheritagefromDarwinianinfluence. If thehumanembryofollowstheevolutionof thespeciesinitsdevelopment,latergrowth,includingmentaldevelopment,might well proceed in predetermined stages that occur regardless ofoutsideinfluences.ArnoldGesellisfamiliarastheforemostdescriberofthesestages in thechild’sgrowth.Theresultingchild-rearingapproachwasoneof“lettingthechildoutgrowit”wheneverunpleasantbehaviorappeared.Asone father said tome, “My son [noweighteen]hasbeengoingthrough‘astage’sincehewastwoyearsold!”Montessoribelievedthatthechildmusthavecertainconditionsinhisenvironmentorhewillnotdevelopnormally;and,further,whenperiodsofdisruptivebehavioroccur, it is because the child is trying to tellusthatsomegreatneedofhisisnotbeingmet.Hisreactionisoftenviolentbecause he is literally fighting for his life. She found this type ofbehaviordisappearedwhenthechildbegantoconcentrateonhiswork,and,thereby,developedself-confidenceandself-acceptancethroughthediscoveryofhimselfandhiscapacities.

Both thebelief in fixed intelligenceand the theoryofpredetermineddevelopment were dealt a death blow in the 1940’s when Americanpsychologists began to turn their attention to the effects of earlyenvironmental conditions on the mental development of children.Freud’s discoveries had stimulated interest in infancy and earlychildhood in the early 1900’s. The emphasis, however, was onemotional,not intellectual,development.AfterWorldWar II, emphasison the young child’s cognitive development began to flourish as well.Childreninorphanagesandinstitutionswerediscoveredtobesufferingfrom severe retardation. This occurred in spite of the fact that thechildren had been given good to excellent physical care. In one suchinstitution,sixtypercentofthechildrentwoyearsoldcouldnotsitupalone;eighty-fivepercentof those fouryearsoldcouldnotwalk.Oneconsistentobservationwasmadeabouttheseinstitutions:therewaslittleor no sensory stimulation for these infants. The walls were colorless,there was little sound, there was next to no activity to observe.Apparently thepaucityof sensorystimuli in theearlyenvironmentdidhaveaneffectonthedevelopmentofthesechildren.Psychologistsbegantodesignexperimentstodiscovertheeffectsofsensorialdeprivationinother settings. One of these psychologists was Donald Hebb, a manwhose work and thinking have significantly altered the course ofcontemporary American psychology. Experimenting first with rats andthenwithdogs,Hebbfoundthattherichnessoftheirearlyenvironmentvaried their adult problem-solving ability considerably. In 1949 Hebbpublished his Organization of Behavior, a book theorizing on hislaboratorywork.Thisbookprovidedthefirstpsycho-theoreticalbaseforMontessori’sapproachtoearly learningandenvironmentalstimulation.Before this time the brain was thought to operate through simplestimulus-response patterns or connections. These connections wereconceivedtobedevelopedbyrepeatedexperiencesandassociationsandto become permanent mental fixtures. The brain’s functioning waslikened to a telephone switchboard. (It was on this hitherto acceptedconceptofthebrain’sstructureandoperationthatKilpatrickhadbasedhisrejectionofthetransfer-of-learningtheory,and,therefore,oneofhismajor objections to Montessori education.) This theory of the brain’soperation could not adequately account for the phenomena Hebb andotherswere finding in the laboratory in regard to early environmental

influence on intellectual development. Hebb developed a much morecomplextheoryoftheneurologicalstructureandprocessesofthebrainwhich did consider these phenomena. He maintained that in earlylearning“cellassemblies”representingimagesorideasareformed,andthatinlaterlearningtheseassembliesarejoinedinto“phasesequences”which facilitate more complex thinking. Thus later learning woulddependontherichnessoftheearlierformedcellassemblies.Montessori’sobservationofthechild’sspontaneousinterestinlearningalso received support from Hebb’s theorizing. Previously all behaviorwasbelievedtobemotivatedsolelybyinstinctualorhomeostaticneeds(thedesireoftheorganismforabalancedphysicalandchemicalstate).If thiswere true, organismswould be quiescent if no suchmotivationwaspresent.Onthecontrary,physiologistshadrecentlyestablishedthatthecentralnervoussystemiscontinuouslyactiveregardlessofouterororganic stimulation. Hebb theorized that there must be an intrinsicmotivationforbehaviorinadditiontothealreadyrecognizedmotivationbased on instinctual drives and homeostatic needs. Some of theimportantworksupportingthisnewtheorywasdonebyH.F.Harlow.Inthreeseparatestudies,hefoundthatmonkeyscananddolearntoworkpuzzleswhennomotivationhasbeenofferedotherthanthepresentationof the puzzle itself. It was demonstrated that real learning had takenplaceas, once thepuzzlehadbeenmastered, itwasworked flawlesslyand persistently. Harlow even demonstrated that the use of hunger-reducingrewardsactuallydestroyedmotivation,ratherthansupportingit. He found that monkeys who had been rewarded with food forworking theirpuzzles ignored themassoonas theywere finished.Theunrewardedmonkeys,ontheotherhand,oftencontinuedtoexploreandmanipulate the puzzle after they had completed it. Almost fifty yearsearlier, by observing children directly, rather than animals in thelaboratory,Montessoricametosimilarconclusionsconcerningtheinnermotivationofchildrentowardlearning.Shehadestablishedaclassroomprocedure based on this inner motivation, wholly discarding the goldstars,specialprivileges,grades,etc.,whicharestillcommonpracticeinclassroomstodayasinducementstolearning.J. McVicker Hunt is another pioneer in the field of motivationallearningwho is particularly pertinent toMontessori. He observed thatinfants develop recognition patterns and will act to reproduce them

(crying to seekmother’s return)after sixmonthsofage.Gradually theinfant also becomes interested and finds pleasure in novelty within arecognizedcontext,andwillactivelyseekit.“Amajorsourceofpleasureresides in encountering something new within the framework of thefamiliar.”Noveltybecomesasourceofmotivation, then, if there is therightcorrespondenceoftheoldwiththenew.

Thatnovelty that is attractiveappears tobeanoptimumofdiscrepancy in this relationship between the informationalinput of themoment and the information already stored inthe cerebrum from previous encounters with similarsituations.

If there is too much novelty or incongruity, the child will beoverwhelmed; if there is too little, he will be bored. Hunt called thedilemmaoffindingtherightamountofeachforanyparticularchildatagivenmomentintime“theproblemofthematch.”HegaveMontessoricredit for being the first educator to solve this problemon a practicallevelthroughgivingthechildfreedomofchoiceinselectingfromawidevarietyofmaterials,gradedindifficultyandcomplexity.InadditiontotheworkofAmericanpsychologists,othersweremakingdiscoveriesinearlylearningandcognitivedevelopmentimportanttotheacceptance of Montessori education. Although his work is just nowreceiving wide recognition in this country, Jean Piaget, the Swisspsychologist,hadbeenatworkinthisfieldsincethe1930’s.UnlikemostAmerican psychologists of this time, Piaget worked directly withchildren to develop his understanding and theories. Because this wasalsoMontessori’s method, it may account for themany similarities intheirbeliefs.Oneareainwhichtheycloselyparallelinvolvestheroleofsensori-motortraininginthechild’scognitivedevelopment.Asearlyas1942,Piagetwrote,

Sensori-motor intelligence liesat the sourceof thought,andcontinuestoaffectitthroughoutlifethroughperceptionsandpractical sets.… The role of perception in the most highlydeveloped thought cannot be neglected, as it is by somewriters.

This, of course, isMontessori’s viewof sensory perception, a viewnotsharedbyothereducators in1912, including the influentialKilpatrick.Piaget’stheorizingconcerningthechild’sachievementofthispre-verbalintelligence is reminiscent ofMontessori’s descriptionof theAbsorbentMind.

The real problem is not to locate the first appearance ofintelligencebut rather to understand themechanismof thisprogression.… One of us [Piaget] has argued that thismechanismconsists inassimilation (comparable tobiologicalassimilation in the broad sense): meaning that reality dataare treated or modified in such a way as to becomeincorporatedintothestructureofthesubject.

Piaget sees the child’s thought as developing in progressive stages:from the beginnings of perception to symbolic thought to concreteoperations and, finally, to the beginnings of formal thought in pre-adolescence.Piaget’sstagesarethusconsistentwithMontessori’stheoryand practice of leading the child through concrete experiences toprogressivelymore abstract levels. One phenomenon in this procedurewhich soamazedMontessori isbeautifullydescribedbyPiaget: thatoftherepetitionwhichtakesplacewhenthechildisestablishinghisbasisformovingintoabstractthought.

Thedevelopmentof thoughtwill thusat firstbemarkedbytherepetition,inaccordancewithavastsystemoflooseningsand separations, of the developmentwhich seemed to havebeencompletedat the sensori-motor level,before it spreadsover a field which is infinitely wider in space and moreflexibleintime,toarrivefinallyatoperationalstructures.

Montessori’s emphasis on sensitive periods in the child’s life also iscompatible with Piaget’s theory of the development of the child’sintelligence. Piaget saw the mental development of the child as asuccessionof stagesorperiods,eachextendingandbuildingoutof thepreviousone.Duringeachperiod,newcognitive structures are formedandintegratedoutoftheold.

These overall structures are integrative and non-interchangeable. Each results from the preceding one,integratingitasasubordinatestructure,andpreparesforthesubsequent one, into which it is sooner or later itselfintegrated.

If the opportunity for developing the needed structures in any givenperiod is missed, the child’s subsequent growth will be permanentlyimpeded. Freud had suggested the concept of sensitive periods in thedevelopment of children as early as 1905. However, it was in 1935,almost thirty years later, that Konrad Lorenz produced the firstlaboratory research documenting their existence. He designed anexperiment involving the imprintingphenomena in the social behaviorofbirds.Geeseinonegroupwereallowedtoremainwiththeirparentsafter hatching. A second group was removed from their parentsimmediatelyuponhatching,andLorenzpresentedhimselftothemasaparent substitute.The firstgroup reacted toothergeese later in life intheexpectedwaysof thespecies.Thesecondgroup,however,behavedthroughout their lives as if human beings were their natural species.Lorenz concluded that species recognition was imprinted upon thenervous system of the young geese immediately upon their hatching.Imprinting has been the subject of numerous experiments and studiessince 1950, and, as a result, sensitive periods in early humandevelopmentarenowgenerallyaccepted.Piaget’s work sheds light on two areas of Montessori often

misunderstood: the development of the social and affectivecharacteristicsof thechildandthegrowthofhiscreativity.Montessorihadfoundthatthesedevelopedspontaneouslyasthechild’sintelligencebecame established through his interaction with a preparedenvironment.Thiswasanindirectapproachtotheseareas,incontrasttothe more direct approach of traditional education. Piaget presents atheoretical base that would tend to support Montessori’s indirectapproach.Inhistheory,thechildbeginshislife“entirelycenteredonhisownbodyandactioninanegocentrismastotalasitisunconscious(forlackofconsciousnessof the self).”Throughhiscognitivedevelopment,he begins “a kind of general decentering process whereby the childeventually comes to regard himself as an object among others in a

universe that is made up of permanent objects.” It is this cognitiveaspect of the developmental processes that makes possible the child’saffectiveandsocialdevelopment.Thisprocessofdecenteringbeginsatapproximatelyeighteenmonthsandculminatesinadolescence.

It has long been thought that the affective changescharacteristicofadolescence,beginningbetweentheagesoftwelve and fifteen, are to be explained primarily by innateand quasi instinctive mechanisms. This is assumed bypsychoanalystswhobase their interpretationof these stagesof development on the hypothesis of a “new version of theOedipuscomplex.”Inreality,theroleofsocialfactors(inthetwofoldsenseofsocializationandculturaltransmission)isfarmore important and is favoredmore thanwas suspectedbytheintellectualtransformationswehavebeendiscussing.

The development of creativity also depends upon the child’sprogression through thestagesofcognitivegrowth: fromsensori-motorintelligence to intuitive thought to concrete operations and, finally,formal operations. In intuitive thought, the child can evoke absentobjects in hismind, a process necessary for creative thought, but theyareineffect“stills”ofmovingreality.Thechildhasaninternalmapofreality,butitisfilledwithblankspacesandinsufficientco-ordinations.Inconcreteoperations,thechildisnolongerdependentontheformofabsent objects in his thinking, but he is still dependent on hisunderstandingof the realitybehind them.When thechild reaches thatstage of cognitive development where formal operations are possible,“thereisevenmorethanrealityinvolved,sincetheworldofthepossiblebecomesavailableforconstructionandsincethoughtbecomesfreefromtherealworld.”Creativitythenisnotdevelopedbyaconcentrationonits stimulation, somuch as it evolves at the end of a long process ofcognitivedevelopmentwhichhadabsorptionofrealityas itsbeginningpoint.Montessori’s concept of the interdependent relationship of cognitive

developmentandartisticexpressionisnowsharedbymenintheartsaswell as psychologists. Rudolf Arnheim, Professor of the Psychology ofArt at Harvard University, in a recent book entitled Visual Thinking,

states:

artistic activity is a form of reasoning, inwhich perceivingand thinking are indivisibly intertwined. A person whopaints,writes,composes,dances…thinkswithhissenses.…Genuineartworkrequiresorganizationwhichinvolvesmanyand perhaps all of the cognitive operations known fromtheoreticalthinking.

Arnheimfindsfaultwithoureducationalsystemwhichhasseparatedthedevelopment of reason and sense perception. In education the childstudies numbers and words; the arts are presented to him asentertainmentandmentalrelease.Arnheimbelievestheartshavebeenneglectedbecause theyarebasedon sensoryperception. It is apparentfrom the earlier rejectionofMontessori’s emphasis on sensory trainingthat the development of perception has been neglected in traditionaleducation. Arnheim calls for a re-emphasis on the importance ofperceptionintheeducationofthechild’smentalpowers.“Mycontentionis that thecognitiveoperationscalled thinkingarenot theprivilegeofmental processes above and beyond perception, but the essentialingredients of perception itself.” Educationally, this means presentingtheyoungchildwith“pureshapes,”objects“ofawidevarietyofclearlyexpressedshape,sizeandcolor.”ArnheimcreditstheMontessorimethodasthefirsteducationalapproachintroducingchildrentotheperceptualproperties of pure quantities through such shapes. It may have beenMontessori’sbackgroundasascientistthatledtoherunusualapproachto creativity in children, for Arnheim sees art and science as closelyrelatedandrequiringsimilarpowersinman.

Both art and science are bent on the understanding of theforces that shape existence, and both call for an unselfishdedicationtowhatis.Neitherofthemcantoleratecapricioussubjectivitybecausebotharesubject tothecriteriaof truth.Both require precision, order, and discipline because nocomprehensiblestatementcanbemadewithoutthese.

ThisdiscussionhasshownthatMontessoriphilosophyandmethodare

verymuchinstepwiththelatestpsychologicalandeducationaltheories.Theimportanceofearlyenvironmentalconditionsinthechild’smentaldevelopment,theroleofsensoryperception,theintrinsicmotivationofthechild,thesensitiveperiodsinthechild’sdevelopment,andtheroleofcognitivedevelopmentintheestablishmentofthesocialandcreativepowersofthechildareallnowrecognized.OnelastandcrucialareadealingwiththeacceptanceofMontessoriin

America today remains: reception by teachers. Although it appearsbetter today than in 1914, it is still a very real problem. The type ofpersonwhohas gone into teaching in thepasthas toooftenbeenonewhohasaneedtocontrolotherhumanbeings.Suchapersonwill feelthreatenedbytheMontessoriapproach,whichputsthechildincontrolof his own learning. The fate ofMontessori education inAmericawilllargelydependontheabilityofyoungmenandwomen,whetheralreadyteachersornot,todevelopthehumility,wisdom,andflexibilityrequiredfortheindirectteachingapproachofMontessori.

2TheMontessoriPhilosophy

MONTESSORI DEVELOPED a new philosophy of education based upon herintuitiveobservationsofchildren.ThisphilosophywasinthetraditionofJean Jacques Rousseau, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, and FriedrichFroebel,whohademphasized the innatepotentialof the childandhisability to develop in environmental conditions of freedom and love.Educational philosophies of the past, however, did not emphasize theexistenceofchildhoodasanentityinitself,essentialtothewholenessofhuman life, nor did they discuss the unusual self-construction of thechildMontessori hadwitnessed in her classrooms.Montessori believedthatchildhoodisnotmerelyastagetobepassedthroughonthewaytoadulthood,butis“theotherpoleofhumanity.”Sheconsideredtheadultto be dependent on the child, even as the child is dependent on theadult.

Weoughtnot toconsider thechildand theadultmerelyassuccessivephasesintheindividual’slife.Weoughtrathertolookupon themas twodifferent formsofhuman life,goingon at the same time, and exerting upon one another areciprocalinfluence.

Montessoriregardedthechildas“agreatexternalgracewhichentersthefamily”andexercises“aformativeinfluenceontheadultworld.”We are aware of the dependency of the child on the adult in our

culture. We do not so readily recognize the dependency of adults onchildren in our fast-paced, adult-centered society.Montessori regardedthisnegligenceasatragicmistakeleadingtomuchofourunhappiness,greed,andself-destruction.In1948shestatedher

conviction that humanity can hope for a solution of itsproblems, themost urgent ofwhich are those of peace and

unity, only by turning its attention and energies to thediscovery of the child and the development of the greatpotentialities of the human personality in the course of itsconstruction.

Toexplainthechild’sself-construction,Montessoriconcludedhemustpossesswithinhim,beforebirth,apatternforhispsychicunfolding.Shereferred to this inborn, psychic entity of the child as a “spiritualembryo.” This spiritual embryo is comparable to the original fertilizedcellofthebody.Thiscelldoesnotcontaintheadultforminminiature,but ratherapredeterminedplan for itsdevelopment. Ina similarway,the child’s psychic growth is guided by a predetermined pattern, notvisibleatbirth.Montessoribelievedthispsychicpatternisrevealedonlythroughtheprocess of development. For this process to occur, two conditions arenecessary. First, the child is dependent upon an integral relationshipwith his environment, both the things and the people within it. Onlythroughthisinteractioncanhecometoanunderstandingofhimselfandthe limits of his universe and thus achieve an integration of hispersonality.Second,thechildrequiresfreedom.Ifhehasbeengiventhekey to his own personality and is governed by his own laws ofdevelopment, he is in possession of very sensitive and unique powerswhich can only come forth through freedom. If either of these twoconditions are notmet, the psychic life of the childwill not reach itspotentialdevelopment,andthechild’spersonalitywillbestunted.Sincethis pattern exists in the child and is operating even before birth,Montessorideterminedthateducation,too,“shouldstartasearlyasthebirthofthechild.”Montessori considered the dependent relationship of the child’spsychicgrowthtofreeinteractionwithhisenvironmentanaturalresultofhismentalandphysicalunity.Westerneducationalthoughthadbeeninfluenced by Descartes’ view of man as divided into two parts, theintellectual and the physical. Montessori now challenged thisphilosophical position, and stated that the full development of psychicpowersisnotpossiblewithoutphysicalactivity.

One of the greatest mistakes of our day is to think of

movement by itself, as something apart from the higherfunctions.… Mental development must be connected withmovementandbedependentonit.Itisvitalthateducationaltheoryandpracticeshouldbecomeinformedbythisidea.

Ifmovementiscurtailed,thechild’spersonalityandsenseofwell-beingis threatened. “Movement is a part of man’s very personality, andnothingcantakeitsplace.Themanwhodoesnotmoveisinjuredinhisverybeingandisanoutcastfromlife.”Throughherobservationsof thechild,Montessoribecameconvincedthathepossessesanintensemotivationtowardhisownself-construction.Thefulldevelopmentofhimselfishisunique,andultimate,goalinlife.Hespontaneouslyseekstoachievethisgoalthroughanunderstandingofhis environment. “He is bornwith the psychology ofworld conquest.”His emotional and physical health will literally depend upon thisconstant attempt to become himself. Montessori pointed out that thisgoalwasnotfortheself-centeredpurposesoftenfoundincontemporaryculture.Shewrotein1949,“Today’sprinciplesandideasaretoomuchsetonself-perfectionandself-realization.”Thegoalofself-developmentisratherforservice;tomankindaswellasindividualhappiness.Although the childhasapredeterminedpsychicpattern toguidehisstrivingformaturity,andavitalurgetoachieveit,hedoesnotinheritalready established models of behavior which guarantee him success.Unlikeothercreaturesoftheearth,hemustdevelophisownpowersforreacting to life. He has, however, been given special “creativesensitivities” to help him accomplish this difficult task. These innersensitivitiesenablehimtochoosefromhiscomplexenvironmentwhatissuitableandnecessaryforhisgrowth.Thewholepsychiclifeofthechildrests upon the foundation these sensitivitiesmake possible. A delay intheir awakening will result in an imperfect relationship between thechildandhisenvironment.“Notfeelingattraction,butrevulsion,hefailsto develop what is called ‘love for the environment’ from which heshouldgainhisindependencebyaseriesofconquestsoverit.”These transient facultiesoraidsexistonly inchildhood,andgivenoevidenceoftheirexistenceinthesameformandintensitymuchaftertheage of six. Montessori considered them proof that a child’s psychicdevelopment does not take place by chance, but by design. She

identified two such internal aids to the child’s development: theSensitivePeriodsandtheAbsorbentMind.Sensitive Periods are blocks of time in a child’s life when he is

absorbedwithonecharacteristicofhisenvironmenttotheexclusionofall others. They appear in the individual as “an intense interest forrepeatingcertainactionsatlength,fornoobviousreason,until—becauseof this repetition—a fresh function suddenly appears with explosiveforce.” The special interior vitality and joy the child exhibits duringthese periods result from his intense desire to make contact with hisworld.It isaloveofhisenvironmentthatcompelshimtothiscontact.This love isnotanemotionalreaction,butan intellectualandspiritualdesire.If the child is prevented from following the interest of any given

SensitivePeriod, theopportunity foranatural conquest is lost forever.Heloseshisspecialsensitivityanddesireinthisarea,withadisturbingeffect on his psychic development and maturity. Therefore, theopportunityfordevelopmentinhisSensitivePeriodsmustnotbelefttochance.Assoonasoneappears,thechildmustbeassisted.Theadult

has not to help the baby to form itself, for this is nature’stask, but he must show a delicate respect for itsmanifestations,providingitwithwhatitneedsforitsmakingand cannot procure for itself. In short, the adult mustcontinue to provide a suitable environment for the psychicembryo,justasnature,intheguiseofthemother,providedasuitableenvironmentforthephysicalembryo.

Montessori observed Sensitive Periods in the child’s life connectedwith a need for order in the environment, the use of the hand andtongue, the development of walking, a fascination with minute anddetailedobjects,andatimeofintensesocialinterest.Order is the firstSensitivePeriodtoappear. It ismanifestedearly in

thefirstyearoflife,eveninthefirstmonths,andcontinuesthroughthesecondyear. It is important tounderstand thatMontessori sawa cleardistinction between the child’s love of order and consistency, and thematureadult’smilderpleasureandsatisfaction inhavingeverything inplace.Thechild’sloveoforderisbasedonavitalneedforapreciseand

determined environment. Only in such an environment can the childcategorizehisperceptions,andthusformaninnerconceptualframeworkwithwhich tounderstandanddealwithhisworld. It is notobjects inplace thathe is identifying throughhis special sensitivity toorder,buttherelationshipbetweenobjects.Hehasan

inner sense which is a sense not of distinction betweenthings, so that it perceives anenvironmentas awholewithinterdependentparts.Onlyinsuchanenvironment,knownasawhole, is itpossible for thechild toorienthimselfand toactwithpurpose;withoutithewouldhavenobasisonwhichtobuildhisperceptionofrelationship.

Thechildmanifestshisneed fororder tous in threeways:heshowsapositive joy in seeing things in their accustomed place; he often hastantrumswhen they are not; and,when he can do so himself, hewillinsistonputtingthingsbackintheirplaceA second Sensitive Period appears as a desire to explore theenvironmentwithtongueandhands.Throughtasteandtouch,thechildabsorbsthequalitiesoftheobjects inhisenvironmentandseekstoactupon them. Equally important, it is through this sensory and motoractivity that the neurological structures are developed for language.Montessori concluded, therefore, that the tongue, whichman uses forspeaking, and the hands, which he employs for work, are moreintimately connectedwith his intelligence than any other parts of thebody.Shereferredtothemasthe“instruments”ofman’sintelligence.ThechildmustbeexposedtolanguageduringthisSensitivePeriodorit will not develop. Perhaps the most poignant description of such ahappeningisItard’saccountofthe“wildboy”ofAveyron.Abandonedinthe forests of France as an infant, the child was found in youngmanhood, probably still in his teens. Covered with scars from hiswilderness survival, his movements and behavior were those of ananimal.Itardwasabletohelpthisboydevelophispotentialforhumanlifeinalmostallways.However,theboydidnotdeveloplanguage,eventhoughitwasestablishedthattheboywasnotdeafandnootherdefectobstructinglingualdevelopmentcouldbefound.Thechildinourcultureisusuallysurroundedbythesoundsheneeds

in establishing language. The use of his hands during this SensitivePeriod is often another matter, although it is equally essential to hisdevelopment.Hemust have objects to explore in order to develop hisneurological structures for perceiving and thinking, just as hemust beexposed to the world of human sound in order to develop hisneurological structures for language. During this period the child isusuallysurroundedbyadultobjects.“Thecommand‘Don’ttouch!’istheonly answer to this vital problem of infant development. If the childtouches such forbidden objects, he is punished or scolded.” It is alsoimportant to remember that the child’s actions are not due to randomchoice, but directed by his inner needs for development. “Now thechild’smovementsarenotduetochance.Heisbuildingupthenecessarycoordinations for organized movements directed by his ego, whichcommands fromwithin.”Therefore, it isof theutmost importance thatthe adult be guided by tolerance and wisdom when placing anynecessarylimitsonthechild’sneedtotouchandtasteduringthisperiod.The Sensitive Period for walking is probably the most readily

identifiedbytheadult.Montessoriviewedthistimeasasecondbirthforthechild,foritheraldedhispassingfromahelplesstoanactivebeing.One fact Montessori observed during this period is not alwaysrecognizedbyadults:childrenatthistimelovetogoonverylongwalks.Montessori foundthatchildrenasyoungasayearandahalfcanwalkseveralmiles without tiring. The child does not walk, however, as anadult,whowalkssteadilywithanexternalgoalinmind.

The small childwalks todevelophispowers,he isbuildinguphis being.He goes slowly.Hehas neither rhythmic stepnor goal. But things around him allure him and urge himforward.Iftheadultwouldbeofhelp,hemustrenouncehisownrhythmandhisownaim.

AfourthSensitivePeriodinvolvesanintenseinterestinobjectssotinyand so detailed they may escape our notice entirely. The child maybecomeabsorbedbytinyinsectsbarelyvisibletothehumaneye.Itisasif nature set aside a special period for exploring and appreciating hermysteries,whichwilllaterbeoverlookedbyabusyadult.A fifth Sensitive Period is revealed through an interest in the social

aspectsoflife.Thechildbecomesdeeplyinvolvedinunderstandingthecivil rights of others and establishing a community with them. Heattempts to learnmanners and to serveothers aswell ashimself. Thissocial interest is exhibited first as an observing activity, and laterdevelopsintoadesireformoreactivecontactwithothers.MontessoriconsideredherdiscoveryoftheSensitivePeriodsasoneof

her most valuable contributions and their further study an importanttaskforeducators.

Before these revelations of true child nature, the lawsgoverningthebuildingupofpsychologicallifehadremainedabsolutely unknown. The study of the Sensitive Periods asdirecting the formation of man may become one of thesciencesofthegreatestpracticalusetomankind.

TheSensitivePeriodsdescribethepatternthechildfollowsingainingknowledgeofhisenvironment.ThephenomenonoftheAbsorbentMindexplains the specialqualityandprocessbywhichheaccomplishes thisknowledge.Becausethechild’smindisnotyetformed,hemustlearninadifferent

way from theadult.Theadulthasaknowledgeofhisenvironmentonwhich to build, but the child must begin with nothing. It is theAbsorbent Mind that accomplishes this seemingly impossible task. Itpermits an unconscious absorption of the environment by means of aspecial pre-conscious state of mind. Through this process, the childincorporates knowledge directly into his psychic life. “Impressions donotmerely enter hismind, they form it, they incarnate themselves inhim.”Anunconsciousactivity thusprepares themind. It is “succeededby a conscious process which slowly awakens and takes from theunconsciouswhatitcanoffer.”Thechildconstructshismindinthiswayuntil, little by little, he has established memory, the power tounderstand,andtheabilitytoreason.Thiscreatingbyabsorption

extends to all themental andmoral characteristics that areregarded as fixed in humanity or race or community andinclude patriotism, religion, social habits, technicaldispositions,prejudices,and, in fact,all items thatmakeup

thesum-totalofhumanpersonalty.

By the age of three, the unconscious preparation necessary for laterdevelopment and activity is established. The child now embarks on anewmission,thedevelopmentofhismentalfunctions.“Beforethree,thefunctionsarebeingcreated;afterthree,theydevelop.”Montessoriphilosophystates,then,thatthechildcontainsa“spiritualembryo”orpatternofpsychicdevelopmentevenbeforebirth.The twoconditionsofanintegralrelationshipwiththeenvironmentandfreedomforthechildmustexistifthisembryoistodevelopaccordingtoitsplan.Thegoalofthechildistosodevelop,andheis intrinsicallymotivatedtowardthisgoalwithanintensityunequalledinallofcreation.Sincehemustcreatehimselfoutofundevelopedpsychicstructures,hehasbeengiven special internal aids for the task: the Sensitive Periods and theAbsorbent Mind. The principles or natural laws governing the child’spsychic growth reveal themselves only through the process of hisdevelopment. By giving the children of the Casa dei Bambini an openenvironmentinwhichtooperate,Montessoriwasabletoobservethesenatural lawsatwork in the childrenand tomakeabeginning in theiridentification.Oneof themost importantof thosesheobservedis the lawofwork.MontessorihadobservedthatthechildrenintheCasadeiBambinihadachieved an integration of self through their work. They appearedimmensely pleased, peaceful, and rested after the most strenuousconcentration on tasks they had freely chosen to do. All destructivebehavior, whether aggressive and hostile or passive and listless, haddisappeared. Montessori concluded that some great need of the childmusthavebeenmetthroughthisactivityofconcentrationandthatthenew state of psychic integration the child had thereby reached wasactuallyhisnormalstate.Montessori referred to this process of psychic integration as thenormalizationofthechild.

Amongtherevelationsthechildhasbroughtus,thereisoneof fundamental importance, the phenomenon ofnormalization through work.… It is certain that the child’saptitudeforworkrepresentsavitalinstinct;forwithoutwork

his personality cannot organize itself and deviates from thenormal linesof itsconstruction.Manbuildshimself throughworking.

It is because work helps the child to become truly himself that he isdriventohisconstantactivityandeffort.Hefollowsalawofmaximumeffort.Hecannotstandstill;heisimpelledtoacontinuousconquest.“Tosucceed by himself he intensifies his efforts.” Because it fulfills hisindividual destiny, he appears rested and satisfied after his labors,despitetheirintensity.Itisobviousthattheworkofthechildisveryunliketheworkoftheadult.Childrenuse the environment to improve themselves; adultsusethemselves to improve the environment.Childrenwork for the sakeofprocess; adultswork to achieveanend result. “It is theadult’s task tobuildanenvironmentsuperimposedonnature,anoutwardworkcallingforactivityandintelligenteffort;itiswhatwecallproductivework,andis by its nature social, collective and organized.” He must, therefore,follow a law of exerting minimum effort to attain maximumproductivity. He will look both for gain and for assistance. The childseeksnoassistanceinhiswork.Hemustaccomplishitbyhimself.Becauseofthesocialnatureofhislife,whichisneitheradaptivenorproductive to adult society, the contemporary child is largely removedfrom it. He is exiled in a school where too often his capacity forconstructive growth and self-realization is repressed. This problem incontemporary civilization increases as the adult’s role becomes evermorecomplex.Inprimitivesocieties,whereworkwassimpleandcouldbecarriedoutatarelaxedpace,theadultcouldcoexistwithchildreninhisworking environmentwith less friction. The complexity ofmodernlife ismaking it increasinglydifficult for theadult to suspendhisownactivities“tofollowthechild,adaptinghimselftothechild’srhythmandthepsychologicalneedsofhisgrowth.”

Asecondprinciplerevealedthroughthechild’sdevelopmentisthelawofindependence.“Exceptwhenhehasregressivetendencies,thechild’snature is to aimdirectly and energetically at functional independence.Development takes the form of a drive toward an ever greater

independence.” He uses this independence to listen to his own innerguide for actions that can be useful to him. “Inner forces affect hischoice, and if someone usurps the function of this guide, the child isprevented from developing either his will or his concentration.” It isbecausetheadultpersists in just thisusurpingthatmuchof thechild’spotential is never realized. Full personality development is totallydependentonprogressivereleasefromexternaldirectionandreliance.

Athirdpsychicprincipleinvolvesthepowerofattention.Atacertainstage in his development, the child begins to direct his attention toparticularobjects inhisenvironmentwithan intensityandinterestnotseenbefore.“Theessentialthingisforthetasktoarousesuchaninterestthat it engages the child’swhole personality.” This is not the point ofarrival,butthepointofdeparture,forthechildusesthisnewabilityforconcentrationtoconsolidateanddevelophispersonality.Atfirst,hewillbeattracted tomaterials thatappeal tohis instinctive interest, suchasbright colors. As he has more experience, however, he builds up aninternalknowledgeofthe“known,”whichnowexcitesexpectationandinterestinthenovelunknown.

Thechildconcentratesonthosethingsthathealreadyhasinhis mind, that he has absorbed in the previous period, forwhatever has been conquered has a tendency to remain inthemind,tobepondered.

In this way, a discerning interest based on intellect replaces aninstinctiveinterestbasedonprimitiveimpulses.Whenthechildachievesthisfocusingofattentionbasedonintellectualinterest,hegrowscalmerandmorecontrolled.Hispleasureinhisactsofconcentrationisobvious,and he appears rested and fulfilled. Montessori saw these outwardmanifestations of pleasure as evidence of the constant element ofinternalformationtakingplaceinthechild.

Afterinternalcoordinationisestablishedthroughthechild’sabilityforprolonged attention and concentration, a fourth psychic principleinvolvingthewillisrevealed.Thewill’s“developmentisaslowprocess

that evolves through a continuous activity in relationship with theenvironment.” The child chooses a task and must then inhibit hisimpulsestowardextraneousmovements.Aninnerformationofthewillisgraduallydevelopedthroughthisadaptationtothelimitsofachosentask.Decisionandactionthenarethebasesforthewill’sdevelopment.Lecturesonwhatthechildoughttodoareofnouse,sincetheydonotinvolvedecisionoraction.Similarly,itisnotmoralvision,butthisinnerformation developed by exercising the will, that gives the strength tocontrol one’s actions. Because traditional schooling severely limits thechild’sopportunities for choiceandaction,Montessori felt it “notonlydenies the child every opportunity for using his will but directlyobstructsandinhibitsitsexpression.”Montessori observed three stages in the development of the child’s

will.First, thechildbeginstherepetitionofanactivity.Thisrepetitionoccurs after his attention has been polarized and he has achieved adegreeofconcentrationinoneoftheexercises.Thechildmayrepeattheexercise’s cycle of activity many times with obvious satisfaction. This“achievement,however trivial to theadult,givesasenseofpowerandindependence to the child.” If adults persist in interrupting the childduring this cycle of repetition, his self-confidence and ability topersevere in a task are severely jeopardized. Constant interruptionduringthistimeissoupsettingtothechildthatMontessorifeltitcausedhimtoliveinastate“similartoapermanentnightmare.”Afterachievingindependenceandpoweroverhisownmovements,the

childmovestoasecondstageinthedevelopmentofthewill,wherehebeginsspontaneouslytochooseself-disciplineasawayoflife.Hemakesthischoiceforhisownliberationasaperson.Itisapointofdeparture,notanend,whichleadshimtoself-knowledgeandself-possession.Itisastatecharacterizedbyactivity,nottheimmobilitythatisoftenreferredtoas“discipline”inthetraditionalschool.Inthisstagethechildmakescreativeuseofhisabilities,acceptstheresponsibilityofhisownactions,andcomplieswiththelimitsofreality.After achieving self-discipline, the child reaches a third stage of the

developed will involving the power to obey. This power is a naturalphenomenon, and “shows itself spontaneously andunexpectedly at theendofalongprocessofmaturation.”Thephenomenonofobedienceisperhapsthemostdifficultaspectof

MontessoriphilosophyforAmericanstodaytounderstandoraccept.Tosuggest that children might naturally develop obedience toward theirteacherstirsfearthattheymightbecomedependentslavestotheadultworldand thestatusquo.Thisoccurs inpartbecauseWestern thoughtcustomarily considers will and obedience as two separate values orpowers. This is the result of educational practices of the past, whichinvolvedsuppressingthechild’swillinorderthatitmightbesubstitutedwith the teacher’s will. Unquestioning obedience was thus soughtthrough a process of breaking the child’s will. Montessori, on thecontrary, considered obedience and will as integral parts of the samephenomenon,obedienceoccurringasafinalstageinthedevelopmentofthewill.In order to follow this thinking, it is necessary to understand the

sourceofthewillinMontessoriphilosophy.Thewillisconceivednotasanindependentforce,butasproceedingfromagreatuniversalpoweror“horme.” The horme is defined as a vital energy or urge to purposiveactivity.

Thisuniversalforceisnotphysical,butistheforceoflifeitself intheprocessofevolution. Itdriveseveryformof lifeirresistibly towardevolution,andfromitcomethe impulsestoaction.Butevolutiondoesnotoccurbyluck,orbychance,but is governed by fixed laws, and if man’s life is anexpressionofthatforce,hisbehaviormustbemoldedbyit.In the little child’s life, as soon as he makes an action

deliberately,ofhisownaccord,thisforcehasbeguntoenterinto his consciousness. What we call his will has begun todevelop, and this process continues henceforward, but onlyasaresultofexperience.Hence,wearebeginningtothinkofthewillnotassomethinginborn,butassomethingwhichhasto be developed and, because it is a part of nature, thisdevelopmentcanonlyoccur inobediencetonatural laws.…Its development is a slow process that evolves through acontinuousactivityinrelationshipwiththeenvironment.

Whenthefinalstageofthisdevelopmentisreached,obediencetotheforces of life appears, and it is this obedience thatmakes possible the

continuanceofhumanlifeandsociety.

Will and obedience then go hand in hand, inasmuch as thewill is a prior foundation in the order of development andobedience is a later stage resting on this foundation.…Indeed,ifthehumansouldidnotpossessthisquality,ifmenhad never acquired, by some form of evolutionary process,thiscapacityforobedience,sociallifewouldbeimpossible.

Montessori isnotherediscussing theblindobedience thathasbeen somuchapartofourcontemporarycultureandwhichhasledtosomuchhorroranddestruction.

Themostcasualglanceatwhatishappeningintheworldisenough to show us how obedient people are. This kind ofobedience is the real reason why vast masses of humanbeings can be hurled so easily to destruction. It is anuncontrolled form of obedience, an obediencewhich bringswholenations to ruin.There is no lackof obedience inourworld;quitethecontrary!…Whatunhappilyisabsentisthecontrolofobedience.

Control of obedience rests on two conditions: the completedevelopmentofobediencethroughitsseveralstagesandthereachingofthe final stage in the development of the will. Obedience develops instages,muchasothercharacteristicsofhumanbeings.

At first it is dictated purely by the hormic impulse, then itrises to the levelof consciousness, and thereafter it goesondeveloping,stagebystage,till itcomesunderthecontroloftheconsciouswill.

This conscious will, if it has developed under natural circumstances,cannotleadtodestructiveactsbecauseithasasitssourcetheforcesoflife:

But the real factsof the situationare that thewilldoesnotlead to disorder and violence. These are signs of emotional

disturbanceand suffering.Underproper conditions, thewillis a force which impels activities beneficial to life. Natureimposes on the child the task of growing up, and his willleadshimtomakeprogressandtodevelophispowers.

WhenMontessoriphilosophythenspeaksofobedience,itisreferringtoanatural characteristicof thehumanbeing.Thisnatural characteristicmust be developed into a controlled or intelligent obedience, acooperationwith the forcesof lifeandnatureonwhichthesurvivalofhumanlifeandsocietydepends.GeorgeDennisonisacontemporarywriterwhohasagoodfeelforthis

growth of intelligent obedience and cooperation in the child, and thewayinwhichtheybecomeestablishedinongoingrelationshipsbetweenadult and child. In Dennison’s view, the child comes to recognize the“naturalauthorityofadults”throughhisexperiencefirstwithhisparentsand laterwithotheradults inhisworld.Theyaccepthim,but in theircaring for him they also place certain demands on him. In his superbbook The Lives of Children, Dennison describes this relationshipdevelopingwithaboynamedJosé.

My own demands then were an important part of José’sexperience.Theywerenotsimplythedemandsofateacher,norofanadult,butbelongedtomyownwayofcaringaboutJosé.Andhe sensed this.Therewas somethingheprized inthe fact that I made demands on him.… We becamecollaborators in thebusinessof life.…Whatheprized,afterall,wasthis:thatanadult,withalifeofhisown,waswillingto teach him.… To the extent that he sensed my lifestretching out beyond him into (for him) the unknown,mymeaningasanadultwasenhanced,andthethingsIalreadyknew and might teach him gained the luster they reallypossessinlife.

A fifth psychic principle—the development of the intelligence—governsthekeytounderstandinglifeitself.Thisisthe“keywhichsetsinmotionthemechanismsessentialtoeducation.”Intelligenceisdefinedas“thesumofthosereflexandassociativeorreproductiveactivitieswhich

enable the mind to construct itself, putting it into relation with theenvironment.”The beginning of intellectual development is the consciousness ofdifference or distinction in the environment. The child makes theseperceptions through his senses; he must then organize them into anorderly arrangement in hismind. Itwill do him no good to have hadcontactwithastimulatingandvariedenvironmentifitonlyresultsinachaos of mental impressions. “To help the development of theintelligenceistohelptoputtheimagesoftheconsciousnessinorder.”Thefirstsignthatthisinternalprocessistakingplacewillbequicknessof response to stimuli, and the secondwill be the orderliness of theseresponses.Asixthnaturallawgovernsthedevelopmentofthechild’simaginationandcreativity.Theseareinbornpowersinthechildthatdevelopashismental capacities are established through his interaction with theenvironment.Theenvironmentmustitselfbebeautiful,harmonious,andbasedonrealityinorderforthechildtoorganizehisperceptionsofit.When he has developed realistic and ordered perceptions of the lifeabout him, the child is capable of the selecting and emphasizingprocesses necessary for creative endeavors. He abstracts the dominantcharacteristicsof things, and thus succeeds inassociating their images,and keeping them in the foreground of consciousness.” Montessoriemphasized that this selective capability requires three qualities: aremarkable power of attention and concentrationwhich appear almostasaformofmeditation;aconsiderableautonomyandindependenceofjudgment;andanexpectantfaiththatremainsopentotruthandreality.Montessoriwasparticularlyconcernedwiththelatterquality,forshefelt adults often inadvertently hinder its development in children. Theyoungchildhasatendencytocreatefantasiesanddwellonthem.Adultshavebeenaccustomedtoconsidertheseasproofofthechild’ssuperiorimaginative abilities. Montessori considered them proof not of hisimagination, but of his dependent and powerless position in life. “Anadult resigns himself to his lot; a child creates an illusion.” Similarly,Montessori regarded the child’s belief in the fruit of the adult’simaginations—such as the Santa Claus tradition—as proof not of thechild’simagination,butofhiscredulity,acredulitythatdisappearsashematures and his intelligence develops. The adult substitutes his

imagination for the child’s because he continually sees the child as apassivebeingforwhomhemustact.

Thechildisusuallyconsideredasareceptivebeinginsteadofasanactivebeing,andthishappens ineverydepartmentofhislife.Evenimaginationissotreated;fairytalesandstoriesofenchantedprincessesaretoldwithaviewtoencouragingthe child’s imagination. But when he listens to these andotherkindsof story,he is only receiving impressions.He isnotdevelopinghisownpowerstoimagineconstructively.

In addition to an environment of beauty, order, and reality,Montessori realized that the child needs freedom if he is to developcreativity—freedom to selectwhat attracts him in his environment, torelatetoitwithoutinterruptionandforaslongashelikes,todiscoversolutions and ideas and select his answer on his own, and tocommunicate and sharehis discoverieswith others atwill. The child’salienation or detachment, characteristic ofmost of these phases of thecreative process, has beenwidely recognized by visitors toMontessoriclassrooms.However,itssourceisnotalwaysproperlyidentified.Oftenobserversaremerelysensitive toachild’s temporary isolation fromhisfellows,anddonotrecognizethisstateasapartofthecreativeprocessitself.ThechildintheMontessoriclassroomisalsofreefromthejudgmentbyanoutsideauthoritythatsoannihilatesthecreativeimpulse.Thisisin direct contrast to the traditional school setting,where the basis forevaluation is always outside the child. The disastrous results of thiscontrollingandconstantlyjudgingclassroomenvironmentaresensitivelyrecordedinJohnHolt’sbookHowChildrenFail.Incontrasttotraditionaleducation, Montessori deserves credit for an early appreciation of thescope of creativity and for developing bettermeans for encouraging itthanhadhithertobeendevised.

A seventh psychic principle deals with the development of theemotional and spiritual life of the child.Montessori believed the childpossesseswithinhimat birth the senses that respond to his emotional

and spiritual environment and thereby develop his capacity for lovingandunderstandingresponsestoothersandtoGod.Theseinbornsensescorrespond to those possessed at birth for responding to the physicalworld and thereby developing the intelligence. The child achieves thedevelopmentofthelatterthroughthestimuliofthematerialworld,butfortheformerheneedsthestimuliofhumanbeings.Heisfirstarousedthroughalovingexperiencewithhismother.Herloveforhimawakenshis internal sensesandmakespossible, in turn,his loving responses toher. Once the child’s emotional awakening has thus occurred, he willbegintorespondtotheofferoflovingrelationshipsfromothers.Itisthewealthofemotionalmaterialinothersthatwillattracthim,evenastherichnessofphysicalstimuliattracthimtohismaterialenvironment.Theattraction is delicate and subtle, and can be destroyed as easily indealingwith the emotional life aswith the intellectual life. Therefore,the free choice of the childmust again be respected. If the adult hasbeen careful to present the child with the means he needs for hisdevelopment and to be always ready to help, but never to dominate,then the child will assuredly respond to the adult’s love and respect.“Thedaywillcomewhenhisspiritwillbecomesensitivetoourspirit.…Thepowertoobeyus,tocommunicatehisconqueststous,tosharehisjoyswithus,willbethenewelementinhislife.”Finally,hewillbeginrespondingtootherchildrenaswell,showinganawarenessandinterestintheirworkandprogressaswellashisown.To achieve emotional and spiritualmaturity, the childmust developnotonlyhis internalcapacityfor love,butalsohismoralsense.Again,Montessori believed this tobe an internal sensepresent at birth. “It isnotsurprisingthatthereshouldbeaninternalsensationwhichwarnsusofperils,andcausesustorecognizethecircumstancesfavorabletolife.”Forthedevelopmentofthemoralsensetotakeplace,thechildneedsanenvironment in which good and evil are clearly differentiated. This“goodandevil”isnottobeconfusedwithacquiredsocialhabits,butisofanultimatenature,andboundupwithlifeitself.“Goodislife;evilisdeath;therealdistinctionisasclearasthewords.”

Aneighthpsychicprincipleisrelatedtothestagesofachild’sgrowth.Montessori observed that the child’sdevelopmentoccurs in stages that

canbe fairlywelldefinedbychronologicalage.Sheoutlined five suchperiodsofgrowth.Theperiodfrombirthtothreeyearsischaracterizedby unconscious growth and absorption. The internal structure ofemotionalandintellectualdevelopmentisbeingcreatedbymeansoftheSensitive Periods and Absorbent Mind. This is a period of unequalledenergy and intense effort for the child, for indeed his whole life willdependuponwhathecanaccomplish.Duringtheperiodbetweenthreeandsix,thechildgraduallybringstheknowledgeofhisunconscioustoaconscious level.Bysix,his inner formationofdisciplineandobediencehasbeenestablished,andhehasdevelopedaninternalmodelofrealityonwhich tobasehis imaginativeandcreativeefforts.Betweensixandnine, then, he is capable of building the academic and artistic skillsessentialforalifeoffulfillmentinhisculture.Intheperiodfromninetotwelve,thechildisreadytoopenhimselftoknowledgeoftheuniverseitself. It is similar to the earlier period from birth to three, when heeagerly absorbed everything in his environment. However, he is nowlearningwith his consciousmind, and, instead of being limited to hisimmediate environment, he can range as far as the cosmos itself. Hisintellectual interest for a lifetime will depend upon his opportunitiesduringthisperiod.Thisiswhyhisschoolingatthistimemustincludeascompleteanexposuretotheworldaspossible,andnotbebrokendowninto isolatedunitsof subjectmatteras isnowcustomary in traditionalschools. The period from twelve to eighteen is the time for exploringmore concentrated areas of interest in depth. The child should bechoosing the pattern of endeavor hewill follow for life, and so it is aperiod of limiting choices. This period of decision is postponed in ourculture until a later age. Since it is usually not encouraged or evenpermitted at the natural age, unnecessary emotional and intellectualproblems occur. The adolescent rebellion so taken for granted in ourculture is a phenomenon not seen in many other civilizations.Montessori’s background in anthropology may have been a principalreason for her insight into these problems of adolescence based onculturalpatterns.BecauseitwasthroughobservationofthechildthatMontessorimadeher discoveries of the Sensitive Periods, the Absorbent Mind, and thenatural laws governing psychic development, she determined thateducationmusthaveanewgoal:tostudyandobservethechildhimself

from the moment of his conception. Only in this way can a neweducationbasedonaidingtheinnerpowersofthechildbedevelopedtoreplacethepresentmethod,whichisbasedonthetransmissionofpastknowledge. If thiscouldbedone,Montessori felt, therewouldbehopeforourtroubledworld.

Aloneascientificenquiryintohumanpersonalitycanleadusto salvation, and we have before us in the child a psychicentity, a social group of immense size, a veritable world-powerifrightlyused.Ifsalvationandhelparetocome,itisfromthechild, forthechildistheconstructionofman,andso of society. The child is endowed with an inner powerwhich can guide us to a more luminous future. Educationshouldnolongerbemostlyimpartingofknowledge,butmusttakeanewpath,seekingthereleaseofhumanpotentialities.When should such education begin?Our answer is that thegreatnessofhumanpersonalitybeginsatbirth,anaffirmationfullofpracticalreality,howeverstrikinglymystic.Scientificobservationthenhasestablishedthateducationis

not what the teacher gives; education is a natural processspontaneously carried out by the human individual, and isacquirednotby listening towordsbutby experiencesuponthe environment. The task of the teacher becomes that ofpreparingaseriesofmotivesofculturalactivity,spreadovera specially prepared environment, and then refraining fromobtrusive interference. Human teachers can only help thegreatwork that is being done, as servants help themaster.Doing so, they will be witnesses to the unfolding of thehumansoulandtotherisingofaNewManwhowillnotbethe victim of events, but will have the clarity of vision todirectandshapethefutureofhumansociety.

3TheMontessoriMethod

UNLIKE MANY educational philosophers, Montessori developed aneducational method to implement her philosophy. Her genius in thisrespect isanimportantreasonfortheenduringandwidespreadimpactofherwork.Itshouldbekeptinmind,however,thatMontessoriwantedher method to be considered an open-minded one, and not a fixedsystem. She believed in innovation in the classroom, and her wholeapproach to education was in the spirit of constant experimentationbasedonobservationofthechild.There are two key components to the Montessori method: the

environment,includingtheeducationalmaterialsandexercises;andtheteachers who prepare this environment. Montessori considered heremphasis on the environment a primary element in her method. Shedescribed this environment as a nourishing place for the child. It isdesigned to meet his needs for self-construction and to reveal hispersonalityandgrowthpatternstous.Thismeansthatnotonlymustitcontainwhatthechildneedsinapositivesense,butallobstaclestohisgrowthmustberemovedfromitaswell.Although Montessori placed this unusual emphasis on the

environment, it is important to keep three ideas in mind. First, sheregarded the environment as secondary to life itself. “It canmodify inthat itcanhelporhinder,but itcannevercreate.…Theoriginsofthedevelopmentbothinthespeciesandintheindividual, liewithin.”Thechild then does not grow because he happens to be placed in anourishingenvironment.“Hegrowsbecausethepotentiallifewithinhimdevelops, making itself visible.” Second, the environment must becarefullypreparedforthechildbyaknowledgeableandsensitiveadult.Third,theadultmustbeaparticipantinthechild’slivingandgrowingwithinit.

Plainly,theenvironmentmustbealivingone,directedbya

higherintelligence,arrangedbyanadultwhoispreparedforhismission.Itisinthisthatourconceptiondiffersbothfromthatoftheworldinwhichtheadultdoeseverythingforthechild and from that of a passive environment inwhich theadultabandons thechild tohimself…Thismeans that it isnot enough to set the child among objects in proportion tohissizeandstrength;theadultwhoistohelphimmusthavelearnedhowtodoso.

Iftheteacheristoplaythiskeyroleintheenvironmentforthechild,sheclearlymustbeopentolifeandtheprocessofbecomingherself. Ifshe is a rigid person for whom life has become existing rather thangrowing, shewill not be able to prepare a living environment for thechildren.Her classroomwillbea staticplace, rather thanoneactivelyresponsive to the continually changing needs of a growing child. It isessential to keep this understanding in mind before going on to adescription of the Montessori environment; much will depend on theteacher’sabilitytoparticipatewiththechildreninalifeofbecoming.There are six basic components to the Montessori classroomenvironment. They deal with the concepts of freedom, structure andorder, reality and nature, beauty and atmosphere, the Montessorimaterials,andthedevelopmentofcommunitylife.FreedomisanessentialelementinaMontessorienvironmentfortworeasons.First,itisonlyinanatmosphereoffreedomthatthechildcanrevealhimselftous.Sincethedutyoftheeducatoristoidentifyandaidthechild’spsychicdevelopment,hemusthaveanopportunitytoobservethe child in as free and open an environment as possible. If a neweducationis“toarisefromthestudyoftheindividual,suchstudymustoccupyitselfwiththeobservationoffreechildren.”Second,ifthechildpossesseswithinhimselfthepatternforhisowndevelopment,thisinnerguidemustbeallowedtodirectthechild’sgrowth.Although previous educators had espoused liberty for the child,Montessorihadanewconceptinmind.

Itistruethatsomepedagogues,ledbyRousseau,havegivenvoice to impracticalprinciplesandvagueaspirations for theliberty of the child, but the true concept of liberty is

practicallyunknowntoeducators.

The freedom referred to by earlier educators was often a negativereaction to earlier domination—a release from oppressive bonds orprevious submission to authority which results in an outpouring ofdisorder and primitive impulses. Montessori regarded a child givenfreedom in this situation as at themercy of his deviations, andnot incommandofhisownwill.Hewouldnotbefreeatall.Montessori believed that freedom for the child depended upon apreviousdevelopmentandconstructionofhispersonality involvinghisindependence, will, and inner discipline. “Real freedom … is aconsequence of development… of latent guides, aided by education.”These latent guides within the child direct him toward theindependence,will,anddisciplineessentialforhisfreedom.Howishetobe aided in their development? First, he must be helped towardindependence through his environment. “The absurd mistake inenvisaging the freedomof thechild ineducationhas lain in imagininghis hypothetical independence of the adult without correspondingpreparationoftheenvironment.”Thechildmustbegivenactivitiesthatencourageindependence,andhemustnotbeservedbyothersinactshecanlearntoperformforhimself.

No one can be free unless he is independent: therefore, thefirst, active manifestations of the child’s individual libertymustbesoguidedthatthroughthisactivityhemayarriveatindependence.…Wehabituallyservechildren;andthisisnotonlyanactofservility toward them, but it is dangerous, since it tends tosuffocatetheiruseful,spontaneousactivity.…Ourdutytowardhimis,ineverycase,thatofhelpinghimtomakeaconquestofsuchusefulactsasnatureintendedheshouldperform.

Second, the child must be aided in developing his will by beingencouragedtocoordinatehisactionstowardagivenendandtoachievesomethinghehimselfhas chosen todo.Adultsmustbeon theirguardagainsttyrannizinghimandsubstitutingtheirwillsforhis.

Third, the child must be aided in developing discipline by beingprovided with opportunities for constructive work. “To obtaindiscipline…itisnotnecessaryfortheadulttobeaguideormentorinconduct, but to give the child the opportunities ofwork.” The processwherebyinnerdisciplineresultsfromthechild’sworkwillbediscussedinmoredetaillater,butitskeyroleshouldbekeptinmind.Fourth,thechildmustbeaidedindevelopingaclearunderstandingof

goodandevil.“Thefirstideathatthechildmustacquire,inordertobeactivelydisciplined,isthatofthedifferencebetweengoodandevil.”Toachievethisdistinction,theadultmustsetfirmlimitsagainstdestructiveandasocialactions.

Thelibertyofthechildshouldhaveasitslimitthecollectiveinterest; as its form, what we universally consider goodbreeding. We must, therefore, check in the child whateveroffendsorannoysothers,orwhatevertendstowardroughorill-bredacts.

Montessoridescribedaclassroomthathadachievedherconceptoffreeoperation as “a room in which all the children move about usefully,intelligently, and voluntarily, without committing any rough or rudeact.”In striving to develop this freedom, it should be clearly established

thatonlythedestructiveactsofthechildaretobelimited.“Alltherest—everymanifestationhavingausefulscope—whateveritbe,andunderwhatever form itexpresses itself,mustnotonlybepermittedbutmustbeobservedbytheteacher.”Thechildrenare,therefore,freetomoveabouttheclassroomatwill—

ideallytoanoutsideenvironment,weatherpermitting,aswellasinsidethe classroom. Montessori described this outside environment as an“open-air space, which is to be in direct communication with theschoolroom, so that the childrenmay be free to go and come as theylike,throughouttheentireday.”Becauseofthisfreedomofmovement,aMontessori day is not divided between work periods and rest or playperiods,asisacceptedpracticeintraditionalschools.Thechildrenarefreetochoosetheirownactivitiesintheclassroom,

again keeping in mind “that here we do not speak of useless or

dangerous acts, for these must be suppressed.” This protection of thechild’schoiceisakeyelementintheMontessorimethod,anditmustnotbeviolated.“Itisnecessaryrigorouslytoavoidthearrestofspontaneousmovements and the imposition of arbitrary tasks.” In order to have achoice of activities, the child must be presented with a variety ofexercisesdesignedforhisauto-education.

The child, left at liberty to exercise his activities, ought tofind in his surroundings something organized in directrelationtohisinternalorganizationwhichisdevelopingitselfbynaturallaws.

A true choice will depend upon a knowledge of the exercises. Beforeusing thematerials, then, thechildmusthavean introduction to themeitherthroughanindividuallessongivenbytheteacherorbyobservingtheir use by another child. Because they momentarily impose on thechild’sfreedom,theselessonsarebrief.

Weadmiteverylessoninfringesthelibertyofthechild,andforthisreasonweallowittolastonlyforafewseconds.…Itis in the subsequent free choice, and the repetition of theexercise, as in the subsequent activity, spontaneous,associative, and reproductive, that the child will be left“free.”

Inordernottointerferewiththechild’sfreechoiceofactivity,therearenoartificially inducedcompetitionsorrewardsandpunishments intheMontessoriclassroom.

Suchprizesandpunishmentsare…theinstrumentofslaveryforthespirit.…Theprizeandthepunishmentareincentivestowardunnaturalorforcedeffort,andthereforewecertainlycannot speak of the natural development of the child inconnectionwiththem.

Thechildrenaregivenasmuchfreedomtoworkouttheirownsocialrelationswitheachotheraspossible.Montessori felt that, for themostpart, children like to solve their socialproblems,and thatadultscause

harmbytooearlyandfrequentinterference.

When adults interfere in this first stage of preparation forsocial life, they nearly always make mistakes.… Problemsaboundateverystepanditgivesthechildrengreatpleasureto face them.They feel irritated ifwe intervene,and findawayiflefttothemselves.

Unlike traditional classrooms, the children speak to each other andinitiate activities together whenever they like. They are not forced,subtlyorotherwise,tojoininanygroupactivitiesortosharethemselveswithotherswhentheyarenotreadyorinterested.Becausetheyarenotforced to competewith each other, their natural desire to help othersdevelops spontaneously.Thisphenomenon isparticularly interesting towatch in the older and younger children in the classroom,whose agedifferentialmaybeasmuchasfouryears.Because theMontessori approach to the social life of the children is

differentfromthatofatraditionalclassroom,theemphasisonitisoftenmissed.

Teachers who use direct methods cannot understand howsocialbehaviorisfosteredinaMontessorischool.Theythinkitoffersscholasticmaterialbutnotsocialmaterial.Theysay,“If the child does everything on his own,what becomes ofsociallife?”Butwhatissociallifeifnotthesolvingofsocialproblems, behaving properly, and pursuing aims acceptabletoall?Tothem,sociallifeconsistsinsittingsidebysideandhearingsomeoneelse talk;but that is just theopposite.Theonly social life that children get in the ordinary schools isduring playtime or on excursions. Ours live always in anactivecommunity.

Through the freedom he is given in a Montessori environment, thechild has a unique opportunity to reflect upon his own actions, todetermine their consequences both for himself and for others, to testhimselfagainst the limitsofreality, to learnwhatgiveshimasenseoffulfillment andwhat leaves him feeling empty and dissatisfied, and to

discoverbothhiscapabilitiesandhisshortcomings.Theopportunity todevelopself-knowledgeisoneofthemostimportantresultsoffreedominaMontessoriclassroom.A secondkey element in theMontessori environment is its structure

andorder.Theunderlying structureandorderof theuniversemustbereflectedintheclassroomifthechildistointernalizeit,andthusbuildhisownmentalorderandintelligence.Throughthis internalizedorder,thechildlearnstotrusthisenvironmentandhispowertointeractwithitinapositiveway.Itinsuresforthechildthepossibilityofpurposefulactivity.Heknowswhere to go to find thematerials of his choice. Toassist him in his choice, the materials are grouped according to theinteresttheyappealto,andarrangedinsequenceastotheirdifficultyorthedegreeofcomplication.Ordermeans that the child is assured the possibility of a completed

cycleofactivityinusingthematerials.Hewillfindallthepiecesneededfor theexercisehechooses;nothingwillbebrokenormissing.Noonewillbepermittedtointerrupthimortointerferewithhiswork.Hewillreturn the materials to the place—and in the condition—in which hefoundthem.Byreturningthematerials,thechildnotonlyparticipatesinthefullcycleofactivity,butbecomesanintegralpartnerinmaintainingthe order of the classroom. Thematter-of-factway inwhich the childaccepts this responsibility in aMontessori classroom often comes as asurprise toparentandeducatoralike.Weareaccustomed toobservingchildren in environments that are not structured for their needs, andthereforewedonotoftenhaveanopportunitytowitnessthisaspectoftheirdevelopingnatures.Although it is essential that the environment be ordered, it is not

necessary or desirable for every item to remain in exactly the sameplace. In practice, an alert teacher will find it necessary to rearrangecontinuouslymanyindividualitemsintheenvironmentinordertokeepitalivingplace,responsivetothechildrenastheygrow.Forexample,ateacher who feels a piece of material may have become part of thebackground and thus overlooked, or who wishes to draw a child’sattention to an exercise without obvious direction, may place thematerialonatableinaprominentpartoftheroomforadayortwo.Theteacherwillfindtheflexibilitysheneedstomaintainthenecessaryorderintheclassroom,withoutcreatingastaticenvironment, ifshekeepsin

mindtheunderlyingpurposeofstructureforthechild:itisnottoservetheneedsofinsecureorrigidadults,buttoaidchildreninbuildingtheirintelligenceandtrustintheenvironment.Athirdcomponentof theMontessorienvironment is itsemphasisonreality and nature. The childmust have the opportunity to internalizethelimitsofnatureandrealityifheistobefreedfromhisfantasiesandillusions, both physical and psychological. Only in this way can hedeveloptheself-disciplineandsecurityheneedstoexplorehisexternalandinternalworldsandtobecomeanacuteandappreciativeobserveroflife.Theequipmentintheclassroom,therefore,isgearedtobringingthechild into closer contact with reality. A refrigerator, stove, sink, andtelephone are all authentic. The silver to be polished is tarnished.Nourishing food is prepared and served. Not only is the equipmentrealistic,but it isnotdesigned tohideand thereforeencourageerrors.Thefurnitureislight,andreasonablecaremustbetakennottoknockitover.Often real glasses areused for juice, aheated iron for ironing, asharpknifeforcuttingvegetables.Alsoinkeepingwiththerealworld,whereeveryonecannothavethesamethingatonce,thereisonlyonepieceofeachtypeofequipmentintheMontessoriclassroom.Becausehehasnoalternative,thechildlearnstowaituntilanotherisfinishediftheexercisehewantsisinuse.“Thechildcomestoseethathemustrespecttheworkofothers,notbecausesomeonehassaidhemust,butbecausethis isarealityhemeetsinhisdailyexperience.”Montessoriemphasizedtheimportanceofcontactwithnatureforthedevelopingchild.Man“stillbelongstonature,and,especiallywhenheisa child, he must needs draw from it the forces necessary to thedevelopmentofthebodyandofthespirit.”Themethodshefavoredforthe initial contact with nature was through the care of plants andanimals. Montessori was aware that, with the spread of urban life, itwouldbeincreasinglydifficulttosatisfythisdeepneedofthechild.Shewas,however,insistent:

There must, however, be provision for the child to havecontactwithNature;tounderstandandappreciatetheorder,the harmony, and the beauty inNature; and also tomasterthenaturallawswhicharethebasisofallsciencesandarts,

sothatthechildmaybetterunderstandandparticipateinthemarvelousthingswhichcivilizationcreates.Speedingupthemarch of civilization and at the same time being in touchwithNaturecreateadifficultsocialproblem.Itthusbecomesadutyof society tosatisfy theneedsof thechildatvariousstagesofdevelopment, if thechildandconsequentlysocietyandmankindarenottogounderbutaretoadvanceontheroadofprogress.

This emphasis on nature should permeate the atmosphere of theMontessori environment, and be one of its most readily recognizablecomponents. The roomand outside area should be alivewith growingthingsofallkindswhicharecaredforbythechildren.Inaddition,thereshould bemagnifying glasses,microscopes, and simple experiments ofmany varieties for the children to perform themselves. Perhaps mostimportant of all, the childrenmust have unhurried time in thewoodsandcountrytodiscoveronenesswithcreationandabsorbthewonderofthenaturalworld.Closely connected with an emphasis on nature is a fourth conceptfundamentaltotheMontessorienvironment—beautyandanatmospherethat encourages a positive and spontaneous response to life. PerhapsbecauseDr.Montessoribeganherlifeasaneducatorwithchildrenfrominsaneasylumsandslums,shewasparticularlysensitivetothisneedofthe child. She regarded beauty not as an extra aid for the developingchild,butasapositiveneedincallingforthhispowertorespondtolife.Becausetruebeautyisbaseduponsimplicity,theclassroomneednotbeanelaborateplace;buteverythingwithinitmustbeofgooddesignandquality, and as carefully and attractively displayed as a well-plannedexhibit. The colors should be bright and cheerful, and harmoniouslyarranged.Theatmosphereoftheroommustberelaxingandwarm,andinviteparticipation.A fifth component of the classroom, the Montessori equipment, iswidely publicized and its role often misunderstood. Because of theirvisibility,theMontessorimaterialstendtobeoveremphasizedinrelationto the other elements in the Montessori method. In addition, theirpurpose is often confused. They are not learning equipment in theconventionalsense,becausetheiraimisnottheexternaloneofteaching

childrenskillsorimpartingknowledgethrough“correctusage.”Rather,the aim is an internal one of assisting the child’s self-construction andpsychicdevelopment.Theyaidthisgrowthbyprovidingthechildwithstimulithatcapturehisattentionandinitiateaprocessofconcentration.

The first essential for the child’s development isconcentration.…Hemust find out how to concentrate, andfor thisheneeds things toconcentrateupon.…Indeed, it isjustherethattheimportanceofourschoolsreallylies.Theyareplacesinwhichthechildcanfindthekindofworkthatpermitshimtodothis.

Iftheteacherhasmaterialstoofferthatpolarizethechild’sattention,hewill find it possible to give the child the freedom he needs for hisdevelopment.In order to serve their purpose of internal formation, the materials

must correspond to the child’s inner needs. This means that anyindividualmaterialmustbepresentedtothechildattherightmomentinhisdevelopment.Montessorisuggestedagelevelsforintroducingeachof her materials to the child; however, the sensitive moment forintroductiontoanyindividualchildmustbedeterminedbyobservationand experimentation. The teacher watches for the quality ofconcentrationinthechildandforaspontaneousrepetitionofhisactionswithamaterial.Theseresponseswillindicatethemeaningfulnessofthematerialtohimatthatparticularmomentinhisgrowthandwhethertheintensityof the stimuluswhich thatmaterial represents forhim isalsomatchedtohisinternalneeds.Boththematerialitselfandtheintensityofstimulusitpresentscanbevariedtomeetthechild’sinnerneeds.Thequantityofthestimulialsomustbeadjustedtothechild’sneeds.

An excessive quantity of the educative material … maydissipate theattention, render theexerciseswith theobjectsmechanical,andcausethechildtopassbyhispsychologicalmoment of ascent without perceiving it and seizing it.…Over-abundancedebilitatesandretardprogress;thishasbeenprovedagainandagain.

Becausematching thematerials to the child’s inner needs is essential,therecanbenorotefollowingofthedesignedprogressioninintroducingthematerials.The teachermustbe flexible in altering the sequenceoromittingmaterialsanindividualchildshowsnoneedfor.Because educational materials of the past had been designed for a

passivechildwaitingtoreceive instructions,Montessoriconsideredhermaterials a “scientific departure” from the past. Hermaterials insteadarebasedon

the conception of an active personality—reflex andassociative—developingitselfbyaseriesofreactionsinducedby systematic stimuli which have been determined byexperiment. This new pedagogy accordingly belongs to theseriesofmodernsciences.…The“method”which informs it—namely, experiment, observation, evidence or proof, therecognition of new phenomena, their reproduction andutilization—undoubtedly place it among the experimentalsciences.

Thisnewapproachtoeducation,suggestedtoherbytheworkof ItardandSéguin,was regardedbyMontessori asher “initial contribution toeducation”and“thekey”tothecontinuationofherwork.Inadditiontomeaningfulnesstothechild,thereareatleastfiveother

principlesinvolvedinthedeterminingofMontessorimaterials.First,thedifficultyortheerrorthatthechildistodiscoverandunderstandmustbe isolated in a single piece of material. This isolation simplifies thechild’s task for him and enables him to perceive the problem morereadily.A towerofblockswill present to the childonly avariation insize from block to block—not a variation in size, color, designs, andnoises,suchasareoftenfoundinblocktowersinAmericantoystores.Second, thematerials progress from simple tomore complex design

andusage.Afirstsetofnumericalrodstoteachsedationvaryinlengthonly.After discovering length sensorially through these rods, a secondset, colored red and blue, in one-meter dimension, can be used toassociate numbers and length and to understand simple problems ofaddition and subtraction. A third set of rods, much smaller in sizebecause the initial dependence on sensorial learning and motor

developmenthasbeenpassed,isusedinassociationwithaboardchartfor more complicated mathematical problems and the introduction ofwritingnumericalproblems.Third, thematerials are designed to prepare the child indirectly for

future learning. The development ofwriting is a good example of thisindirectpreparation.Fromthebeginning,knobsonmaterials,bywhichthechildliftsandmanipulatesthem,haveactedtocoordinatehisfingerand thumbmotor action.Through themakingof designs that involvesusingmetalinsetstoguidehismovements,thechildhasdevelopedtheability touse apencil.By tracing sandpaper letterswithhis finger,hehasdevelopedamusclememoryofthepatternforformingletters.Whenthedayarrivesthatthechildismotivatedtowrite,hecandosowithaminimum of frustration and anxiety. This principle of indirectpreparation enables the child to experience success in his endeavorsmuch more readily and aids the development of self-confidence andinitiative.Fourth, the materials begin as concrete expressions of an idea and

gradually become more and more abstract representations. A solidwooden triangle is sensorially explored. Separate pieces of woodrepresenting its base and sides are then presented, and the triangle’sdimensions discovered. Later, flat wooden triangles are fitted intowooden puzzle trays, then on solidly colored paper triangles, then ontriangles outlined with a heavy colored line, and finally on theabstraction of thinly outlined triangles. At a certain stage in thisprogression, the child will have grasped the abstract essence of theconcretematerial, andwill no longer be dependent upon or show thesameinterestinthem.

Whentheinstruments[materials]havebeenconstructedwithgreat precision, they provoke a spontaneous exercise socoordinated and so harmonious with the facts of internaldevelopment,thatatacertainpointanewpsychicalpicture,a species of higher plane in the complex development, isrevealed. The child turns away spontaneously from thematerial, not with any signs of fatigue, but rather as ifimpelled by fresh energies, and his mind is capable ofabstractions.

Thegreaterachild’sabsorptionwithapieceofmaterial,themorelikelythat he is making the transition from concrete knowledge to abstractknowledge.Thisisanaturalprocessthatshouldnotbeinterferedwith.If,atthispoint,theteachertriestoemphasizeconcreteobjectswiththechild,shewillinterrupthisnaturaldevelopment.Montessorimaterialsaredesignedforauto-education,andthecontrol

oferrorliesinthematerialsthemselvesratherthanintheteacher.Thecontroloferrorguidesthechildinhisuseofthematerialsandpermitshimtorecognizehisownmistakes.

“Control of error” is any kind of indicator which tells uswhetherwearegoingtowardourgoal,orawayfromit.…Wemust provide this as well as instruction and materials onwhich towork.Thepower tomakeprogress comes in largemeasure from having freedom and an assured path alongwhich to go; but to this must also be added some way ofknowingif,andwhen,wehaveleftthepath.

Thisdialoguewiththematerialsputsthechildincontrolofthelearningprocess.Theteacherisnottousurpthisrolebypointingoutthechild’serror tohim. If thechildcannot seehiserror in spiteof thematerial’sdesign,itmeanshehasnotsufficientlydevelopedtodoso.Intime,hewillbeabletoseeitandwillcorrecthisownerrors.Ablockofwood,inwhichthechildplacescylindersofvaryingsizesin

correspondingholes, is an exampleof control of errordesignedwithinthematerials.Ifthecylindersarenotmatchedinthecorrectholes,therewill be one cylinder left over. Again, it is not the problem alone thatintereststhechildandaidshisprogress:

Whatintereststhechildisthesensation,notonlyofplacingthe objects, but of acquiring a new power of perception,enablinghimtorecognizethedifferenceofdimensioninthecylinders.

Itisnotnecessarytodesignthecontroloferrorintoallthematerialsin such a mechanical way as the cylinder block. As the materialsprogress in complication, the control of error is shifted to the child

himself,whohasgraduallydevelopedhisabilitytorecognizedifferencesofdimensionbysight.Controloferrorisalsointroducedatalaterstagebyprovidingthechildwithmodelswithwhichtocomparehiswork.Hecan find the answers to a certain set of mathematical problems, forexample,onachartboarddesignedforthatpurposeandfreelyavailabletohim.

But,howeverslightthecontroloferrormaybe,andinspiteofthefactthatthisdivergesmoreandmorefromanexternalmechanism, to rely upon the internal activities which aregraduallydeveloping,italwaysdepends,likeallthequalitiesof the objects, upon the fundamental reaction of the child,whoaccordsitprolongedattention,andrepeatstheexercises.

There are several basic rules in the use of theMontessorimaterials.Because they are designed for a serious purpose—the child’s owndevelopment—thechildrenarerequiredtotreatthemwithrespect.Theyarehandledcarefully,andonlyaftertheiruseisunderstood.Whenthechildusesanexercise,hebringsallthematerialsnecessaryandarrangesthem carefully on a mat or rug in an organized manner. When he isfinished,hereturnsthemtotheshelf,leavingthemingoodorderforthenextchild.Thechildhasarightnottobeinterruptedwhenusingthematerials,

eitherbyother childrenor the teacher.Here the teachermustbeveryalert.Praiseorevenasmilefromhercandistractthechild,andchildrenhave been known to stop and put their work away with no moreinterferencethanthis.The introduction of new material to the child is called the

FundamentalLesson.Thepurposeofthislessonisnotonlytopresentthechildwithakey to thematerialsand theirpossibilities forhim,but toenable the teacher to discover more about the child and his innerdevelopment. She uses the lesson to observe his reactions, and willexperimentwithdifferentapproaches tohim. In this sense, “the lessoncorrespondstoanexperiment.”Choosingtherightmomenttointroducea lessonto thechildrequiressensitivityandexperience.Theteacher ismomentarilytakingtheinitiativefromthechildindirectinghisgrowth.

Insuchadelicatetask,agreatartmustsuggestthemoment,and limit the intervention, inorder thatwe shall arousenoperturbation, cause no deviation, but rather that we shallhelp the soulwhich is coming into the fullness of life, andwhichshalllivefromitsownforces.

Such lessons will be given almost exclusively on an individual basis.Sincenotwochildrencanbeexactlyinthesamestateofdevelopmentatone time, thebestmoment for a specific lessonwill not correspond intwocasesatonce.Further,

the children being free are not obligated to remain in theirplaces quiet and ready to listen to the teacher, or towatchwhat she is doing [collective lessons are unlikely to besuccessful, and cannot be used as a primary source ofintroducingmaterials].Thecollective lessons, in fact,areofverysecondary importance,andhavebeenalmostabolishedbyus.

TheFundamentalLessonisdefinedas

adeterminateimpressionofcontactwiththeexternalworld;it is the clear, scientific, pre-determined character of thiscontactwhichdistinguishesitfromthemassofindeterminatecontacts which the child is continually receiving from hissurroundings.

Inorderforthiscontacttobeofdefiniteandclearcharacter,theteachermusthaveathoroughknowledgeofthematerials,andhavedeterminedbeforehand by conscientious practice the exact way in which she isgoingtopresenttheexercise.Thechildrespondstotheprecisionofthispresentationbecauseitfulfillsaninnerneedforhim.

Thechildnotonlyneedssomethinginterestingtodo,butalsolikestobeshownexactlyhowtodoit.Precisionisfoundtoattract him deeply, and this it is that keeps him at work.From this we must infer that his attraction toward thesemanipulativetaskshasanunconsciousaim.Thechildhasan

instinct to coordinate his movements and to bring themundercontrol.

Inadditiontoprecisionandorderlypresentation,thecharacteristicsoftheFundamentalLessonarebrevity,simplicity,andobjectivity.Byusingfew and simplewords, the teacher canmore readily convey the truththatlieshiddeninthematerials.

The lesson must be presented in such a way that thepersonalityoftheteachershalldisappear.Thereshallremainin evidence only the object towhich shewishes to call theattentionofthechild.

After the teacher has presented thematerial in thisway, she invitesthechildtousethematerialasshehasdone.Duringthisfirstuseofthematerial by the child, the teacher remains with him to observe hisactions,takingcarenottointerferewithhisliberty.

Theteachershallobservewhetherthechildinterestshimselfin the object, howhe is interested in it, for how long, etc.,evennoticing the expressionofhis face.And shemust takegreat carenot tooffend theprinciplesof liberty.For, if sheprovokes the child tomake anunnatural effort, shewill nolongerknowwhatisthespontaneousactivityofthechild.If,therefore, the lesson rigorously prepared in this brevity,simplicity, and truth is not understood by the child, is notacceptedbyhimasanexplanationoftheobject,theteachermustbewarnedoftwothings:first,nottoinsistbyrepeatingthelesson;andsecond,nottomakethechildfeelthathehasmade a mistake, or that he is not understood, because indoingsoshewillcausehimtomakeanefforttounderstand,andwill thusalter thenatural statewhichmustbeusedbyherinmakingherpsychologicalobservation.

Ifthechildshowsbyhisresponsesthattheteacherhasmisjudgedhermomentofintroduction,theteachersuggeststheyputthematerialawayand use it again another day. If the child shows hewas ready for the

presentation, the teachercanreinforce theexperiencesubtly throughasmileorsimple“that’s fine,”andleavethechildtousethematerialaslongashelikes.Knowing how to use the material is only the beginning of itsusefulnesstothechild.Itisintherepetitionofitsusethatrealgrowthforthechild—thedevelopmentofhispsychicnature—takesplace.Thisrepetitionoccursonly if thechildhasunderstood the idea theexerciserepresents,andifthisideacorrespondstoaninnerneedofthechild.

Amentalgraspoftheidea[ofthematerial]isindispensableto the beginning of repetition. The exercisewhich developslife, consists in the repetition, not in themere grasp of theidea…This phenomenon does not always occur.… In fact,repetition corresponds to a need.… It is necessary to offerthoseexerciseswhichcorrespondtotheneedofdevelopmentfeltbyanorganism.

Itis,then,repetitionofanexercisethattheteacherwillwatchfor.Whenthisphenomenonoccurs,sheknowsshehashelpedtomatchthechild’sinnerneedswithhis environmental aids fordevelopment, and she canleavehimtodirecthisownlearning.After a period of repetitive use of an exercise in its originallyunderstoodform,yetanotherphenomenonappears:thechildwillbegintocreatenewwaysinwhichtousethematerial,oftencombiningseveraldifferent exercises that are interrelated or comparing the material torelated objects inhis environment. It is the child’s inner development,combinedwiththecreativepossibilitieshiddenwithinthedesignofthematerials,thatmakesthisburstofcreativeactivitypossible.Becausethechilddoesn’tknowthatmanyofhisowndiscoverieswiththematerialshavebeenmadebyothersbefore, theybelongtohiminaveryspecialwayandenablehimtoexperiencethethrillofdiscoveringtheunknownforhimself.Becauseoriginallythechildrenareshownawayofusingthematerialsso that they can develop some knowledge and skill with them, manypeopledonotrealizetheirpotentialfordevelopingcreativitywithinthechild. They envision children going through rigid and mechanicalactions with the material—continuous repetitions of what they have

beenshownandneverleadingtonewactivity.JohnDeweyviewedtheMontessori method in this way, claiming that Montessori hadaccomplished physical freedom in the classroom but not intellectualfreedom:

Butthereisnofreedomallowedthechildtocreate.Heisfreeto choosewhichapparatushewill use,butnever to choosehisownends,nevertobendamaterialtohisownplans.Forthe material is limited to a fixed number of things whichmustbehandledinacertainway.

One reason educators and parents adopt this limited view of theMontessori materials is that they are not accustomed to seeing veryyoung children work freely with truly creative materials. Most of thetoysandmaterialsgiventothechildaresonarrowinscope,design,andpurposethatheliterallycangonowherewiththem.Hehastoattempttomake them into something else because what is there is totallyunsatisfying.Heneedsnointroductiontosuchmaterialsbecausethereisbasicallynothingtointroduce,nothingwaitingtheretobediscovered.Inhis search for somethingof value in them, the child takes themapart,and, because of their flimsy construction, he inadvertently destroysthem.TheMontessorimaterials,onthecontrary,arecarefullydesignedandconstructedwithdefinitepurposesinmind.Theircontinuedimpacton and interest for children over a period of fifty years is sufficienttestimonytotheircreativepossibilities.Ofcourse,itispossiblefortheteachertopre-emptthechild’srighttomakehisowndiscoverieswiththeMontessorimaterials,byshowinghimmorethantheirbasicidea,andthusrobhimofthejoyofcreativitythatshould have been his. Classrooms where this consistently occurs areeasilyspottedthroughtheirmechanicalatmosphere.Themotionsoflifecanbeseen,butnotlivingitself.OneMontessoriteacherdescribessuchclassroomsas “horizontal.” It ismisuseof thematerials on thepart ofsome teachers that accounts for this occurrence, not the method ormaterials themselves, which are specifically designed to encouragecreativity.Aftertheteacher isconvincedthataconcepthasbeenestablishedinthe child’s mind through his use of the materials, she introduces the

exactnomenclaturetocorrespondtothenewconcept.ShedoesthisbyamethoddevelopedbySéguinentitledthe“ThreePeriodLesson.”Inthefirst step, the teachersimplyassociates thenameofanobjectwith theabstract idea the name represents, such as the concepts of rough andsmooth. She is careful not to confuse the child by introducing anyextraneouswordsorexplanations.Inthesecondstep,theteacherteststoseeifthenameisstillassociatedinthechild’smindwiththeobject.Sheasksthechild,“whichistheredone,whichtheblue?”or“whichislong,which is short?” If the child does not succeed in the association, theteacherdoesnotcorrecthim.

Indeed,why correct him? If the child has not succeeded inassociatingthenamewiththeobject,theonlywayinwhichto succeedwould be to repeat both the action of the sensestimuli and the name; in otherwords, to repeat the lesson.Butwhen thechildhas failed,weshouldknowthathewasnotatthatinstantreadyforthepsychicassociationwhichwewished to provoke in him, and we must therefore chooseanothermoment.

If the child has succeeded in establishing the association desired, theteacher proceeds to the third step, asking the child to pronounce theappropriatevocabularyhimself.After vocabulary is thus established, the child is capable of

communicating a generalization of ideas. He finds in his environmentobjectsthatcorrespondtohisnewknowledge:“theskyisblue”or“theflowersmellssweet.”

In dealing with normal children, we must await thisspontaneous investigation of the surroundings.… In suchcases, thechildrenexperiencea joyateach freshdiscovery.They are conscious of a sense of dignity and satisfactionwhichencouragesthemtoseekfornewsensationsfromtheirenvironmentandtomakethemselvesspontaneousobservers.

TheMontessorimaterialsareroughlydividedintofourcategories:thedaily-living exercises involving the physical care of person and

environment, the sensorial, the academic, and the cultural and artisticmaterials.Usually,thechildisintroducedfirsttosomeoftheexercisesofdaily

living.Thisisbecausetheyinvolvesimpleandprecisetasks,whichtheyoung child has already observed adults perform in his homeenvironment and thereforewishes to imitate. This desired imitation isintellectual in nature because it is based on the child’s previousobservation and knowledge. Because these exercises should have theirrootsinthechild’simmediateenvironmentandculture,therecanbenoprescribed list of materials involved. The individual teacher mustarrange her own exercises, using materials based on Montessoriprinciples of beauty and simplicity, isolation of difficulty, proceedingfromsimpletocomplex,andindirectpreparation.Althoughtheexercisesare skill-oriented in the sense that they involve washing a table orshiningone’s shoes, theirpurpose isnot tomaster these tasks for theirown sake. It is rather to aid the inner construction of discipline,organization,independence,andself-esteemthroughconcentrationonapreciseandcompletedcycleofactivity.

The exercises of practical life are formative activities. Theyinvolve inspiration, repetition, and concentration on precisedetails.Theytakeintoaccountthenaturalimpulsesofspecialperiods of childhood. Though for themoment the exerciseshavenomerelypracticalaims,theyareaworkofadaptationtotheenvironment.Suchadaptationtotheenvironmentandefficient functioning therein is the very essence of a usefuleducation.

After innerdiscipline,confidence,andaconceptionofa fullcycleofactivityareinitiatedthroughtheexperienceofdailyliving,thechildisready to be introduced to the sensorial materials. The aim of thesematerials is the education and refinement of the senses: visual, tactile,auditory, olfactory, gustatory, thermic, baric, sterognostic, andchromatic. This education is not undertaken so that the senses mayfunctionbetter;itisrathertoassistthechildinthedevelopmentofhisintelligence,whichisdependentupontheorganizingandcategorizingofhissenseperceptionsintoaninnermentalorder.Again,“itisexactlyin

therepetitionoftheexercisesthattheeducationofthesensesconsists.”The academicmaterials are used to teach initially language,writing

and reading, mathematics, geography, and science; they are a naturalprogression of the sensorial apparatus. They build upon the innerknowledgeandconstructionthechildhasachievedthroughhispreviousmanipulations on the concrete sensorial level and guide him to evermore abstract realms. The primary aim of the academic materials isagain an inner one. It is not to store a quantity of knowledge in thechild,buttosatisfyhisinnatedesireforlearningandthedevelopmentofhisnaturalpowers.The cultural and artistic materials deal with self-expression and the

communicationofideas.Likethedaily-livingexperiences,manyofthesematerialsarebynecessityrootedinthechild’scultureandenvironmentand will therefore largely be determined by the individual teacher.Montessoridid,however,designatesomeprinciplesandequipmentthatareuniversallyapplicable.Shefeltthefirststepinmusicistoarousethechild’s loveandappreciation, andhe thereforemustbe surroundedbygoodmusicinhisenvironment.Rhythmandmetricalexercisescanthenbedeveloped.Activitiessuchas“walkingontheline”preparethemotororgansforrhythmicalexercises.InthisMontessoriexercise,thechildrenusea linedrawnon the floorasaguidewhile theymoveveryslowly,march, or run in rhythmwith themusic. This develops their sense ofbalance and control ofmovements of their hands and feet, which arenecessary fordance,aswellasbeingapreparation formusic.A singlemusical phrase is repeated several times, or contrasting phrases areplayed,helpingthechildtodevelophissensibilitytomusicandcapacityforinterpretingdifferingrhythmsintomovement.Thenextstepisthestudyofharmonyandmelody.Forthisthechild

beginswith very simple and primitive instruments suitable to his sizeand potentialities. He is given brief lessons on how to use theinstruments,and is thenpermitted touse themfreely.Thewritingandreading of music follows. The recognition of musical sounds haspreviouslybeentaughtbyasensorialexercisewithmusicalbellswhichare paired and arranged according to pitch.Wooden discs shaped likenoteswithdo,re,mi,etc.,printedonthemareplacedatthefootofeachbell according to its sound. In thisway, even very young children areawareofnotesassymbolsofsounds.Montessoridevisedseveralwooden

scale-boardswiththemovablenotediscssothatthechildrencouldteachthemselves the notes in scale aswell as treble and bass staffs. At thispoint,childrencancomposeandreadmelodiesusingthenotediscs,andreproducethemonthebells.Olderchildrendevelopmusicalnotebookssimilartothoseusedforwriting.Montessori gave no formal lessons in drawing ormodeling. Instead,

she concentrated on establishing a foundation within the child so hecouldbesuccessfulatthemonhisowninitiative.Thefoundationforartanddrawing is thesameas that forwriting:exercises thatdevelop themuscles of the fingers and hands for holding pencils and makingcontrolled movements. In addition, the development of the sensesthrough the sensorial exercises aids the child’s awareness and artisticappreciationofhisenvironment.

We do not teach drawing by drawing, however, but byproviding the opportunity to prepare the instruments ofexpression.This I consider tobea real aid to freedrawing,which,notbeingdreadfulandincomprehensible,encouragesthechildtocontinue.

The child’s understanding of outline and color are also developedthroughspecialexercises,andthechildlearnshowtomixpaintsbeforepaintingitselfisintroduced.Insculpturealsotherearenoformallessonsbeyondanintroductionto

the materials. The child is left to work in free design. In some earlyMontessori schools a potter’s wheel was used by the children, anddiminutivebrickswerebaked ina furnaceandused to constructwallsandbuildings,stimulatingabeginninginterestinarchitecture.Montessori’s approach to the arts is a good example of her indirect

approach to learning, which leads to increased creativity. Thefoundationislaid,andthechildisthenleftfreetodohisownexploring.Noonetriesto“teach”himfromhisownfinishedwork,forinterferingin completed work always presents an obstacle to the child’sdevelopment.A sixth component of theMontessorimethod is the development of

communitylife.ThespontaneouscreationofacommunityofchildrenisoneofthemostremarkableoutcomesoftheMontessoriapproach.This

developmentisaidedbyseveralkeyelementsintheMontessorimethod.One of these is the sense of ownership and responsibility the childrendevelop toward the classroom environment, largely because theclassroomisindeedtheirsandtheirsalone.Everythinginitisgearedtotheir needs—physical, intellectual, and emotional. The teacher herselfhasnopossessionsthere,notevenadeskorchairofadultdimensions.Thechildrenarethekeysourceofmaintainingthedailyorderandcareoftheclassroom.Itistheywhoreturnthematerialstotheshelves,whopolishthetablesandcarefortheplantsandanimals.A second element in the development of community life is the

responsibility the children begin to feel for each other. Because thechildrenforthemostpartworkindependently,particularlyintheearlyyears, many people do not understand how this social concern isdeveloped in Montessori classrooms. Many people asked Montessori,“And how will the social sentiment be developed if each child worksindependently?”butMontessoriwonderedthatthesesamepeoplecouldimagine that the traditional school setting, which regiments thechildren’sactionsandprevents themfromhelpingoneanother in theirworkorevenfromfreelycommunicatingwitheachother,couldpossiblybeconsideredasfosteringsocialconcern.

Wemustthereforeconcludethatthissystemofregimentationin which the children do everything at the same moment,even to visiting the lavatory, is supposed to develop thesocial sentiment. The society of the child is therefore theantithesis of adult society, where sociability implies a freeand well-bred interchange of courtesies and mutual aid,althougheachindividualattendstohisownbusiness.

Montessori instead gave the children freedom in their social relations,limitingtheiractionsonlywhentheyinterferedwiththerightsofothers.Throughthisfreedomthechild’snaturalinterestinothersanddesiretohelp them grow spontaneously. Montessori found this concern andempathyforotherswasparticularlyapparentinthechildren’sreactionstoeachotherwhensomeonedisturbedtheclass.Insteadofreprimandingthe child who was misbehaving, they typically reacted with pity and“regardedhis illbehaviorasamistake, tried tocomforthimby telling

himwewere just as badwhenwe came!” Again,when a child brokesomething,thechildrenquicklycametohelphimcleanup,andshowedthesameinstincttocomfort.A third element aiding the development of community life is the

inclusionofchildrenofdifferingagesineachclass.Theyoungestclass,forexample,typicallyconsistsoftwentyortwenty-fivechildrenofwhichone-third are three-year-olds, one-third four-year-olds, and one-thirdfive-year-olds.At theendof theyear, theoldest thirdmoveson to thesix-to-nine-year-oldgroup,whileanothergroupof three-year-olds joinsthe three-to-six-year-old class. This means each child spendsapproximately three years in each class, with one-third of hiscompanionsbeingneweachyear.Thisemphasisonagemixisbasedinlargepartonthehelpolderchildrenarefoundtogivespontaneouslytotheyoungerones,aswellastheinspirationandexampletheyprovide.

Thereisacommunicationandharmonybetweenthetwothatoneseldomfindsbetweentheadultandthesmallchild.…Itis hard to believe how deep this atmosphere of protectionandadmirationbecomesinpractice.

Theolder child ismore sensitive to thenature anddegree of help theyoungchildneeds.

Theydonothelponeanotheraswedo.…Theyrespectoneanother’sefforts,andgivehelponlywhennecessary.Thisisvery illuminating because it means they respect intuitivelythe essential need of childhood which is not to be helpedunnecessarily.

Although older children are allowed to teach the younger in aMontessori classroom, it should be noted that their own liberty is notinfringeduponnorprogressretardedwhentheydoso.

Peoplesometimesfearthatifachildoffivegiveslessons,thiswillholdhimbackinhisownprogress.But,inthefirstplace,hedoesnot teachall thetimeandhis freedomisrespected.Secondly, teachinghelps him to understandwhat he knows

evenbetterthanbefore.Hehastoanalyzeandrearrangehislittle store of knowledge before he can pass it on. So hissacrificedoesnotgounrewarded.

NotonlydidMontessorimixtheagesofthechildrenineachclass;theclassesthemselvesareideallyseparatednotbysolidwallsbutby“waist-highpartitions; and there is always easy access fromone classroom tothe next … one can always go for an intellectual walk.” Thus theyounger children are inspired by exposure to the possibilities of theirfuture,andolderchildrencanretreat temporarilytoasimplerandlesschallengingenvironmentwhentheyhavesuchaneed.AlthoughMontessori did not emphasize the collective attention of a

groupofchildrenatone time, shedid feelcollectiveeducationhad itsplace as apreparation for life. “For also, in life, it sometimeshappensthatwemustallremainseatedandquiet;when,forexample,weattendaconcertora lecture.Andweknowthateventous,asgrownpeople,this costs no little sacrifice.” She did, therefore, after individualdiscipline had been established, assist children in accomplishing acollective order. She did this principally by helping the children to beawareofgrouporderwhenitwasachieved,ratherthanbyforcingthemtoremaininattentiveorderwhilereceivinginstructions.“Tomakethemunderstand the idea,without calling their attention too forcibly to thepractice,tohavethemassimilateaprincipleofcollectiveorder—thatisthe important thing.”OnetechniqueMontessoridevisedforreinforcingthis principle of collective order is the “silence game.” She began thisgamebydrawingthechildren’sattentiontohowsilentandimmobileshecouldbe,andinvitingthemtoimitatethisabsolutesilence.

TheywatchmeinamazementwhenIstandinthemiddleoftheroom,soquietlythatitisreallyasif“Iwerenot.”Thenthey strive to imitate me, and to do even better. I callattention here and there to a foot that moves, almostinadvertently. The attention of the child is called to everypartofhisbodyinananxiouseagernesstoattainimmobility.

Sometimes whispered instructions are given to individual children toperformcertainactsasquietlyaspossible.Thedelightthechildrenshow

in this silence game is intriguing. They seem to enjoy the feeling of acommon achievement inwhich each plays an integral part;moreover,“The children, after they had made the effort necessary to maintainsilence,enjoyedthesensation,tookpleasureinthesilenceitself.”TheMontessoriteacherwhoisresponsibleforthesesixcomponentsof

thepreparedenvironment for thechild shouldperhapsnotbecalledateacheratall.Montessoricalledhera“directress.”ThistranslationfromtheItalianstilldoesnotconveytheroletheMontessoriteacherplaysinthechild’slife,however,forherapproachisactuallyanindirectratherthanadirectone.Itissimilartothatusedintherapy,wherethegoalisnot to impose the will of one person on another, but to set free theindividual’s own potential for constructive self-development. In thisfurtherdiscussionoftheMontessoriteacher,itwouldbehelpfultokeepin mind this distinction between the teacher as understood in thetraditionalsenseandtheteacheroftheMontessoriapproach.It should also be kept in mind that, although the teacher is here

referredtointhefemininegender,maleteachers,evenforthree-year-oldchildren, are verymuch apart ofMontessori tradition and an integralpart of any classroom’s success. In fact, one of the advantages of theteam-teaching approach ofMontessori is the possibility it presents forhavingbothmaleandfemaleteachersintheclassroom.It has alreadybeen said that the teachermust be a growingperson,

onewhoisinvolvedineverstrivingtowardhisorherownpotential.Inordertobeinvolvedinthisprocessofbecoming,apersonmusthavearealistic knowledge of self and be capable of reflecting objectively onone’sowncapabilitiesandbehavior.Thisdevelopmentofself-knowledgeis an essential first step toward becoming a successful Montessoriteacher.

Therealpreparationforeducationis thestudyofone’sself.The trainingof the teacherwho is tohelp life is somethingfarmorethanthelearningofideas.Itincludesthetrainingofcharacter;itisapreparationofthespirit.

This interior preparation requires guidance fromwithout. “Todiscoverdefects that have become part and parcel of his [the teacher’s]consciousnessrequireshelpandinstruction.”

Montessori felt that the adult, by examining himself in this way,would begin to understandwhat it is that stands in theway betweenadultandchild.

Theadulthasnotunderstoodthechildortheadolescentandis therefore in continual strifewithhim.The remedy is notthat the adult should learn something intellectually, orcompleteadeficientculture.Hemustfindadifferentstartingpoint.Theadultmust find inhimself thehithertounknownerrorthatpreventshimfromseeingthechildasheis.

Montessoribelieved that thiserrorwas theadult’sassumption that thechild is an empty vessel waiting to be filled with our knowledge andexperienceratherthanabeingwhomustdevelophisownpotentialforlife.

Theadulthasbecomeegocentricinrelationtothechild,notegotistic, but egocentric. Thushe considers everything fromthe standpoint of its reference to himself, and somisunderstandsthechild.Itisthispointofviewthatleadstoa consideration of the child as an empty being, which theadult must fill by his own endeavors, as an inert andincapable being for whom everything must be done, as abeing without an inner guide, whom the adult must guidestepby step fromwithout. Finally, theadult acts as thoughhewere the child’s creator, and considers good and evil inthechild’sactionsfromthestandpointofrelationtohimself.… And in adopting such an attitude, which unconsciouslycancelsthechild’spersonality,theadultfeelsaconvictionofzeal,loveandsacrifice.

Adultsmustaimtodiminishtheiregocentricandauthoritarianattitudetoward the child and adopt a passive attitude in order to aid in hisdevelopment. Theymust approach childrenwith humility, recognizingtheirroleasasecondaryone.

The adult must recognize that he must take second place,

endeavorallhecan tounderstand thechild,and to supportandhelphim in thedevelopmentofhis life.This shouldbetheaimofmotherandteacher.Ifthechild’spersonalityistobehelpedtodevelop,sincethechildistheweaker,theadultwithhisstrongerpersonalitymustholdhimselfincheck,and,taking his lead from the child, feel proud if he canunderstandandfollowhim.

To understand and follow the child, the Montessori teacher mustdevelopthedesireandabilitytoobservehim.

Theteachermustbringnotonlythecapacity,butthedesireto observe natural phenomena. In our system, she mustbecomeapassive,muchmorethananactive,influence,andher passivity shall be composed of anxious scientificcuriosity,andofabsoluterespectforthephenomenonwhichshewishestoobserve.Theteachermustunderstandandfeelher position of observer: the activity must lie in thephenomenon.

The ability to hold observation of life in such esteem does not comereadilytotheadult.

Thisidea,thatlifeactsofitself,andthatinordertostudyit,todivineitssecretsortodirectitsactivity,itisnecessarytoobserve it and to understand it without intervening—thisidea, I say, is very difficult for anyone to assimilate and toputintopractice.

In order to do this, “a habit…must be developed by practice.… Toobserve it is necessary to be ‘trained.’ ” This training for scientificobservationisnotamatterprimarilyofmechanicalskill,however.

Itismybeliefthatthethingwhichweshouldcultivateinourteachers ismore the spirit than themechanical skill of thescientist; that is, the direction of the preparation should betowardthespiritratherthantowardthemechanism.

This spirit has three aspects. One is an interest in humanity: “Theinterest inhumanity towhichwewish toeducate the teachermustbecharacterizedbytheintimaterelationshipbetweentheobserverandtheindividual to be observed.” Further, it is an ability to see children asindividuals,eachuniqueandunlikeanyother.

Now,childlifeisnotanabstraction;itisthelifeofindividualchildren.Thereexistsonlyonerealbiologicalmanifestation:the living individual; and toward single individuals, one byoneobserved,educationmustdirectitself.

Finally,itisbasedonthefaiththatthechildcanandwillrevealhimself,andthatthroughthisrevelationtheteacherwilldiscoverwhathisrolemustbe.“Fromthechilditselfhe[theteacher]willlearnhowtoperfecthimselfasaneducator.”Itisnotoutwardgrowthandactivitiestheteacheristowatchfor,buttheinternalcoordinationthatthesemaybemanifesting.

Theimportantpointis,notthattheembryogrows,butthatitcoordinates. “Growth” comes through and by order, whichalso makes life possible. An embryo which grows withoutcoordinatingitsinternalorgansisnotvital.Herewehavenotonly the impulse, but themystery of life. The evolution ofinternalorderistheessentialconditionfortherealizationofvitalexistenceinalifewhichpossessestheimpulsetoexist.Now the sum of the phenomena indicated in the “guide topsychological observation” actually represents the evolutionofspiritualorderinthechild.

Montessorithengivesthefollowing“guidetopsychologicalobservation”of the child in three key areas: his work, his conduct, and thedevelopment of his will and self-discipline to include voluntaryobedience.

WORK—Notewhenachildbeginstooccupyhimselfforanylengthoftimeuponatask.Whatthetaskisandhowlonghecontinuesworkingat it

(slowness in completing it and repetition of the sameexercise).His individual peculiarities in applying himself toparticulartasks.Towhattasksheapplieshimselfduringthesameday,andwithhowmuchperseverance.If he has periods of spontaneous industry, and for howmanydaystheseperiodscontinue.Howhemanifestsadesiretoprogress.Whattaskshechoosesintheirsequence,workingatthemsteadily.Persistenceinataskinspiteofstimuliinhisenvironmentwhichwouldtendtodistracthisattention.If after deliberate interruption he resumes the task fromwhichhisattentionwasdistracted.CONDUCT—Note the stateoforderordisorder in theactsofthechild.Hisdisorderlyactions.Note if changes of behavior take place during thedevelopmentofthephenomenaofwork.Notewhetherduring theestablishmentoforderedactionsthereare:crisesofjoy;intervalsofserenity;manifestationsofaffection.

The part the child takes in the development of hiscompanions.OBEDIENCE—Noteifthechildrespondstothesummonswhenheiscalled.Noteifandwhenthechildbeginstotakepartintheworkofotherswithanintelligenteffort.Notewhenobediencetoasummonsbecomesregular.Notewhenobediencetoordersbecomesestablished.Notewhenthechildobeyseagerlyandjoyously.Notetherelationofthevariousphenomenaofobedienceintheirdegrees

(a)tothedevelopmentofwork;(b)tothechangesofconduct.

In addition to her role as an observer, the teacher serves as thepreparer and communicator of the environment for the child. ThedesigningandcaringfortheenvironmentrequiresamajorportionoftheMontessori teacher’s time and energy, reflecting the dominant roleMontessorigavetoitintheeducativeprocess.

Theteacher’sfirstdutyistowatchovertheenvironment,andthis takes precedence over all the rest. Its influence isindirect,butunless itbewelldone threwillbenoeffectiveand permanent results of any kind, physical, intellectual orspiritual.

She is responsible for the atmosphere and order of the classroom, thedisplay and condition ofmaterials, and the programming of activities,challenges, and changes of pace tomeet each child’s individual needs,Particularemphasisisplacedonkeepingthematerialsinexcellentorder:“All the apparatus is to be kept meticulously in order, beautiful andshining, in perfect condition. Nothing may be missing, so that to thechilditalwaysseemsnew,completeandreadyforuse.”The Montessori teacher also serves as the exemplar in theenvironment, thus inspiringthechildren’sowndevelopment.This isanimportantreasonforhertostriveforflexibility,warmth,andloveoflife,aswellasunderstandingandrespectforself.Shemustbeasphysicallyattractiveaspossible,forinthiswaysheattractsthechildren’sattentionandrespect.

Theteacheralsomustbeattractive,tidyandclean,calmanddignified[forher]appearanceisthefirststeptogainingthechild’s confidence and respect.… So, care for one’s ownpersonmustformpartoftheenvironmentinwhichthechildlives;theteacher,herself,isthemostvitalpartofhisworld.

Lestthisideaofservingasamodelforyoungchildrenbeinterpretedasarequirementforperfection,itisimportanttorealizethatMontessori

hadnosuchexpectationsforherteachers.Sheadvisedtheminsteadtobe realistic about their shortcomings, knowing that in doing so theywould be helping their children to develop a healthy attitude towardtheirownmistakes.

It becomes apparent that everyone makes mistakes. This isoneoflife’srealities,andtoadmititisalreadytohavetakena great step forward. Ifwe are to tread thenarrowpath oftruthandkeepourholduponreality,wehavetoagreethatallofuscanerr;otherwiseweshouldallbeperfect.Soit iswelltocultivateafriendlyfeelingtowarderror,totreatitasacompanioninseparablefromourlives,assomethinghavingapurposewhichittrulyhas.

Andagain,

errorsmade by adults have a certain interest, and childrensympathize with them, but in a wholly detached way. Itbecomesfor themoneof thenaturalaspectsof life,andthefact that we can all make mistakes stirs a deep feeling ofaffectionintheirhearts; it isonemorereasonfortheunionbetweenmotherandchild.Mistakesbringuscloserandmakeusbetterfriends.Fraternityisbornmoreeasilyontheroadoferrorthanonthatofperfection.

The teacher is also the link that puts the child in touch with theenvironment. The child is totally dependent on this help from theteacher: “Thechild’sonehope lies inhis interpreter.” Inparticular,hecannot gain full benefit from the learningmaterial in the environmentwithouttheteacher’sinspirationandguidance.

I felt this, intuitively, and believed that not the didacticmaterial,butmyvoicewhichcalled to them,awakened thechildren,andencouraged them touse thedidacticmaterial,and through it, to educate themselves.… Without suchinspiration[encouragement,comfort, love,andrespect], themostperfectexternalstimulusmaypassunobserved.

The role of communicator is a delicate one, and the teacher must becarefulnottooverdoherpart.

Thereisaperiodoflifeextraordinarilyopentosuggestion—the period of infancy—when consciousness is in process offormation and sensibility toward external factors is in acreativestate.…Wenoticedinourschoolsthatifinshowinga child how to do anything we did so with too muchenthusiasm, or performed the movements with too muchenergy or excessive accuracy, we quenched the child’scapacity of judging and acting according to his ownpersonality.

Montessori teachers function as a team,with two teachers per class,usually an experienced teacher and an assistant. This team approachgivesthechildanoptionastowhichadulthepreferstorelatetoatanygiven time; but more important it means that the teachers are notoperatinginavacuum,withoutbenefitoffeedbackfromanotheradult.At the end of each day, they discuss the progress of each child andexchangeideasandobservations.TheMontessori teachermust give a gooddeal of her time to familyandcommunityrelations.Montessoriviewedthechildasamemberofafamily—not as an isolated individual—and one whose most formativelife experiences take place outside the classroom. She had no illusionsthat,withoutclosecommunicationandcooperationwiththeparents,theschool hours, even though they lasted a full day, could have atransformingeffectforthechild.TheregulationspostedonthewallsforthefirstCasadeiBambinidemonstrateclearlyhowseriouslyMontessoriconsideredthismatter.“Themothersareobligedtosendtheirchildrento the ‘Children’sHouse’clean,andtocooperatewith theDirectress intheeducationalwork.”Iftheparentsdidnotcooperate,theirchildwasreturnedtothem.

If the child shows through its conversation that theeducationalwork of the school is being undermined by theattitude taken in his home, he will be sent back to hisparents, to teach them thus how to take advantage of their

goodopportunities.…Inotherwords,theparentsmustlearnto deserve the benefit of havingwithin the house the greatadvantageofaschoolfortheirlittleones.

Eachmotherwasto

goat leastonceaweektoconferwiththedirectress,givingan account of her child, and accepting any helpful advicewhichthedirectressmaybeabletogive.…Thedirectressisalways at the disposition of themothers, and her life, as acultured and educated person, is a constant example to theinhabitants of the house, for she is obliged to live in thetenementand tobe thereforeacohabitantwith the familiesofallherpupils.Thisisafactofimmenseimportance.

Thisclosecontact,andthefacttheypaidpartofitsexpenses,helpedthe parents feel a special proprietorship toward the school. Theclassroomwasa“propertyofthecollectivity…maintainedbyaportionoftherenttheypay.”Themotherswerepermittedto“goatanyhourofthedaytowatch,toadmire,ortomeditateuponthelifethere.”Bythusestablishing an open relationship with the home environment,Montessori hoped to influence the social background of futuregenerations.

Man is … a social product, and the social environment ofindividualsintheprocessofeducationisthehome.Scientificpedagogywillseekinvaintobetterthenewgenerationifitdoesnotsucceedininfluencingalsotheenvironmentwithinwhichthisnewgenerationgrows!Ibelieve…wehavesolvedtheproblemofbeingabletomodifydirectlytheenvironmentofthenewgeneration.

In addition to maintaining as close a contact as possible with thechildren’s parents and family life, the Montessori teacher has animportant role to play as an interpreter of Montessori aims to thecommunity at large. There is a great demand to know more aboutMontessori education on the part of parents and teachers, andMontessoriteachersmustbecapableandwillingtomeettheirrequestsfor lectures, demonstrations, andvisits. Theydo this as apart of theircommitmenttothechildandhiseducation,acommitmentthatextendsbeyondtheirownclassrooms.What is a classroom based on the freedom and structure of a

Montessori environment, where the teachers follow the indirectapproach of the Montessori method, like? It is a living place, full ofchildren in search of themselves and theirworld. There is a feeling oftotal involvement as children explore and discover, sometimes withmaterialsonrugsonthefloororontables;sometimesalone,sometimestogether.Thereismuchmovement,self-initiatedsocializing,andcasualinterchange between children and between child and teacher. Theteacherishardtofind.Thereisnoteacher’sdesk,noranythingelseintheroomtocastherintheroleofthe“captainatthehelm,”asinmanytraditionalclassrooms.Sheislikelytobeonarugonthefloor,oratachild-sizedtable,givingfullattentiontooneindividualchildatatime.Carefulobservationofherwillshowsheisconstantlyonthemoveinaquietway,as shegoes fromchild tochildand seeks tobealert to theneedsandactionsofall.Thereisnoformalschedulechoppingthedayintosmallpieces;thereisonlytheobligationtobeginandendthedayattheregulartimes,or,iftheclassishousedinalargerschool,tocomplywiththedemandsofthislarger environment. Actually, close observation will show that thechildren set themselves a kind of flexible schedule, varying the choiceandpaceoftheiractivities.Contrarytotraditionalthought,theydonotchoose the hardest work when they first arrive and are considered“freshest.” Instead, they consistently choose easy work at first, andgraduallyworkuptoaverychallengingendeavor—“thegreatwork”oftheday,asMontessoricalledit—laterinthemorning.However, it takes careful preparation and time for a beginningMontessoriclasstoreachtheoptimalfunctioningoftheclassdescribed,and parents and teachers alike are discouraged if they expect such aclassof twentyor thirty children toappear in fullbloom immediately.Timeandexperiencearenecessarybeforethechildrencandeveloptheinner discipline required to utilize the freedom of the Montessoriclassroomeffectively. Inanalready functioningclass,where two-thirdsof the children have had this opportunity in the previous year, theyounger thirdentering theclass for the first time readilydevelop suchdisciplinethroughimitationoftheolderonesandspecialattentionfromtheteacher,particularlywhentheyareadmittedafewatatime.Whenaclass is firstbegun, there isnoestablishedcommunityofchildren,andtheteacheralonemust“showthewaytodiscipline.”

If discipline had already arrived ourworkwould hardly beneeded; the child’s instinct would be a safe enough guideenabling him to dealwith every difficulty. But the child ofthree,whenhefirstcomestoschool,isafighteronthevergeof being vanquished; he has already adopted a defensiveattitude which masks his deeper energies. The higherenergies,whichcouldguidehimtoadisciplinedpeaceandadivinewisdom,areasleep.

Totheextentthatthisistrueofindividualchildren,theteacher

mustcalltothem,wakethemup,byhervoiceandthought.… Before she draws aside to leave the children free, shewatchesanddirectsthemforsometime,preparingtheminanegative sense, that is to say, by eliminating theiruncontrolledmovements.

Shedoes thisby introducingaseriesofpreparatoryexercises thathelpthe children to concentrate on reality and control ofmovement. Theymay consist of arranging chairs and tables in proper places withoutmaking any noise, moving about the room on tiptoe, whisperinginstructions to carry out, or practicing total silence. It is necessary tocharm the children in order to carry out these exercises successfully.“Sometimes I use a word easily misunderstood: the teacher must beseductive,shemustenticethechildren.”Anychildwhocannotbereachedinthiswaymustbedealtwithmoredirectly.

If at this stage there is some childwho persistently annoystheothers,themostpracticalthingtodoistointerrupthim.Itistruethatwehavesaid,andrepeatedoftenenough,thatwhenachildisabsorbedinhiswork,onemustrefrainfrominterfering, so as not to interrupt his cycle of activity orprevent its free expansion; nevertheless, the right techniquenow is just the opposite; it is to break the flow of thedisturbing activity. The interruption may take the form ofany kind of exclamation, or in showing a special and

affectionateinterestinthetroublesomechild.

Gradually some of the exercises of daily living are introduced, andeventually, little by little, the didacticmaterials. A period of apparentorderfollows,butatfirst

thechildrenkeepgoingfromonethingtoanother.Theydoeach thing once; then they go and fetch something else.…The appearance of discipline which may be obtained isactually very fragile, and the teacher, who is constantlywardingoff adisorderwhich she feels tobe “in theair,” iskeptinastateoftension.

Atthispointtheteachermustbothsupervisethechildrenandalsobeginindividuallessonsshowingthepreciseuseofthematerials,asdescribedearlierintheFundamentalLesson,butshemustbecarefultokeepwatchover the activities of the other children as well. Now it is that thechildren begin, one by one, to show the phenomena of repetition andconcentrationthatindicatesself-disciplinehasbegun.Theteacher

sees the children becoming ever more independent inchoosing their work and in the richness of their powers ofexpression. Sometimes their progress seems miraculous.…This, however, is the moment in which the child has thegreatestneedofherauthority.

After completing something important to them, “instinct leads [thechildren]tosubmittheirworktoanexternalauthoritysoastobesuretheyarefollowingtherightpath.”A last stage is accomplished when the child no longer seeks the

approvalofauthorityaftereachstep.

He will go on piling up finished work of which the othersknow nothing, obeying merely the need to produce andperfect the fruits of his industry. What interests him isfinishinghiswork,nottohaveitadmired,nortotreasureitupashisownproperty.

It is now that inner discipline has been firmly established, and theteachermustbemostcarefulnottointerferewiththechildinanyway.“Praise,help,orevenalook,maybeenoughtointerrupthim,ordestroytheactivity.Itseemsastrangethingtosay,butthiscanhappenevenifthechildmerelybecomesawareofbeingwatched.”Evenwhenseveralchildrenwish to use the samematerials at once, the teacher is not tointerfereunlessasked.

But even to solve these problems, one should not interfereunless asked; the childrenwill solve themby themselves.…Theteacher’sskillinnotinterferingcomeswithpractice,likeeverythingelse,but itnevercomeseasily[for]eventohelpcanbeasourceofpride.

Insuchaclassroom,therealeducationofthechildrencanbegin,fortheyhavearrivedatself-discipline,andhavethusachievedfreedomfortheir own development. This is the goal toward which all Montessoriphilosophyandmethodareaimed,andinwhichMontessorifoundsuchhopeformankind.

1.“byspringofthefirstyear,thechildrenwerehappyandworkinghard”(photocredit1)

2.“mentaldevelopmentmustbeconnectedwithmovement”[thebrownstair](photocredit2)

3.“childrenworkforthesakeofprocess;adultsworktoachieveanendresult”(photocredit3)

4.“ourslivealwaysinanactivecommunity”(photocredit4)

5.“betweensixandnine,then,heiscapableofbuildingtheacademicandartisticskillsessentialforalifeoffulfillment”(photocredit5)

6.“thechildrenare,therefore,freetomoveabouttheclassroomatwill—ideallytoanoutsideenvironment…aswellasinsidetheclassroom”(photocredit6)

7.“thefirstessentialforthechild’sdevelopmentisconcentration”(photocredit7)

8.“thematerialsprogressfromsimpletomorecomplexdesignandusage”[thesmallernumericalrods](photocredit8)

9.“thematerialsbeginasconcreteexpressionsofanidea”[thegeometricsolids](photocredit9)

10.“thecontroloferrorguidesthechildinhisuseofthematerialsandpermitshimtorecognizehisownmistakes”[themultiplicationchartboard](photocredit10)

11.“theinnerconstructionofdiscipline,organization,independence,andself-esteem”(photocredit11)

12.“toassistthechildinthedevelopmentofhisintelligence”[thetrinomialcube](photocredit12)

13.“tosatisfyhisinnatedesireforlearning”(photocredit13)

14.“thereisacommunicationandharmonybetweenthetwo”(photocredit14)

15.“[adults]mustapproachchildrenwithhumility,recognizingtheirroleasasecondaryone”(photocredit15)

16.“theintimaterelationshipbetweentheobserverandtheindividualtobeobserved”[themusicalbells](photocredit16)

17.“thecontrolofmovementandeye-handcoordination”(photocredit17)

18.“inpreparationforwritingmovementsandholdingapencil”[themetalinsets](photocredit18)

19.“acontinuousencouragementofself-expressionandcommunication”[acardmatchinggame](photocredit19)

20.“theMetalInsetscompletethepossibilityforanexplosionintowriting”(photocredit20)

21.“writingdevelopsasnaturallyasorallanguagedidinanearlierperiod”(photocredit21)

22.“themoreknowledgethatismadeavailabletothechild,themoreheisstimulatedtoexplorelanguage”[theobjectgame](photocredit22)

23.“theintentisonlytogivethekeythatdifferentwordsdodifferentthings”[thefarm](photocredit23)

24.“toexperiencethethrillofdiscoveringtheunknownforhimself”(photocredit24)

25.“freedom…tocommunicateandsharehisdiscoverieswithothersatwill”(photocredit25)

26.“agoodexampleofherindirectapproachtolearning,whichleadstoincreasedcreativity”(photocredit26)

4MontessoriandParents

MONTESSORIBELIEVEDthatanimportantmissionofparentswastoworkfortheestablishment of the child’s rightful place in society. The child’s needsshouldcomebeforeallothers,for,ifmankindistoprogress,itmustbethroughthechild.However,insteadofputtingthechildfirst,oursocietyis spending its money on unnecessary luxuries and technologicalimprovements,pollutingtheenvironmentandoverpopulatingtheearth.

The greatest crime that society is committing is that ofwasting the money it should spend for its children, ofdissipating it to destroy them and itself.… When wastefulsocietyhasurgentneedofmoney,ittakesitfromtheschoolsandespecially fromthe infant schools that shelter theseedsofhumanlife.…Thisishumanity’sworstcrimeandgreatesterror. Society does not even perceive that it destroys twiceoverwhenitusesitsmoneyforinstrumentsofdestruction;itdestroysbynot enabling to liveand itdestroysbybringingdeath.Andthetwoareoneandthesameerror.

Parentshaveanimportantmission:“Theyalonecanandmustsavetheirchildren.… Their consciences must feel the force of the missionentrusted to them by nature … for in their hands lies positively thefutureofhumanity,life.”Montessori saw that parents in our society are failing to do this.

Insteadtheyarepreoccupiedwith

struggle, efforts at adaptation, and labor for outwardconquests. The events of theworld ofmen all converge onconquestandproduction,asiftherewerenothingelsetobeconsidered. Human effort clashes and is broken incompetition.… If the adult considers the child, he does so

with the logichebrings tobearonhisown like.Hesees inthechildadifferentanduselesscreatureandhekeepshimata distance; or else through what is called education, heendeavors to draw him prematurely and directly into theforms of his own life.…The adult exhibits before them hisown perfection, his own maturity, his own historicalexample,callinguponthechildtoimitatehim.

As a scientist, Montessori was much aware of the radical changeslowerformsofnatureundergotoprotectandnurturetheiryoung,andwaspuzzledthatmanhimselfdidnotexhibitthesesameinstinctstothesamedegree.

How can we explain such a mistaken conception in theloftiest, furthest evolved being, gifted with a mind of hisown?Isthedenominatorofhisenvironment,thecreaturefullof power, able to work with an immeasurable superiorityoverallotherlivingthings?Yet he the architect, the builder, the producer, thetransformer of his environment, does less for his child thanthebees,thantheinsects,andanyothercreature.

Inadditiontofightingfortherightsofthechildinsociety,theparentholds primary responsibility for the life and development of his ownchildren.AlthoughMontessori advocated formal schooling for childrenat a much earlier age than previous educators, she gave the soleresponsibilityforthebeginningyearsofthechild’slifetotheparent.Theearliest Montessori usually considered placing a child in a schoolenvironmentwasattheageoftwoandahalf,andmorecustomarilyatthree.Thismeantthechildwouldbeinhishomeenvironment,withhisparents in charge of his activities, for the first three years of life—theyears Montessori considered more important than any others for thechild’sdevelopment.

The development of the child during the first three yearsafterbirth isunequalled in intensityand importancebyanyperiodthatprecedesorfollowsinthewholelifeofthechild.

… If we consider the transformations, adaptations,achievements, and conquest of the environment during thefirstperiodoflifefromzerotothreeyears,itisfunctionallyalongerperiodthanallthefollowingperiodsputtogetherfromthreeyearsuntildeath.Forthisreason,thesethreeyearsmaybeconsideredtobeaslongasawholelife.

Thechild’sneedsduringthisperiodare“soimperiousthattheycannotbeignoredwithoutharmfulconsequenceseverafter.”Montessori particularly emphasized the importance of themother tothechild,includingtheperiodimmediatelyafterbirth.Sincethechildispassing from one form of existence to another, “in no other period ofman’slifewillhefindalikeoccasionofstruggleandconflict,andhenceof suffering.”Because birth is such a “dramatic episode” in the child’slife,Montessorifeltitwasessentialforthechildto“remain[inthefirstfewdays]asmuchaspossibleincontactwithhismother.”Thisphysicalclosenessaids

the child’s adaptation to the world … because there is aspecialbondunitingmotherandchild,almostlikeamagneticattraction.Themother radiates invisible forces towhich the child isaccustomed,andtheyareahelptohiminthedifficultdaysofadjustment.Wemaysaythatthechildhasmerelychangedhispositioninregardtoher:heisnowoutsideherbodyinsteadofinside.But everything else remains the same and the communionbetweenthemstillexists.

AlthoughMontessoriemphasizedtheparent’sroleandthefamilyunitinthechild’searlylife,shedidnotapproveoftheconceptofthefamilyas an isolated unit. She felt this isolation dividedmen and kept themfromdiscoveringtheirtrueconditionofbrotherhood.

Whydomenisolatethemselvesonefromtheother,andwhydoes every family group shut itself up with a feeling ofisolationandofrepugnancetowardothergroups?Thefamily

does not isolate itself to find enjoyment in itself, but toseparate itself from others. These barriers are not built todefend love.Thefamilybarriersareclosed, insurmountable,morepowerful than thewallsof thehouse.So, too, are thebarriersseparatingclassesandnations.

In keeping with this concept of closer communication betweenfamilies, Montessori advocated what she called a “socializing” of amother’swork.Bythisshemeantacooperationformutualbenefit,suchassocietyhadat that timeaccomplished in the fieldsof transportationthroughtheuseofstreetcars, inelectricitythroughstreet lights,andincommunication through the telephone. She had established her“Children’sHouses”inapartmentbuildings,givingmotherswhoneededor wished the opportunity to leave the children in a beneficialenvironment that they themselves supported and paid for. Montessorialsoforesawatimewhentheremightbeaninfirmaryintheapartmentbuildingaswell,andakitchenprogramwhere,ifdesired,adinnercouldbeorderedinthemorninganddelivered,perhapsbydumbwaiter,intheevening.Thus liberated frommanyof thechoresof thepast, the“newwoman”wastobe“likeman,anindividual,afreehumanbeing,asocialworker; and, like man, she shall seek blessing and repose within thehouse.”Montessorididnotconsider theparents’ responsibility for thechild’s

earlyyearstorestonthefactthattheyhadproducedhimandthereforewere entitled to complete control over him.On the contrary, it is thechildwhomustproducehimself;theauthorityoftheparentsoverhimislegitimate only insofar as the parents are helpful to him in this task.“Theparent’sroleisthatofaguardian,notacreator.”

Whatthemotherbringsforthis thebaby,but it is thebabywhoproducestheman.…Torecognizethisgreatworkofthechilddoesnotmeantodiminishtheparents’authority.Oncethey can persuade themselves not to be themselves thebuilders, but merely to act as collaborators in the buildingprocess,theybecomemuchbetterabletocarryouttheirrealduties.…Thus,theauthorityofparentsdoesnotcomefromadignitystandingonitsownfeet,but itcomesfromthehelp

theyareabletogivetheirchildren.Thetrulygreatauthorityanddignityofparentsrestssolelyuponthis.

Theroleoftheparentisto“carefor,andkeepawake,theguidewithineverychild.”Thechild,then,isgivenhisownpowersfordevelopment,and,iftheparentistobehelpful,hemusttrytolearnfromthechildhimselfwhathemustdo.

Naturehasgiventothisnewperson[thechild]itslaws,andall that takesplace isnot inourhands.Not thatwecannothelp; we can and do, but we had the idea that it was weadults who built him, that we must do everything for thislittlechildinsteadofseeinghowmuchhecangivetous.…Inthe child is much knowledge, much wisdom. If we do notprofit from it, is only because of neglect on our part tobecomehumbleandtoseethewonderofthissoulandlearnwhatthechildcanteach.

Erik Erikson, the noted psychoanalyst and an early Montessorian,emphasizesthisgrowthwhichmusttakeplaceaspartofparenthood:

Parentswhoarefacedwiththedevelopmentofanumberofchildrenmust constantly live up to a challenge. Theymustdevelop with them.… Babies control and bring up theirfamiliesasmuchastheyarecontrolledbythem.

Ifparentsaretolearnandgrowwiththeirchildren,theymustdevelopthepower to observe them, to enjoy them, and to accept them.All ofthesedependuponawillingness to adopt the slowerpaceof the childandtotrusthisinnerpowers.Itisdifficultfortheadult,whomustattainhis goals in the most efficient manner possible, not to interrupt thechild’sslowerefforts.

Seeing the child make great efforts to perform a totallyuselessaction,oronesofutilethathehimselfcouldperformit in an instant and far better, he [the adult] is tempted tohelp.… The adult is irritated not only by the fact that the

child is trying to performan actionwhen there is no need,but also by his different rhythm, his different manner ofmoving.

The adult is therefore constantly hurrying and pushing the child.DorothyCanfieldFisher,anAmericannovelistandmotherwhowenttoEuropetostudyunderDr.Montessori,describesthisrushingofchildrenvividly inher bookTheMontessoriMother. She says that, inwriting ofher own children, she came to realize she had been “dragging themheadlongonaCook’stourthroughlife.”Montessoribelieved,

Theadultmustbealwayscalmandactslowlysothatallthedetails of his action may be clear to the child who iswatching.If theadultabandonshimself tohisusualquick,powerful

rhythms, then instead of inspiring hemay engrave his ownpersonalityonthechild’s,andsubstitutehimselfforthechildbysuggestion.

To ensure his child’s positive development, the parentmust preparethe proper home environment for him.The child’s need is for a homethatisaplace

ofbeauty…that isnotcontaminatedordeterminedbyanyoutward need…whereman feels the need to suspend andforget his usual characteristics,where he perceives that theessential thing that maintains life is something other thanstruggle…thattooppressothersisnotthesecretofsurvivalortheimportantthinginlife…wherethereforeasurrenderofselfseemstrulylife-giving.

Suchaharboringenvironmentisaboontotheadult;itisanecessityforthe child if he is to develop to his fullest potential, because of thedifferentrelationshipofthechildtohisenvironment.Thechilddoesn’tjustliveinhisenvironment;itbecomesapartofhim.

Heabsorbsthelifegoingonabouthimandbecomesonewithit.…Thechild’simpressionsaresoprofoundthatabiological

or psycho-chemical change takes place, by which his mindendsbyresemblingtheenvironmentitself.

Becauseitwashisfirstcontactwiththeworld,Montessorifeltparentsshould take great care “of all the conditions surrounding the newbornbabe,so thathewillnotberepelledanddevelopregressive tendenciesbut feel attracted to the new world into which he has come.” Theenvironmentforthefirstfewdaysshouldsimulatethemother’swomb.“Theremustnotbetoomuchcontrast,asregardswarmth, light,noise,withhisconditionsbeforebirth,where,inhismother’swomb,therewasperfect silence, darkness, and an even temperature.” After this initialtransitoryperiod,Montessoriwasmuchagainsttheisolationofthebabyfromthesociallifeabouthim.

Actually, the baby’s natural environment is the world,everythingthatliesroundabouthim.Tolearnalanguagehemust livewith thosewhospeak it,otherwisehewillnotbeableto.Ifheistoacquirespecialmentalpowershemustlivewithpeoplewhoconstantlyusethosepowers.Themanners,habits, and customs of his group can only be derived fromminglingwith thosewhopossess them. [If the child is] leftalone,andmadetosleepasmuchaspossible,asifhewereill[or]shutawayinanurserywithnoothercompanionthananurse…hisnormalgrowthanddevelopmentarearrested.

Thechildmustbeallowedtotakepartintheparents’lifeinspiteoftheproblemsthisentails.“Notwithstandingthemanyobjectionsthatcanbemade,ithastobesaidthatifwewanttohelpthechildwemustkeephimwithus,sothathecanseewhatwedoandhearwhatwesay.”Inthis respect, Montessori felt other peoples of the world were moreenlightenedintheirrearingofchildrenthanthoseinWesterncountries.In other cultures, babies are constantly with their mothers and goeverywherewith them.Montessoribelieved that itwasbecauseof thistheyseldomcry,whereas

the crying of children is a problem inWestern countries.…The child is bored. He is being mentally starved, kept

prisoner inaconfinedspaceofferingnothingbut frustrationto theexerciseofhispowers.Theonly remedy is to releasehimfromsolitude,andlethimjoininsociallife.

As the baby becomes older, his growing independence sets up anincreasingconflictbetweentheparents’wishesandthechild’sneeds.

Theconflictbetweenthegrownupandthechildbeginswhenthechildhasreachedapointwherehecandothingsonhisown.Earliernoonecanwhollypreventthechildfromseeingandhearing, that is, frommakinga sensoryconquestofhisworld.… But when the child grows active, walks, touchesthings, it is quite another thing. Grownups, however muchthey love a child, feel an irresistible instinct to defendthemselves fromhim. It is anunconscious feelingof fearofdisturbance by an unreasoning creature, combined with aproprietarysensewhereobjectsareconcernedthatmightbedirtiedorspoiled.

Thus it is the parent, even though he truly loves his child, who is indangerofbecomingthechild’s firstenemyinhis struggle for life.Thisoccurs because the parent fails to understand that, unlike himself, thechildisintheprocessofbecoming.

Thisisthefirstcontestofthemanwhoenterstheworld:hehas tostrugglewithhisparents,with thosewhohavegivenhimlife.Andthisoccursbecausehisinfantlifeis“different”from that of his parents; the child has to form himself,whereashisparentsarealreadyformed.

When thechilddevelops theability towalk, theparentcontinues tointerferewithhis growth, bothbecausehe feels it is necessary for thechild’ssafetyandbecausetheadultdoesnotwishto—orisnotcapableof—reducinghispacetothatofthechild.

We know that the child starts walking with an irresistibleimpetus and courage.He is bold, even rash; he is a soldierwhohurlshimself tovictory regardlessof risk.And for this

reason the adult surrounds himwith protective restrictions,whicharesomanyobstacles;heisenclosedwithinarail,orstrapped in a perambulator, in which he will make hisoutingsevenwhenhislegsarealreadysturdy.This happens because a child’s step ismuch shorter thanthat of a grownup, and he has less staying-power for longwalks.Andthegrownupwillnotgiveuphisownpace.

Asthechildwhonowwalksaboutbeginstoexploretheobjectsinhisenvironment, the adult’sway of life is further threatened. As a result,insteadofwelcomingthisnewactivity,theparentseekstostifleit.

Thefirststretchingoutofthosetinyhandstowardthings,theimpetusofamovement thatrepresents theeffortof theegoto penetrate the world, should fill the adult observer withwonder and reverence. And instead man is afraid of thosetiny hands as they stretch out to the valueless andinsignificantobjectswithintheirreach;hesetsouttodefendthese objects against the child. He is constantly repeating,“Don’ttouch!”justasherepeats,“Sitstill!Bequiet!”

The child wants to handle and touch all those objects he sees othersabouthimusing.

[He] is not just running, or jumping, or handling thingsaimlessly,orsimplydisplacingthemsoastocreatedisorder,or destroy them. Constructive movement finds its urge inactions that the child has seen performed by others. Theactions he tries to imitate are always those that mean thehandlingortheuseofsomething,withwhichthechildtriesto perform the actions he has seen performed by adults.Therefore these activities are associated with the usages ofhis various domestic or social surroundings. The child willwanttosweepandwashup,orwashclothes,pouroutwater,orwashanddresshimself,brushhisownhair.

When the child inevitably wishes to explore objects that belong to

others,asubstitutioncanbemade.

Itgoeswithout saying that therewilloftenbewarbetweenthe grownup and the child over these too alluring objectswhich are so eminently tabooed because they belong tomamma’s dressing table or daddy’s writing-desk or thedrawing room furniture. And often the result is“naughtiness.” But the child does not want that particularbottle, or that ink-stand; he would be satisfied with thingsmadeforhim,allowinghimtopracticethesamemovements.

Adultscanreadilyunderstandthat it is importanttoallowthechildtoexplore his environment, but it is rare that they are able to permit itfreely:

Theideaof leavingthebabyfreetoact isonethat iseasilyunderstood, but which in practice encounters complicatedobstaclesdeeply rooted in theadultmind.Oftenagrownupwho will wish to leave the child free to touch and movethingswillbeunable toresistvague impulseswhichendbymasteringhim.

In his early explorations of his environment, the child is seeking toestablishhis independencethroughmasteringhissurroundings. It isuptotheparenttopermitthenecessaryexplorationandalsotoarrangetheenvironmentsothatthechildcanlearntodothingsforhimself.InherschoolsMontessorigavethechild

objects which he can handle by himself and which he canlearn tomaster. This principle canbe applied, andmust beapplied, in thechild’sownhome.Fromtheearliestpossibleagethechildmustbeprovidedwiththingswhichmayhelphimtodothingsbyhimself.

Thismeansthateverythingthechildmustuseintakingcareofhimselfmust be in proportion to his size and ability; the hook to hang hisclotheson;theplaceswherehewashesandbrusheshisteeth,wherehehangshistowel,wherehethrowssoiledclothes,wherethereisabroom

anddustpanofhisownsizeforcleaningup,wherehesits,whereheeats—allmustbesuitableforachild’suse.Hisclothesparticularlyshouldbechosenfortheeasewithwhichhewillbeabletogetinandoutofthemonhisown.Montessori was concerned that a child might be waited on

unnecessarilyand,therefore,notdeveloptheindependencevitaltoafulllife.Shewroteaboutservantsperformingthisfunction.Todayitismorelikelytobethemotheractingintheroleofservant,buttheprincipleisstillapplicable.

Inanageofcivilizationwhereservantsexist,theconceptofthat formof lifewhich is independencecannot take rootordevelopfreely.…Ourservantsarenotourdependents,ratheritiswewhoaredependentuponthem.…Inreality,hewhois served is limited.…Who does not know that to teach achild to feedhimself, towash anddress himself, is amuchmoretediousanddifficultwork,callingforinfinitelygreaterpatience,thanfeeding,washing,anddressingthechildone’sself?Buttheformeristheworkofaneducator,thelatteristhe easy and inferior work of a servant.… These dangersshould be presented to the parents of the privileged socialclasses, if their children are to use independently and forright the special powerwhich is theirs.Needless help is anactualhindrancetothedevelopmentofnaturalforces.

Notonlydothenaturalabilitiesofthechildremainundevelopedifheiswaitedonunnecessarily;negativecharacteristicsemerge.

Theperilofservilismandindependenceliesnotonlyinthat“uselessconsumingof life,”which leads tohelplessness,butinthedevelopmentofindividualtraitswhichindicatealltooplainly a regrettable perversion and degeneration of thenormalman.…Thedomineeringhabitdevelopssidebysidewithhelplessness.Itistheoutwardsignofthestateoffeelingofhimwhoconquersthroughtheworkofothers.

Thewholetrendofourculturetowardlessandlessworkforourselves

alarmedMontessori.Forher,tobealiveistobeactive.

Everythinginthelivingworldisactive.Lifeisactivityatitspeak,anditisonlythroughactivitythattheperfectionmentsof life can be sought and gained. The social aspirationshanded down to us by past generations, the ideal ofminimumworkinghours,ofhavingotherstoworkforus,ofidlenessevermorecomplete…theseaspirationsaresignsofregressioninthepersonwhowasnothelpedinthefirstdaysof his life to adapt to his environment, and who thereforefeelsantipathy toward it, towardexertion.Hiswas the typeofchildhoodwithalikingforbeinghelpedandwaitedon.

Montessorifeltthattheadultinourcultureisunpreparedtorecognizeandaccepttheyoungchild’sdesireforworkand,therefore,isnotonlyamazedwhenitappears,butrefusestoallowitsexpression.Heinsteadtries to force the child to play continuously. Adults must learn torecognizethechild’sinstinctforworkandcooperatewithit.

Wemustalsorejecttheideathatthejoyofachildisinbeingforcedtoplayallthetimeorthemajorpartoftheday.The foundation of education must be based on the

following facts: that the joyof thechild is inaccomplishingthingsgreatforhisage;thattherealsatisfactionofthechildistogivemaximumefforttothetaskinhand;thathappinessconsistsinwell-directedactivityofbodyandmindinthewayof excellence; that strength of mind and body and spirit isacquiredbyexerciseandexperience.

ErikEriksondescribes thechild’sneedforworkandaccomplishmentasthefirst“infantilestepstowardidentity”andrealisticself-esteem.

In this children cannot be fooled by empty praise andcondescending encouragement.… Ego identity gains realstrength only fromwholehearted and consistent recognitionof real accomplishment—i.e., of achievement that hasmeaninginourculture.

Ourculture,incontrasttoothers,impedesthechildinthistask.EriksoncitesthechildhoodofthePapagoIndianinArizonaasanexampleofasocietyinwhich“thechildisfrominfancycontinuouslyconditionedtoresponsiblesocialparticipation,whileatthesametimethetasksthatareexpectedofitareadaptedtoitscapacity.Thecontrastwithoursocietyis very great.” Here the child makes no contribution until he cancompeteonanadultlevel.Heispraisedbyadultswhenthespiritmovesthem,regardlessofthestandardofachievementheattains.Therefore,heisgivennoclear-cutstandardformeasuringhimself.Insteadofopportunitiesforseriousaccomplishmentinourculture,we

supplyourchildrenwithexpensive toys,hoping that thesewilloccupythem and keep them from disturbing us. In actuality, even in today’sworldofthe“educationaltoy,”mostofthetoysadultsgivetochildrendonotmeettheirneedsforgrowthandinvolvementwiththerealworld.Consequently,theyareasourceoffrustrationtothechild,andhedoesnotremainoccupiedwiththemforlong.

Thetoyhasbecomesoimportantthatpeoplethinkitanaidtotheintelligence;itiscertainlybetterthannothing,butitissignificantthatthechildquicklytiresofatoyandwantsnewones.Toys in fact seemtopresentauselessenvironmentwhich

cannotleadtoanyconcentrationofthespiritandwhichhasnopurpose; theyare formindsastray in illusion.…Andyettoysaretheonlythingstheadulthasmadeforthechildasanintelligentbeing.

Whydowegive thechild toys thatoccupyhim insteadof involvinghim in the life around him in a meaningful way as they do in othercultures?Montessorifeltitwasbecausetheadultinourculturerealizesthiswouldentailcertainaccommodationsonhispart,andheissointenton his own production and achievement that he is unwilling tomakethem.Theadult

sees that he must make an immenserenunciation … surrender his environment, and this isincompatible with social life as it exists. In an adult

environment the child is undoubtedly an extra-social being.But simply to shut him out, as has been done up till now,meansarepressionofhisgrowth.

Insteadofgivingthechildtoysthathavenomeaningforhim,theadultmustpreparespecialactivitieswithinhisenvironmentthatwillaidthechild’sdevelopment.

Thesolutionofthisconflictliesinpreparinganenvironmentadapted to these higher manifestations on the part of thechild.Whenhesayshisfirstwordthereisnoneedtoprepareanything and his baby language is heard in the house as awelcome sound. But the work of his small hands demands“motivesofactivity”intheformofsuitableobjects.

Howistheparenttogoaboutpreparingtheseactivities?Acluecanbetakenfromthediscardedtoys.Whydoesthechildrejectthem?Because,according toMontessori, theydonot bring the child into contactwithreality.What the childwants andneeds are objects and activities thatcan serve as a preparation for the adultworldwherehe realizes he isone day to take his place.When this is done, his response shows theparentheisontherighttrack.

He does not care for things that are not in his usualenvironment because hiswork is to suit himself to his ownadultworld.[When]thingsaremadeforhiminproportiontohis size, and he can be activewith them just as adults areactive,hiswholecharacterseemstochangeandhebecomescalmandcontented.Onetestofthecorrectnessofeducationalprocedureisthe

happinessofthechilditself.

The parentmust observe his child closely, andwatch for the kinds ofactivitieshechoosesspontaneously inhisenvironment.Theparentcanthenmakethemmoreavailabletothechildbyorganizingthemonthechild’s own level, and later by creating expansions and variations ofthem.Thesimplerhecanmake theseactivities, thebetter theywill fit

thechild’sneeds. It is important toremember, too, that thechildmustbetaughtindirectly;verbalinstructionsarenothelpfulandmayhindertheyoungchildbydistractinghim:“Howevermuchyouspeakandspeakand speak, you accomplish nothing because the child cannot takedirectly but only indirectly.” The principles outlined in describing theMontessorimaterialsandtheFundamentalLessoninChapter2aregoodguides to follow in setting up these activities. The parent can alsoincludethechildinhisownactivitiesasmuchaspossible.Evenachildofeighteenmonthscanputspoonsinthedishwasherordrawer,arrangecupboards,dustfurniture,“fold”dishcloths,helptofeedanimals,diginagarden.Whendeskworkisnecessary,achildofthisagecanworkathis own table, making marks on paper with a pencil, folding papers,talking on a realisticmodel telephone. Trips outside the home can bearrangedatachild’slevelandpace.Parents whose children will not have a nursery or preschoolexperiencemaywant tostructuresomepreliminaryacademicactivitiesathome.Avisit toagoodkindergartenorMontessoriclassmightgivethemsomeconstructiveideas.ThebestbookavailableonsuchactivitieswithMontessorimaterialsisDr.Montessori’sOwnHandbook.Acatalogueof Montessori materials is available from MontessoriLeermiddelenhmuis, A. Nienhuis, Melkwegstraat 4-6, The Hague, TheNetherlands.However,awordofcaution is inorder:aparentwho isplanning toworkwith his child at homewith definite learning objectives inmindshouldhavearealisticunderstandingofhisownnatureandthatofhischild, of their relationship together, and of hismotivation in pursuingthese activities.ManyAmerican parents overpower their childrenwithtoo much enthusiasm and overdirection. Others are tense, anxiousparentswhoexpect toomuchof theirchildrenandthemselves. Insteadof placing one more demand on them both, parents might bestconcentrateonrelaxingwiththeirchildrenandenjoyingthem—perhapstaking unhurried walks in the woods with a camera, field glasses, ormagnifyingglass.The role Montessori believed freedom played in the child’sdevelopmenthasbeendiscussedinearlierpartsofthisbook.However,Iwouldliketoaddawordonfreedom,directedspecificallytoparents.Inour rapidlychangingculture, there ispressureonparents togive their

childrenmore andmore “freedom.” Increasingly, it is only thematureand confident parent who gives his child the guidance, limits, andleadership that are necessary for the development of true freedom.Montessoriwrotein1948,

Themainproblemistheproblemoffreedom;itssignificanceandrepercussionshavetobeclearlyunderstood.Theadult’sidea that freedom consists in minimizing duties andobligationsmustberejected.…Thefreedomthat isgiventothechildisnotliberationfromparentsandteachers;itisnotfreedomfromthelawsofNatureorofthestateorofsociety,but the utmost freedom for self-development and self-realizationcompatiblewithservicetosociety.

5TheMontessoriApproachAppliedtoWritingandReading

ALTHOUGH Dr. Montessori wrote many books on her general philosophyandmethod,shedidnotwriteatextbookexplainingexactproceduresindetail for either the home or the classroom. Perhaps she wasapprehensive that such an explicit statementmight tend to render herideas inflexible.Parentsor teachersmightmemorizecertaintechniquesand procedures, and mechanically reproduce them with children.Nothingwould be further fromMontessori’s concept of education as aliving process, determined not by teacher or parent but by the child’sinner powers. Hoping to avoid the all-too-human tendency to freezemethodsusedintheclassroomintoarigidform,Montessoridecidedherteachersmust eachwrite their own textbookbasedon their individualunderstanding of Montessori education. The manual each Montessoriteacherdevelopsduringher training isherownpersonalguidebook torefer to, revise,andadd to throughouther teachingcareer.Montessoriundoubtedlyhopedthatsuchaprocedurewouldhelpherteachersviewtheir teaching lives as a continuing process, subject to growth andchange.Secondly,bywritingherownguidebook,theMontessoriteacherisforcedtothinkthroughherpersonalapproachtothematerialsandthechildren on a deeper level than if she were merely handed someoneelse’s answers. This policy of asking each teacher to state her ownunderstanding ofMontessori education is consistentwith a philosophyand method of education that asks children to discover their ownanswers, instead of expecting to appropriate and substitute someoneelse’sexperiencesfortheirown.The lackofa textbookon the specificapplicationofMontessorihas,

however,ledtosomeconfusionforbothparentsathomeandteachersintheclassroom. It isdifficult to see, forexample,howchildren fiveandsixyearsofagesimplybegintowrite,andthentoread,merelybybeingexposed to an environment based on the principles of freedom anddiscipline and in which sandpaper letters, movable alphabets, and

various games have been placed. Obviously, it doesn’t just happen. Aprecise and detailed account of this phenomenonwould involvemoreexplanationthanisappropriatehere.However,abriefindicationofhowMontessorieducationworksoutinapplicationinthisoneareamaygiveadeeperunderstandingofMontessoriphilosophyandmethodingeneral.InunderstandingMontessorieducationinanyarea,itisimportanttorememberthattheapproachisalwaysindirect—neverthedirectoneoftraditionaleducation.Montessori’senormousrespectforthemysteriouspowers that form the child from themoment of conception led her tofearanydirectinterferencewiththeirunfolding.

Wearehere tooffer to this life,whichcame into theworldby itself, the means necessary for its development, andhaving done that we must await this development withrespect.

The indirect approachMontessori advocated forhelping the child todiscover written communication begins at his birth. Because writtencommunicationisvisualizedlanguage—and,assuch,anextensionofthechild’sorallanguage—itisimportantthathisenvironmentbesaturatedwith human sound from his earliest moments. He should not be keptapartfromsociallifeevenasatinyinfant,butincludedinallthefamilydoes.Heshouldbetalkedtoandlistenedtowithpatienceandinterest.Heshouldbegiventhenamesofallthethingsinhisenvironment,notjust“tree,”but“oaktree,”“mapletree,”etc.,forthisistheperiodoftheAbsorbentMind, when he learns these things naturally. Later, he willhave tomemorize them,whichwill benotonlymoredifficult butnotnearly so likely to stimulatea life-long interest in these things. Justasthefamilymustsurroundthebabywithlanguage,so it is importanttosurround him with the written word. He should see people readingbooks in his home as well as being exposed to the signs and writtencommunicationsoftheouterworld,forinthiswayhedevelopsanaturalawarenessofanotherformofcommunicationinhisenvironment.Because of Montessori’s infinite trust in the child’s powers to teachhimself,shedidnotdeviseamethodfor“teachingreading.”Nordidshethink it wise to decide upon a particular time when children shouldbegintoread.Becauseofthisapproach,Montessorichildrentypicallydo

notrememberlearningtoread,nordoestheteacherrememberteachingany particular one. The environment is so designed that all activitiesfeednaturallytowardthedevelopmentoftheskillsrequiredforreading,andthusreadingisexperiencedaspartoftheprocessofliving.Thisisincontrasttotheemphasisonforce-feedingreadingtochildren,as inthetraditionalmethod,bypresentingthemonedaywithabook(thesameforeverychild)inwhicharewordsthatmustbepronounced(aloudsoeveryone can hear) and then questions asked (“What did Jane say?”“Whatcolorwastheball?”)thatmustbeanswered(again,soeveryonecanhear).ItwasnotonlyMontessori’strustinthechild’spowersthatledhertoapproachreadinginthisnaturalway,butalsoherconceptofthechildasanactiverather thanareceptivebeing.Sheconsidered it the jobofeducationnottofillthechildwiththetechniquesofreadingbuttofreehim for self-expression and communication. The question thenbecameone of how to present opportunities for these to him without gettingcaughtupinmechanics,whichwouldkeepthechildfromtakingoffonhisown.Thisconcentrationonmeaningfulnessversus themechanicsofthewrittenword led to a reversal in the procedure of reading beforewriting. In writing the child Expresses his own thoughts throughsymbols; in reading he must comprehend the thoughts of another.Writingisaknowntohim,forheisgivinghisownlanguagetoanother.In reading, he must deal with an unknown—the thoughts of another.Thelatterisobviouslyafarmorecomplicatedprocedure.Whatthenaretheneedsofthechildforwriting?Hemustbeabletouseawritinginstrument,havedevelopedalightnessoftouch,beabletokeep within limits or space available for writing, know the shape ofmovement he wants to make—i.e., letters and their sounds—and hemust be able to trace thatmovement. In addition tomastery of thesemechanical processes, he must know nonphonetic or “puzzle” words,phonograms, general word construction and word study (prefixes,suffixes,masculineandfeminineforms),andpunctuation.Hemusthavedeveloped an enriched vocabulary and the concept that things havenames, an appreciation of the exactness of word meanings anddefinitions, and a realization that words can be grouped intoclassifications.Hemustunderstand thatwordshave functionsand thattherelationshipofwordsandtheirposition inasentence is important.

Hemustknowandappreciatesentenceconstruction.Ifallofthisknowledgeisnottobecomeamechanicalprocessforthe

child,theteachermustconveysomesenseofthemysteryoflanguagetohim.Inordertodothis,shemustkeepalivewithinheranawarenessoflanguageastheuniqueacquisitionofman,distinguishinghimfromtheanimals and the power through which he conquers the limitations oftime, experiences all human emotion and historical knowledge, andleavesalegacyforfuturegenerations.Theteachermustalsoconveytothechildsomeconceptoflanguageasanagreementamongpeoples—anagreement that can be explored. In addition, people in differentcountries have made different agreements, and these, too, can beexplored.Thetaskfortheteacherbecomesoneofpreparingthechildforagreat exploration leading to communicationbetween self andothers,both living and dead, in this country and in others—a far differentendeavorthanmerelyteachingachildtowriteandread.Thepreparationintheclassroomforthisexplorationbeginswiththe

DailyLivingexercises.Through these the childdevelops the controlofmovementandeye-handcoordinationwhichwillaidhiminwriting.Thepouringof rice and laterwater fromone small pitcher to another, thelacingandbuttoningframes,silverpolishing, thecuttingofvegetables,thecarryingoftraysofequipment—allinvolveprecisemovementsofthehand and body leading to coordination of sight and muscle control.Theseexercisesalsodevelopanunderstandingoftheprocessandorderinvolved ina complete cycleof activitywithabeginning,middle, andend. In addition, as the first absorption with a precise activity, theybeginthechild’sdevelopmentofconcentrationandinnerdiscipline.Theintegration of self and understanding of process that result from theseexercisesareimportantforanyserioustaskthechildwillundertake.The Sensorial Materials further expand the child’s preparation by

buildingon theorderestablished in thechild through theDailyLivingexercises.ThePinkTower, theGeometricCabinet, theSolidCylinders,the Sound Cylinders, theMetal Insets, themanymatching games, theColor Tablets, the Bells, to name only a few, develop his perceptualabilities,visualandauditorydiscrimination,andabilitytocompareandclassify, all powers necessary for written language. In addition, hismuscular control is being further refined in preparation for writingmovementsandholdingapencil.Thetinyknobsusedtoliftthepiecesof

the Solid Cylinders, the Metal Insets, the puzzle maps, the GeometricCabinet forms, etc., involve the pincer movement of the thumb andindex fingers.Thetactileexercisesdevelopa lightnessof touchand, inthecaseof theTouchBoards(boardsofalternatingstripsofsandpaperand smoothwood),movement from left to right. The tracing of formssuch as theGeometricCabinet shapes (feeling around awooden circleinset,etc.)trainstheeyeforexactnessofshapeandthemusclesofhandand finger to follow the outline of a form in preparation for formingletters.Language development runs parallel with these other activities. Thechildrenarereadtooften,fromawidevarietyofbooksaboutthelivesofotherpeople, otherplaces, the life about them,andparticularly theworld of nature. The emphasis at this age is on widening the child’shorizonintherealworld.Heisinthesensitiveperiodforfactsandhehungers for real knowledge. He is at this stage quite a literal person.Whenhesays,“Whatis that?”or“Whyisthat?”hewantstheadulttotellhimwhatanobjectreallyis,orwhatistherealexplanationheseeks.Sometimeaftertheageofsix,thechildcansharetheadult’sdelightinfancifulanswersbecausehe,too,isinonthesecretsoftherealones.Itisthenthatbooksoffantasy,myth,andfairytalesareintroduced.Language development is also encouraged in the Montessori classthrough its total freedom of conversation. Through this freedomlanguagebecomesanintegralpartofthelifeoftheclassroom,andthereis a continuous encouragement of self-expression and communication,child to child and child to adult. It is not necessary, therefore, to setasideartificialperiods for communication, suchas the “showand tell”timesoftraditionalclassrooms(seeAppendix).Vocabulary is enriched in a Montessori classroom in a number ofunique ways. Precise names are used for all the objects in theenvironment,andthereareagoodmany!Allsortsofgamesareplayed,in addition to the usage of vocabulary in the natural use ofmaterial.(“Can you bringme the flag of Australia, the solid triangle, the colortablet?” “I did the hexagon today.”) There are alsomany picture-cardmatching games that enrich vocabulary: cards of musicians, artists,paintings,tools,furnishings,foodstuffs;cardsshowinghistoricalstylesofclothing, housing, transportation; classifications of animals, reptiles,plant life,geometric shapesand forms,etc.Thesemustallbemadeby

the teacher. The more she manages to place in the environment, themorethechildrenwant.Thechildabsorbsthevocabularythatgoeswiththesecardsbecauseheisstillinhissensitiveperiodforlanguage.Ifhedoesnotencounterthesenamesuntillater,hewillhaveto“learn”them—a process thatwill have far less appeal for him. Thematerials, too,encouragetheconceptofclassificationbytheirorderlyarrangementanddivision into categories of sensorial activities, Daily Living exercises,arithmetic,science,geography,etc.Developmentofthelargemuscles,whoseimportanceasafoundation

formentalactivitiesisjustnowreceivingwideattention,isencouragedin Montessori through the design of the classroom activities. Forexample,eachredrodiscarriedseparately,involvingtendifferenttripsbetweenrugandshelf,andagain ten separate trips to return the rods.The rods themselvesareheldon theends,partly so thechild feels thedifference between short and long, and shorter, shortest, etc., but alsobecauseitisonemeterfromthebeginningtotheendofthelongestrod,ahealthystretchforathree-year-old.Becausethechildisinhissensitiveperiodformotordevelopment,hegetsaparticularsatisfactionoutofthecarrying and stretching required for using the materials. As the childgrows older and hismotor development becomes established, he doesnot have this same interest in large-muscle movement. Therefore, theequipmentheusesbecomessmallerinscaleanddoesnotentailsomanytrips to the shelves.Montessori devised two other activities to aid thechild in hismotor development: theWalking on the Line exercise andtheSilenceGame.WalkingontheLineanditsvariationshelpthechildto develop his sense of balance (carrying a glass of water on a tray),control of movement (run faster; walk as slowly as you can), and anawarenessofhisrightandleftside(carryaflaginyourrighthand).TheSilenceGamedevelopscontrolofmovementandanawarenessofselfinrelationtospaceandtoothers.Italsobringsanawarenessofsoundtothechild,andstimulateshispowersofobservationpfhisenvironment.Perhaps because it encourages an inner quiet and searching of self, itseemstopromotethechild’screativepowersaswell.Afterallfouroftheseareas—theDailyLivingexercises,theSensorial

Materials,LanguageDevelopment,andMotorDevelopment—havebeencontributing for anumberofmonths to the child’s preparation for theexplorationoflanguage.theteacherbeginstointroduceactivitiesmore

directly related towritten language. Shebeginsby giving the child anopportunitytoexploresoundsonamoreconsciousbasisthanhewouldhaveencounteredrandomlyinhisenvironment.Theteacher’saimistohelphimestablishanawarenessofspecificsoundsinpreparationforanintroduction of the symbol for that sound. The teachermaymake thesound “mmmm,” then pronounce words with this sound—mother,someday,drum—andinvitethechildtothinkofsome,too.Thisisdonecasually in off-moments, but one day,when the teacher is certain thechildisawareofthesound“mmmm,”shemightsay,“Doyouknowyoucan see ‘mmmm,’ in fact you can feel it!” It is then she introduces thefirst sandpaper letter to thechild.This isdone individually inorder togainthemaximumopportunitytodramatizeforthechildthepowerandmysteryofthissymbolthatwillleadtowrittencommunication.Thesandpaperlettersareletterscutoutinsandpaperandmountedon

smoothboardsapproximatelysix incheshigh.Thevowelsaremountedon red boards, the consonants on blue ones. Later the distinctionbetween vowels and consonants will be built on this earlier visualfoundation.Onlythesoundoftheletterisgiventothechild.(Thenameof a letter is of no use to a three-year-old, although this is the firstinformation he is given about letters in American culture.) Thesandpaper serves to control the child’s movements when he feels theletter,forheknowsbytouchwhenhehasslippedofftheletterontothesmooth board. Control of error concerning the letter’s direction andplacealsoresultsfromtheletters’beingpastedontheoblongtablets,forthechildcanseewhenhehasplacedthelettersidewaysorupsidedown.The letters are in cursive writing because the movement of the handover them can bemore flowing, as opposed to the abruptmovementsrequired for printed letters. This gives the child a more naturalmovementforwriting,theactivitythatwillprecedereading.Inaddition,thereisamorenaturallinkingtogetherofhandandmindintheformingofcursive letters,and, therefore, theyaremoreeasily imprinted in thechild’s memory. The children make a very natural transition fromcursivetoprintedlettersaboutthetimetheybegintoread,whichmaybe anywhere from five to seven, or for some children even later. Oneletter is placed upon each tablet in order to isolate it from among allothers. This principle of isolation of new knowledge, running throughMontessori education, helps the child to focus on a new discovery.

Therefore, therearenofriezesof lettersoralphabetabout theroomatthisstage.Theteacherfirsttracesthelettermwiththefirstandsecondfingersofthedominanthand,simultaneouslypronouncingthesound“mmm.”Thisisavery slowanddeliberatemovement. If this isapurelymechanicalaction, thechildmayormaynotbecome interested.The teachermusttry, therefore, to recapture some of her own feeling for these keys tolanguage in order that the child may recognize their potential. Theteacher invites the child to trace the letter and pronounce the sound“mmm.”(“Youcantouchit,too.Nowyouknowwhat‘mmm’lookslike.There are other letters, too!” Always, the teacher works fromwhat isknown to the child to theunknown, and leaves adeposit onwhich tobuildthenextdiscovery.)Bytracingtheletterwiththeindexfingerofhisdominanthand,thechildbuildsamuscularmemoryoftheshapeoftheletterhewillonedaywrite.Ifhehasatendencytopresstoohard,heistoldtomovehisfingerslightlyoverthelettersothatittickles,thusencouraging the lightness of touch needed forwriting. Various games,suchastracingthelettersintheairortracingthemblindfolded,helpthechildconsolidatewhichwaythelettersgo.Thechildisnotencouragedtowritetheletterslearnedonpaperortoreadwordsfromthematthispoint.This exercisewith the sandpaper letters is an exploration in thesoundoflanguageandtheshapeofthesymbolforthissound;itisnotanexerciseinwriting.Becausesomeeducatorshaveattemptedtoreacholderchildrenthroughthesandpaperletters,itshouldbementionedthatthey are designed for use during the child’s sensitive period for touchand sound. Thismeans they are of little usemuch beyond the age offour.Iflettersandtheirsoundsaretobeintroducedatalaterage,othertools,basedonthechild’ssensitiveperiodsatthatage,mustbedevisedforpresentingthem.After eightor ten lettershavebeenused in thisway, and the soundandthesymbolfirmlyconnectedinthemindbymeansofSéguin’sthree-period lesson (alwaysused inMontessori toestablish that learninghastakenplace),theMovableAlphabetisintroduced.Thisisaboxdividedinto individual compartments containing cardboard letters of thealphabet, again with the consonants in blue, the vowels in red. TheMovableAlphabetenablesthechildtoputtogethersymbolandsoundinordertorenderhisownlanguagevisible.Theteachersoundsoutathree-

letterphoneticwordsuchas“cat,”pickingeachletterasshemakesthesound,andplacing themtogether in left-to-rightprogressiononamat.This material is not used to encourage reading or writing—only themechanical production of the child’s words and later his phrases andsentencesaswell.Toputtogetherthesymbolsmentally,asisrequiredinreading,istoodifficultataskatthisstage;noristhechildaskedtowritewithpaperandpencil.Parentsareeducatedtounderstandthatthechildmustnotbeexpectedtobringworkhomeatthisage,fortheworkoftheyoungchildisinterior.As the child begins spontaneously to compose small storieswith theMovableAlphabet,hewillneedwordshecannotsoundoutphonetically.The teacher gives him the word he wants matter-of-factly, with noattempt to teach him the intricacies of English spelling. Nor is anyattemptmadetocorrectwordsthatarenotproperlyspelled,butwhichhe is satisfied with. The idea here is only to encourage the child toexpresshisownthoughts.SimultaneouslywiththeintroductionofthesandpaperlettersandtheMovableAlphabet,anotherpieceofequipment ispresented.TheMetalInsets, designed to contribute to the development of the mechanicalwriting skills,are redmetal frameswithblue insets,bothofgeometricshapes: circle, triangle, trapezium, pentagon, quatrefoil, etc. The childtakestheframeandinsethewishestouse,apieceofsquarepaperthesize of the frame, and three colored pencils.He traces the framewithone colored pencil, making the geometric form of the frame. He thenputs the inset on this newly drawn form, and taking another pencildrawsaroundtheinset.Theformisnowoutlinedintwoseparatecolors.Now lines are drawn up and down and side to side, until the form iscompletely covered with the third color. Later, the child uses severalinsets together, superimposing different geometric figures one uponanother and creating original designs. The purpose of the insets isprimarily todevelop themuscularcontrolneeded towieldapencil, tostay within an outline, and to move lightly across the paper in acontrolledmovement. TheMetal Insets complete the possibility for anexplosion into writing, for the child now knows letters, can composewords and sentences, and has the necessary control of his handmovements.Thereisafourthareadevelopedthroughoutthisperiodthatwillmake

thisexplosionmoremeaningfultothechildwhenitdoesoccur:theareaofvocabularyenrichmentofwrittenwords.Matchingpicturecardsofalltheareasexploredearlieronasensorial levelarenowlabeled.Ononesetofcardsthelabelsareprintedbeneaththepictures.Theothersethasno printed labels, but unattached plain ones are in the samebox. Theteacher takes a set of these and writes the label for each matchingpicture while the child watches. After this introduction the child canmatchhisownlabels,usingthealreadylabeledcardstocheckhiswork.The teacher always writes the labels for the child during the firstpresentation.Thishelpstofixthewordinthechild’smind,inadditiontoexposinghimtotheproperformingofthelettersandpresentingthepossibilityofwritingitself.Labelsarealsomadeforalltheobjectsintheenvironment.Allofthesevocabularymaterialsaremadebytheteacher,andheringenuityandconscientiousnessinproducingawealthofthemwilllargelydeterminethechild’scontinuedinterestinwrittenwordsatthisstage.Therewillcomeatimewhenthechilddoesnotwanttoputawayhis

story, as he must, when he has formed it by means of the MovableLetters.ThisisthenaturalmotivationthatproducesthetransitionfromtheMovableAlphabettowriting.Itcomesfromthechild’sowndesires,then,andnotthedesiresofteacherorparent.Thisself-propulsionofthechildtowardthedevelopmentofwritingmustnotbeinterferedwithbyeither the anxieties or the praises of adults.When the child has beenexposedtotheproperenvironment,writingdevelopsasnaturallyasorallanguagedidinanearlierperiodItshouldbetreatedjustasmatter-of-factly.About this same time,whichmaybeapproximately sixmonthsafter

theintroductionoftheMovableAlphabet,thechildrealizeshecannotonlymake“c-a-t,”makingeachsoundseparately,butthathecanmake“cat,”awordofsynthesizedsoundwhichcanbeexperiencedasawhole.UptothistimethechildworkingwiththeMovableAlphabethasaskedthe teacher, “Did Imake ‘pig’?”Nowhe says, “Come and see! Imade‘pig’!”Thisisobviouslyamomentofgreatexcitementforthechild.Hehas literally “discovered reading.” This is an excellent example of theMontessoriapparatusbringinganalreadyacquired skillof thechild toconsciousness.Hehadthepowertosynthesizethewordbeforeheknewhecoulddo it. “Ididn’tknowIknewthat!” isaphraseoftenheard in

Montessoriclassrooms.Thusthechilddevelopsasenseofwonderathisownpowers,andthiswonderbecomesamotivatingforcetowardfurtheracquisitions.Occasionally, it happens that the child needs a little help inmaking

thistransitiontoseeingthewordshehasmadeasawhole.Inthiscase,the teacher forms a word with the Movable Alphabet and says, “Iwonderifyoucanfindoneoftheseforme?”or“Canyoutellmeaboutthis?”She iscarefulnot to say, “Iwonder ifyoucan read this?” If thechildisready,thisrequestusuallygiveshimtheleadthatwillcarryhimintosynthesization.TheMontessori child, then, does not learn to read from books, but

throughalongprocessofindirectpreparation.Whenhetakesabooktoread,healreadyknowshow.Thisisveryimportantforthechild’sinitialresponsetobooks.Whowantstoread“See,Jane,see.Comeandsee.Seeme.”?A child’s first encounterwith books he is going to read himselfmust involve those he will find worth exploring. This can only beaccomplishedifthereadingofbooksthemselvesissavedforthefinalactofthedrama.When the teacher isaware thatachild readsback thewordshehas

madeonhismatwiththeMovableAlphabet,sheintroduceshimtothePhoneticObjectGame.Thisgameinitiallyinvolvesasmallboxofthree-letterphoneticobjectssuchaspin,cat,cup,etc.Theteacherwritestheword“pin”onasmallpieceofpaper,andsays,“CanyougivemewhatIwant?” (Again, she does not say, “Can you read this?”) The label andobject are then matched together, pronouncing each label with theplacingaction.Afterallthelabelsaremade,thechildcanusethegamealone.A tremendousquantityof theseobjectgamesmustbeorganizedby the teacher, for themore knowledge that ismade available to thechild,themoreheisstimulatedtoexplorelanguage.After the Phonetic Object Game is presented, two new ideas are

introduced, phonograms and “puzzle words.” Phonograms areintroduced through the Object Game. The usual phonetic objects areintroduced,butthelastobjectintheboxcontainsaphonogramsuchasin “ship.”Only one un-phonetic object is introduced, again preservingthe principle of isolation of new knowledge. The teacher explains,“Sometimes when letters sit together they make a different sound.They’repartners,andtheyproducesomethingnewtoeachofthem.”She

thenwritesshonthelabelinonecolorandipinanother.TwoboxesofsmallerMovableAlphabetsarenowintroduced,oneyellow,onegreen.Theteacherbeginsthephonogramshandsays,“Canyouthinkofmorewords with sh?” They explore the alphabet, using the vowels andconsonantstomakenewwordswiththeshsound,includingthosewithsh in themiddleorendof theword(fishing, fish,etc.).Thedictionarycan be used to see if indeed a real word has been made in thisexploration.Phonogramcardsandbookletsarealsopreparedwhichthechild can use on his own or with others. Additional difficulties areintroducedthroughtheObjectGameorthePuzzleWordgames.Cardsof“puzzle words,” such as boat, coat, float are gathered together inenvelopesbearingalabelofthefamilytobeintroduced,suchasoa,ai,etc., and again picture cards and labels are the devices used for theidentification. Other envelopes contain words such as knife, cough,laugh,jump,etc.Theteachermakesnoattempttoexplainthecausesforthese irregularities at this age. The sensitive period for the source ofwordsoccurssometimeduringthejuniorlevelfromsixtonine,anditisthenthattherootsofwordsareexplored.Classified picture cards are introduced at this point (all reptiles, all

mammals,allgeometricshapes,etc.;andlater,partsofreptiles,partsofmammals,etc.).Definitioncardsarealsopresented:adefinitionsuchas“an island is a body of land surrounded bywater” ismatchedwith apictureofanisland.Thechildhashadfamiliaritywiththesedefinitionspreviouslyonaconcretelevel.Forexample,theconceptsofanisland,anisthmus, a peninsula, etc., have been introduced sensorially a year ormoreearlierthroughthegeographymaterial.Trayswerepreparedwithclayrepresentingthelandshapetobeidentified.Thechildpouredwaterinto the tray, thus forminghisownisland,etc.Nextheexperiencedanislandintheabstractthroughdrawingsinoneofthematchingpicture-card games. Finally, he has met the definition itself through theDefinitionCardGame.The children are now somewhere between five and seven, andhave

beeninaMontessoriclassforthreeorfouryears.Thismeanssomearein thesix-to-nineor juniorMontessori level,andequivalent to the firstgraders of a traditional school. Throughout this time there has alwaysbeen a special place in the room for reading—a comfortable andattractivespotwithrugsonthefloor,rockingchairs,andalargesupply

ofgoodbooks.Allthechildrenlookatthebooksfromtimetotime,andthosewhoarefamiliarwithwordsreadthemwhenevertheychoose.Itisacommonsighttoseeoneoftheolderchildrenreadingaloudtooneormorethree-year-olds.An exploration of the functions of words is now begun with those

children who are ready, and this is the first time the phrase“introductiontoreading”isusedinMontessori.Allthathasgonebeforehas simply been a foundation for this introduction. The exploration iscarriedoutbymeansofequipmentthroughwhichthefunctionofwordsis exhibited. One such piece of equipment used traditionally inMontessorischools isacompletemodel farmwithallof itscomponentparts.Amodelcity,factory,shop,orschoolcouldbeused,butitmustbea model that presents the opportunity to show words representing agreatmanyqualities.Smalllabelsaremadeforeachobjectinthemodel.Thechildisaccustomedtowordsthatnamethings.Nowtheconceptofthe horse,meaning the only one, ora horse,meaning one ofmany, ispresented.Next the ideaof describingwords is presented.The teachermay say, “Giveme the horse. Oh, I didn’tmean that one. I want thewhite horse.” Shewrites “white,” and puts it between the labels “the”and “horse.” (The words “adjective,” “noun,” and “article” are notintroducedatthispoint.Theintentisonlytogivethekeythatdifferentwordsdodifferentthings;toaddanymoreinformationwouldintroducea useless complication.) Symbols are used to represent the wordfunctions presented: a black triangle is placed over the noun, a smallblue triangle over themodifyingword or adjective. Later, a red circlewilldenoteaverb,asmallerorangecircletheadverb,andsoonforallthepartsofspeech.Thechildpastes thesesymbolsabovethewords inphrases or sentences he makes. These symbols are used for severalreasons.Becausethechildisstill inthesensitiveperiodformovement,thehandmustbeinvolvedaswellastheeyeifthechild’sinterestistobemaintained.Inaddition,thesensorialexperienceofthesymbolshelpstofixthefunctionsofthewordsinthechild’smind.Later,replacingtheblack trianglewith theword “noun”will involve a simple substitutionbasedonawell-establishedconcept.Thepositionofthewordinaphraseisalsoemphasizedatthetimeof

the introductionofword function.The teachermayplace “white” and“the horse,” saying, “Does that sound right? I guesswe’d better put it

here.‘Thewhitehorse.’That’sbetter.”Thisexplorationofwordpositiongoes on throughout the learning ofword function. The child discoversthatsometimesthesenseremains,andsometimesitdoesn’t.Agreatmanymoregamesare introducedtoexplorethefunctionsof

words: Object Boxes to teach singular and plural forms; a DetectiveGame played with labels for the materials in the room (“Find thesmallest pink cube, the small blue scalene right-angled triangle”); theCommand Game (the child reads silently slips of paper on whichcommandsareprinted,andcarriesouttheaction)andCommandGamesintroducingtransitiveandintransitiveverbs(run—acommandinvolvingnodirectobject;drinkaglassofwater—acommandinvolvingadirectobject).Allduringthisfurtherexplorationofwordfunction,thechildhasbeen

reading on his own. This is possible for him because the isolation ofdifficultiesintheearlierpreparationhasmeantthat,whenreadingcametohim,itcameinafullform.InMontessorieducationthisfullformisreferredtoas“totalreading.”Continuedexercisesservetogiveforcefulimpressionsthatleadthechildtonoticetheimportanceofeachiteminasentence—notonlythemeaningofeachword,but itsposition inthephraseor sentence. It is thechild’scontinuingexperiencewithreadingthatgiveshimthefoundationandinterestinthesegrammarexercises.Inthiscase,itisthereadingthatservesasanindirectpreparationfortheexercises,andnottheotherwayaround,aspreviously.BynowthechildhasmovedontothejuniorlevelofMontessoriand

he is ready for the nomenclature of grammar. The names “noun,”“article,” etc., are introduced through a wooden box divided intocompartments,onemarked“article,”theother“noun.”Thechildplacesthe word “the” in the “article” compartment, “car” in the “noun”compartment. Other boxes include the adjective, verb, adverb, etc.,introducing all the parts of speech one at a time. Sentence analysis isbegun with the object of helping the child to develop his power toconveyexactlywhathewishesinhiswriting.Thisanalysisiscarriedoutinitially by means of cutting sentences into words and placing thesubjectonablackdiscwithablackwoodenarrowonwhichthewords“Whatisit?Whoisit?”areprinted,pointingtowardit.Nextcomesareddiscwhichtheverbisplacedupon;andnexttoitisanotherblackarrowsaying,“Who?What?”pointingtowardablackdisconwhichthedirect

object is to be placed. This sentence analysis continues, graduallyintroducing increasingly complicated sentences (i.e., thosewith clausesof source, of time, purpose, or manner, attributive clauses, etc.). Thisanalysis lays a good foundation for sentence diagramming andcomposition,andfortheexplorationofwritingstylesofvariousauthors.Because he has been exposed to so much information in theMontessori environment, the child is now in a position to produce awealth of compositions on many different subjects history, nature,geography,music,etc.ItistheverycarefulpastpreparationthroughtheMontessorienvironmentthathasmadepossibleatremendousfloweringof creative writing at this young age. This writing, and the advancedlevel of reading it leads into, appears as a natural expansion of thechild’s powers in aMontessori classroom. This expansion occurs in allotherareasofknowledgeaswell,andineachcasetheprocedureisthesame.Theneedsofthechildinhissensitiveperiodsarematchedwithanindirectpreparationtomeetthoseneeds.Itisthisthatmakesitpossiblefor theMontessori child to build one foundation out of another in anever-extendingreachforself-construction.

6WhyMontessoriToday

MONTESSORI HAS alreadymadeagreat contribution toeducation inEuropeandAsia,butitistoAmericainthe1970’sthatherworkhasparticularpertinence. The revolution that technological and biologicalbreakthroughshavewroughthas resulted inunprecedented changes inhuman life-styles. Affluence and luxuries for a large portion of thepopulation, instant communication through electronic media viaworldwide satellites, the preservation and prolongation of human life,the possibilities now being explored of artificially reproducing andmodifying that life, theoverpopulatingandpollutingof the earth, andtheever-presentthreatofitstotaldestructionbymanhimself—allthesepresentproblemsthatcallforanentirelydifferentresponsetolifethanman has ever given before. It becomes increasingly obvious thattraditional education, based as it is upon handing to the student theanswers of another era, is no longer sufficient. If young people are tomeet the challenge of survival that faces them today, it is imperativethattheireducationdeveloptothefullestextentpossibletheirpotentialfor creativity, initiative, independence, inner discipline, and self-confidence.ThisisthecentralfocusofMontessorieducation.Inadditiontothisgeneralizedaim,thereareseveralareaswherethe

Montessoriapproachcanmakespecificcontributionstoourculture.Oneof these is theMontessori attitude towardwork. The very core of theMontessoriphilosophyandmethod is itsapproach to theworkofboththechildandtheadult.By“work”Montessorididnotmeanmechanicaldrudgery, but physical and mental activity freely chosen by anindividual—activity that hasmeaning for him because it promotes hisowngrowthor contributes to society.Montessoribelieved this activitywasnaturaltothechildandthemostimportantsingleinfluenceonhisdevelopment.“Arewegoingtofreethechildfromwork?Suchattemptwillbelikeuprootingaplantortakingafishoutofwater.”Wedonottakeseriouslytheyoungchild’sinstinctforworkinourculture.Instead,

we encourage him to play all day. Even if a young child goes to pre-school, it is assumed he will not be directly motivated towardintellectualdevelopmentandthathewillhavetobeledtoitwithouthisbeing aware of what is happening. Compare Montessori’s attitudetowardworkfortheyoungchildwiththeoneimplicit inthefollowingstatement froma brochure for pre-schoolHead Start classes in a largeMidwesterncity.Itisnotatypical.

Toafouryearold,pre-schoolclassesarefun—Playingwith dolls in the playhouse comer. Buildingwithblocksandjoyfullywatchingthemtumbledownaroundyouwithnoisycrashesthatmaketheteacherjump.Games outside with balls and jumpropes. Walks. Quiettimes listening to soft music. Story time with books andpicturesandflannelboards.Marchingintherhythmband.Chattingwith classmates, talking to the teacher, learning,sharing,caring.Afun-filledmorningorafternoongoneandeachchildhasexperiencedsomethingnew.Without his knowing it, his teacher and her aide have subtlyguidedhiminlanguagedevelopment,perceptualskills,motorcontrol,creativeactivities,andsocialbehavior.…Pre-schoolmay look like fun through the eyes of a four-year-old but it’s really a very special learning experience.[Italicsmine.]

Recentlytherehavebeensignsofashiftawayfromtheoveremphasisonplayfortheveryyoung.Thisisdueinparttorecentresearchonthecognitivedevelopmentofinfants.StudiesdonebyJeromeBruneroftheInstituteofCognitiveStudiesatHarvardUniversity, JeanPiagetof theInstituteofEducationalScienceattheUniversityofGeneva,andothershave presented new evidence of the great learning abilities of infants.Man, being what he is, may use this new knowledge to further thefulfillment and happiness of the child by providing him with betterenvironmentstosuitthechild’sneeds,orhemayusethisinformationtodemandmoreofwhattheadultwantsfromthechildataneverearlierage.

Thehoopofadult requirements for thebabycangoupandup,andthe infant taught to jumpeverhigher through it, justashashappenedwitholderchildren.Thedangerofsuchexploitationisveryreal inoursociety today, where a reaction against some of the unwise excessespermittedtothechildisthreateningtogainmomentum.Thiscouldleadtoevengreaterdangersfortheyoungchild’slifethantheearlierbeliefthatalltheyoungchildwanted,orreallyshouldbedoing,wastoplayall day. If this misdirected emphasis on work occurs, Montessoriphilosophycanserveasabalancinginfluence.Ittakesintoaccountthechild’sinstinctandlegitimateneedforpurposefulactivity,but,becausethis activity is constructed on the basis of the child’s own desires andneeds, it does not permit the exploiting of the child’s talents by theadult.Montessoriisalsopertinenttoourtimesfortheadultworldinregardtowork. Traditionally, educators in America have not acted upon norunderstoodthenatureoftheyoungchild’sinstinctforwork.Ourculturedid, however, in the past have some concept of themeaningfulness ofwork in the adult’s life. In recent years, the emphasis on thismeaningfulness has shifted and deteriorated. Work is viewed asimportantprimarilyinthesearchforstatus,money,andconsumergoods—relativesatisfactionswhicharesubjecttoconstantdisruptionthroughexposure to thosewhohavemoreor toadvertisingstimulation toseekmoreforourselves.Asaresult,neverinthehistoryofmanhasawholenation been so in need of a renewed appreciation of the meaning ofwork. Montessori education, with its understanding of the generativeandregenerativeforceinhumanlife,isuniquelysuitedtohelpmeetthisneed.Because our society has endangered the life of a whole planet, andperhaps the universe itself, by our disrespect for the laws of nature,Montessori’sapproachtonaturehasspecialsignificanceforourculture.Montessoriregardedman’sinterdependencewithnatureasbothphysicalandspiritual.

But if for the physical life it is necessary to have the childexposedtothevivifyingforcesofnature,itisalsonecessaryforhispsychicallifetoplacethesoulofthechildincontactwithcreation.

In today’s world children do not have this needed relationship withnature.

In our time and in the civilized environment of our societychildren,however,liveveryfardistantfromnature,andhavefewopportunitiesofenteringintointimatecontactwithitorof having direct experience with it.… We have all madeourselves prisoners voluntarily, and have finished up bylovingourprisonand transferringourchildren to it.Naturehas, little by little, been restricted in our conception to thegrowing of flowers, and to the domestic animals whichwedependonforfood.

It isnothardtounderstandthat thechildrearedinsuchestrangementfromhisnatural lifeshouldgrowintoanadultwhoplunders,pollutes,anddestroysnaturewithoutevenbeingconsciousofwhathe isdoing.Botany,zoology,andthestudyoflandformsareanintegralpartoftheMontessoricurriculum,andmanyasix-year-oldMontessorichildknowsmoreabouttheclassificationofplantsandthecareoflivingthingsthantheaverageadult.Thus,theMontessorichildiswellpreparedtobecomeanecologicallyresponsibleadult.Montessori brought nature into the classroom, but, even more

important,shebelievedinthechildlivinginnature.

The idea, however, of living in nature is the most recentacquisition to education. Indeed the child needs to livenaturally,andnotonlytoknownature.Themost importantfact really is the liberation of the child… from the bondswhich isolate him in the artificial life created by living incities.

AmodernprograminkeepingwithMontessori’sbeliefistheOutwardBoundprogram.Thisprogramforbothboysandgirls,sixteen-and-one-half years andolder, fromallwalks of life, is a unique twenty-six-dayexperience in someof the remotestwilderness areas of our country.Aparticipantliveswithnatureinitsrawestform,usuallywithagroupofninetotwelveothers,butforatleastthreedayshelivestotallyalone—

and in so doing comes to a better understanding of nature, his fellowhumanbeings,andhimself.AcombinationofaMontessoriSchoolandan Outward Bound program would be a fascinating experiment incontemporaryeducation.Another area in which the Montessori approach is particularlymeaningfultodayconcernsfamilylife.Montessoriemphasizedthefamilyas the natural unit for the nurture and protection of the child, andstressedparticularly theuniqueness of themother’s relationship to thechild, beginning at birth. In our society, where family life is beingrapidlydiminishedandundermined,thissupportofthefamilyismuchneeded.Montessori’sinclusionoftheparentsinthelifeoftheclassroomand the guidance they are given in carrying out their role at homeappearstobeespeciallymeaningful(seeAppendix).Herconcept,too,ofthe family as an extended unit is a valid point at a time whengrandparents,aunts,uncles,andcousinsareseldompartofthefamily’sdailylife.Montessori’semphasisonchildhoodastheotherdimensionofhumanlifeisanotherimportantprinciplefortoday.Oursociety,bentasitisonabreakneckpaceofproductionandachievementatallcosts,desperatelyneedstoworktowardthebalancethatseeingtheworldthroughtheeyesof thechildgives.Thechild, likeall living things,hashisownnaturallaws.Recognizingthemandadjustingourpaceandtempotothemarebeneficialtotheadult,whohaslostmuchofhisownnaturalrhythmofbeing.Respectforachild’sneedsmayhelpusinrediscoveringourownandmayinturnmakeusmoretolerantoftheneedsoftheelderly.Thus,thewholecycleofhumanlifegainsindignityandunderstanding.Ifoureyesweremore consistentlyon the child, asMontessori counseled,wesimplycouldnotdothekindsof inhumanthingswedotochildren, tonature,toothers,toourselves.Intheemphasisonthedevelopmentofhumanpotential,work,man’sinterdependencewithnature,theimportanceoffamily,andthemeaningofthechildtoadultlife,Montessoriissignificantforrichandpooralike.It is,however, itsapplicationtoeducationalproblems in the innercitywhereMontessorimayfirstreceivewiderecognitionintheUnitedStatestoday.Montessori is theonlywidelypublicized,worldwideeducationalmethodthathashadgreatsuccesswiththepoor.TheCasedeiBambiniwhereMontessorimadeherfirstseminaldiscoveriesintheeducationof

young children were, in fact, day-care centers serving the mostoppressedareainallofRome,theSanLorenzoquarter.OneofthemajorreasonsforMontessori’ssuccesswiththechildrenof

the poor may be its lack of assumption of prelearned skills. BecauseMontessori began herwork firstwith retarded children and thenwithchildrenfromthemostdeprivedofbackgrounds,shecouldnottakeanypreviousknowledgeforgranted.Shebuiltintohermethodthesimplestoflife’sexperiences—howtowash,dress,moveabout,carrythings;howto hear, touch, and see. Every skill had to be presented from itsmostprimitive beginnings: muscles were developed for holding a pencilbefore thepencilwasgiven,anobjectwashandledbeforeanamewasgiven. A careful path was always laid from the undeveloped to thedeveloped, from the concrete to the abstract. This is, of course,important for all children, who begin their learning as infants withundevelopedbrains.Butwiththesechildren,wheremanystepsusuallytaken for granted have been missed in earlier years, it can make thedifferencebetweenthesuccessandfailureofahumanlife.Montessori’s emphasis on the development of positive self-image

through work and real accomplishment has special meaning for thepoor. Surrounded as he is likely to be by despair and defeat, there isalmostnoway for the inner-citychild todevelop trust in lifeor inhisownpowers.Byachievingsuccessonhisownwiththematerialsintheclassroom, the child begins to understand his own value and talent.Highly important here is theMontessori emphasis on independence inlearning, for if the inner-city child is to succeed in life, he will mostlikelyhavetodo itwithout thekindsofsupport themiddle-classchildmay receive. Because research shows that the teacher’s image of thechildisvitaltohisgrowth,theMontessoriteacher’sbeliefinthechild’sabilitytodevelopthroughthematerialsshouldalsobestressed.PerhapsbecauseMontessoribeganbydoingthe“impossible”withchildren,thisspiritoffaithinthechildhascontinuedtopervadeMontessorieducationtoauniquedegree.Further, thebeautyandstructureof theMontessorienvironmenthas

special significance to the inner-city childwhomay livewith disorderand ugliness in his physical world. More than others, he may needbeauty to awaken his love and interest in his environment, and orderandstructurethroughwhichtofindpurposeandmeaninginlife.

Probablymostmeaningfulofall,therelationshipMontessoridevelopswith the parent has special significance for the poor. Because theenvironmentofthehomeandtheattitudeandaspirationsoftheparenthave more impact on the child than any other single influence, theparent’s growth is at least as important for the child as his schoolexperience.Montessori regarded the parent as a partner in the child’sschooling.Thisrecognitionof theparent’s legitimaterole in thechild’seducation can give the parent a newway of viewing himself and theschool. The school is no longer seen as the authority issuing orders toparentandchildalike.Instead,theparentisinvitedintotheclassroom.Hesharesinwhatisgoingonthereandinthehopesforthefutureofthechild and the class.The teacherdemonstrates tohim thematerials hischildusestolearn,andheisthenfreetotrythemhimself.Thestep-by-step procedure leading from simple to complex, concrete to abstract,makessensetohim,andhecanfollowitthroughfrombeginningtoendmuchashis childdoes.Theorder and simplebeautyof the classroomare readily apparent, and theway they serve the child explained. Theparentbecomesawareof the teacher’s respect forhis child’sworkandherconfidenceinhim.Thereisnodiscussionoftheneedforgradesorrewards, nor of the physical punishment used consistently in the finestmodern inner-city schools of today. (At a recent teachers’ meeting insuchaschool, therewasa lengthydiscussionandanactualvote takenonwhetheritwasbettertousetworulersstrappedtogetherorapaddleforpunishment.Youhavetoknowpersonallytheveryenlightenedandconcerned principals and teachers who are using thesemethods to besufficientlyshockedanddisappointed.)As we have seen, Montessori advocated frequent meetings with

parents.Thesemeetingsareparticularlyimportantwhereamiddle-classteacherteachesinaninner-cityschool,fortheyenablehertoknowtheparent as apersonwithhisowncultureand concerns.Thesemeetingsarenotstructuredlikethepotentiallythreateningtwice-yearlyinterviewof many inner-city schools. They are designed to be relaxed andinformal, and include the teacher’s coming to the child’s home andtaking part in activitieswith the child and parent after school. In thisway,theteachergetstoknowthefamilyasawhole,andtheparenthasanopportunity to seekherhelpwith the raisingof theother children.HeretheMontessoriteachercanhaveaparticularlybeneficialinfluence.

Parentsofinner-citychildrenoftentendtopunishtheiryoungchildrenforaccidentsorexploratorybehaviorwithaseveritynotusuallyseeninmiddle-classhomes.Theytraintheirchildrenforpassivity,unawaretheyarepreventingthegrowthof their intelligence.Throughhisexperiencein the classroom and interaction with the teacher, the parent maybecome more aware and more tolerant of the young child’s need toexplorehisworldandtotrytodothingsforhimself.BecauseMontessoriisespeciallydesignedtooperatewithassistantstothe teacher, parents are often brought into the classroom on aprofessionalbasis.Whenthishappens,itshouldbeemphasizedthattheparentisnottreatedasaidesareinmanytraditionalsettings,wheretheyact more in the capacity of diversion or keepers of discipline. In aMontessori setting the teacher tries to give the parent-assistant anunderstanding of the method and materials so that he can be a trueparticipantinthelearningprocess.Again,itshouldbeemphasized,thisispossibleinMontessoritoauniquedegreebecauseassistantshavebeenan integral part of the method since its inception. Traditionally, theyhave been trained in whole or in part by the teacher herself, and nopreviousknowledgeorbackgroundineducationisnecessary.Thisuseofassistantsisnotlimitedtoparents,ofcourse,andisahelpfulsourceofemploymenttoothermenandwomenintheghettocommunityaswell.The poor themselves have respondedwith enthusiasm toMontessorieducation, which is the best evidence that it has special meaning forthem.Theyattendthemeetingswiththeteacherandseemtowelcometheclosercontactwithher.Theyspread thewordaboutMontessori intheir community so that others begin to ask for it, too. When aMontessoriclassroominonepublicschoolwasgoingtoclosebecauseofa cost-cutting program, it was the parents who took the initiative inkeeping it going. In a Head Start Montessori class where the samesituationoccurred, theparentsactually tookover the responsibility fortheclass,andhavekeptitgoingwiththehelpofalocalchurch.Whatisthere about Montessori education that these parents like? These aresomeoftheanswersparentsofchildrenininner-cityMontessoriclasseshavegivenme.FromamotherwhoalsoteachesinaMontessoriclass:“Thesechildrenhavesomanyfears—fearofpunishmentandfeartheywon’t succeed. They won’t try anything difficult. They’re afraid of

danger.Theywon’tevengoontheswingsorslides.Littlebylittle,intheMontessoriclassroom,youcanseethereliefcoming.”(IthoughtofthepublicschoolclassroomsintheareaIhadseen—theoppressive stillness, the inactivity, the furtive looks, the parroting ofanswers for teacher or visitor, the humiliation of failing in front ofothers,andalways the threatofpunishment fornot followingconstantorders:situpstraight,don’ttalktoeachother,readthesepages,dothismessypaperover.Whatdoesthisdotoachildwhoismoreafraidthananythingelse?)Moremothers:“Thesechildrenneedtobeproudofthemselves,andtheyneedvalues—becausetheyareblack,especiallybecausetheyareblack.”“Mychildisblackandhe’sbright.IntheMontessoriclasstheylearnandthey’reactive.Thosechildrenarereachingout.Theydidn’tstartoutthat way. Something happened to them there. Itmakes themwant toreachout.”“They’ve got a chance to find themselveswhen they’re young. Theydon’t just teach reading,writing, and arithmetic thewaymost schoolsdo. They can be anything theywant, a poet,maybe.Nobody’s forcingthem.Theyusealltheirminds.”“Theteachercomestoyourhouse.Shehadthreechildrentodinner,andthenwentbackwithoneofthemtotheirhouse.Sheknowsalltheotherchildren inthefamily.Thoseareherchildren.Most teachers, thechildrenarejustintheirrooms.”“Thosechildrenhaveindependence.They’vegottheirownideas,andyoucan’ttalkthemoutofit.”“Theyenjoyeachother.It’slikethey’repartofeachother,insteadofwhotheysitinbackof,ornextto.Andthey’rekindtoeachother.Theolderoneshelptheyoungerones.They’renotcompeting.”“What I’m afraid of iswhat’s going to happen to them in a regularclass.Somewon’tadjustnow,theyjustwon’t.”*“What I’ve seen is, the children around here in that class can read,theycanreallyread.InsteadofplayingwithMickeyMousetoys,they’rereading.”Fromfathers:“They teach the individual child. It’snotdaycare.They really learnsomething.”

“Theylearnhowtobeindependent,tomaneuverontheirown.”“They letachild feel itsway.Youcan’t tellhowfar theymightget,

thegreatnesstheymightachieve.”“They value the child. They build on his strengths. It’s not just

conformandadjustandbecontrolled.”“Mostschools,you’renobodyoryou’renotimportant.Thesechildren

learnwhotheyare,findoutwhattheycando.”ThefollowingstatementonMontessoriwaspreparedbyanunusually

articulate young widowed mother with six children, several of whomhavebeeninfederallyfundedandpublicschoolMontessoriclassesforanumberofyears.If we have the Montessori method and early school and it was

perfected to its most fullest, we would not have this school dropoutproblem that we have now. The money would not have to be spentbussing them and for special programs for these children. Themoneywould be concentrated on getting the best Montessori teachers in it,maybe to send some of our present teachers back to school and givethemtheMontessori training, thenuse itandlearnallwecanabout itandeducateourchildrenandtoshowthemwhatabeautiful thingtheprocessof learningcanreallybe.…Montessori schools show—openuptoyou—it lays italloutopenlyforyou—what’savailableforyou.Youhaveanopportunitytotakewhatyouwant,togointhedirectionwhichisfulfillingtoyouratherthanhavesomeonetellyouyouhavetohavesomuch this, somuch that, somuch that.Well, who in theworld—Imean, really,being really realistic—who in theworldknowswhatyouneed better than you do. If you are a well-adjusted person, whichMontessori school Ibelievecontributes togreatly ishelpingyou to seeyourself what you are, to accept yourself what you are, to respectyourself for your abilities and not to—sort of—down yourself andbelittleyourselfbecauseyoudon’tknowasmuchasyourneighbordo.…Ibelievethateverychildwantstoknow.Idon’tbelievethatanychildlikestohaveanadulttokeeptellinghimwhatsomethingis.Thechildiscurious,andwhentheyarecuriousatthisearlyage,Ibelievethattheircuriosityshouldbefed.…Idon’tthinksocietyisreadytoacceptthefactthatourchildrenareveryintelligentandarebeingheldbackbysociety,andthat’swhyIthinkitimportantthattheinner-citychildhasthebesteducation,which is theMontessori education,whichdoes encouragea

child to learn, to be curious, to be interested, to make learning abeautifulprocess.Theoldway,ormethod,hasnotworked.Itistimeforachangeanditistimeforachangenow,orthisviciouscycleoftryingtorepairdamageofyearsagowillberepeatedtimeandtimeagain.…Isee theMontessori child coming up from the age of three, completinghigh school, absorbing every bit of knowledge that is put before him,excellinginthesubjectsinthefieldsthatinteresthimmost.Iseehimasapeacemakerbecauseheisabletosolvehisproblems,he’sabletothinkandtoreason.Heisnot lookingtothetextbooksforanswersbutheisusinghisowninnerselfwhichiscontainedwithinhimself.Ibelievethatsocietyisafraidofourchildrenlearningtoomuch.Montessori does have an important contribution to make to the

Americaneducationalscene today—both for themiddle-classchildandtheinner-citychild.ButisitpossibletobeginenoughMontessoriclassesthroughout the country, particularly in large city school systems, toinfluence theexistingeducationalmethods?Thereare twomajorareasto discuss in considering the practical aspects of applying Montessoripractices to themainstream of American education: the availability ofteachers and the question of comparative costswith other educationalsystems.Inregardtoteachers, therearetwodirectionstofollow:thetraining

of new teachers or the retraining of experienced teachers. There areadvantages and disadvantages to both approaches, and somecombinationof thetwomaybethemosteffectiveprocedureto follow.New teachers who do not have to unlearn old behaviors may morereadilyacceptandbeabletocarryoutMontessoribeliefsandpractices.However, there may be problems both of supply and of replacingteachers who already have tenure. If experienced teachers are to beretrained,theywillhavetobeconvincedthatMontessorieducationisabetterapproachtoteachingthanwhattheyhaveknownbefore.Alreadythey feel underpaid, overworked, and unappreciated, and they are onstrike across the country. This is not hard tounderstand.Teachers arediscouragedbecauseitisimpossibleforthemtomeetthedemandsbeingplaced on them. They are asked to spend their days in the exhaustingposition of having to control and dominate children. Theymust herd,push,andpull themasonebody througha setcurriculum.Only thosewho have had to attempt this inhuman and unnatural endeavor could

possibly appreciate the strain it places on the teacher whosinglehandedlymust accomplish it. The experienced teachermay wellaccepttheopportunitytolearnanewapproachtoteachingthatwouldrelieveherofthisabsurdburden.Experiencesofarhasshownteacherswho have been exposed to them are interested in the highlysophisticated techniques and materials for individualized learningMontessoriprovides,andintheMontessoripracticeofgroupingchildrenintolargerageblocks(seeAppendix).In regard to the cost of Montessori education, there is a myth that

operating expenses have to be higher for Montessori than otherapproachestoeducation.Thismythhasgrownforseveralreasons:firstbecause Montessori has existed mostly in pre-schools in this country.Montessori teachers for three-to-six-year-olds have asmuch training asmanygrade-school teachers, andwork a full daywhether the childrenare in theclassroomforawholedayornot.Therefore theydoreceivehigher salaries than nursery-school teachers, who have fewerrequirementsintermsoftrainingandwhotraditionallyworkahalf-day.However,Montessoriteachersonthegrade-schoollevelreceivethesamesalaryasotherpublicandprivateschoolteachers.Secondly, there is the expense of an assistant in a Montessori

classroom. In the three-to-six-year-old group, this is not an additionalexpenseovertraditionalmethodsbecausemoststaterequirementssetaratio of one adult to eight children in the lower age-levels of allclassrooms.However,fromkindergartenon,mosttraditionalclassroomsin the past have operated with no assistants. This situation has beenchanged inmany inner-city schools today through the influxof federalfunds for this purpose. Where no such funds are available, volunteerassistants—parents, siblings, or student-teachers—might assist inMontessoriclassrooms.BecauseMontessoriteachersmustserveayear’sinternshipunderanexperiencedMontessori teacherbefore theycanbeaccredited, there are more student-teachers available for Montessoriclasses than might be true for other situations. The alternatives areoperating without an assistant or taking more children into the classwherethereistobeanassistant.Althoughnotideal,eithermightworkout reasonably well in any given situation. The fact that Montessori’sfirst Casa dei Bambini began with over fifty children and only oneuntrainedteacherissometimesoverlooked.

Third, Montessori equipment is so attractive and well made that itlooksfarmoreexpensivethanit is. Itcostsapproximately$1,000forasetofmaterialsforthirtychildrenagedthreetosix.Thisisclosetothecostof settingupa traditionalnursery school todaywith its expensiveindoor jungle-gyms, rocking boats, wooden refrigerators and stoves,kitchenutensils,dollhouses,dolls,dollclothes,dress-upcorner,puzzles,etc. Moreover, Montessori equipment does not have to be constantlyreplaced and repaired, as the equipment in most nursery schools andtraditional classrooms does, because it is so meticulously constructedandbecause thechildrenare taught tohandle itwithcare.Montessorimaterialsforchildrenofsixtotwelvedonotcomeinorderedsetsastheintroductory material does. The teacher makes a selection to suit herchildren’s needs from a catalogue of many materials. Whatever herselection,$1,000to$1,500willcompletelyequipaclassroomforthirtyto thirty-five children in the six-to-twelve-year age range. This doesrepresentaninitialoutlaywellbeyondwhatmostpublicschoolsspendtodayontheirgradeschoolandjuniorhighschoolclasses.However, itshouldberememberedthatthisisacapitalexpense,andnotsubjecttofrequent recurrence as are the costs of readers, textbooks, sciencekits,etc. It is an expense also well below that of the talking typewriters,computers,televisionsets,etc.(andtheirrepair)nowbeingadvocatedasananswertotheeducationalproblemsofinner-cityschools.Having discussed the expense of the Montessori materials, their

relativeimportancetothemethodshouldalsobeconsidered.Itisquitepossible to produce a top-qualityMontessori classroomwithout any ofthe manufactured Montessori materials. In fact, for many teachers,particularly thosewhohavebeen teachingagoodmanyyearsandarelikelytobesetintheirways,itwouldbebetterforthemtopreparetheirownmaterials.Inthisway,theymustcarefullythinkthroughhowtheyaregoingtousethematerialstofurtherthedeeperaimsofMontessorieducation.WhenateacherispresentedwiththeMontessorimaterialsasawhole,

there is a danger she may regard them in the old way, i.e., as a setcurriculumwhichthechildmustberigidlymarchedthrough,insteadofas ameanswhereby he can achieve independence, self-discipline, andcreativity. There are classroomswhere this has happened, and visitorstherehaveimaginedtheywereseeingaMontessoriclassroom.Nothing

could be further from the truth. It is the teacher’s attitude toward thechildren and herself that establishes a Montessori classroom. If, inadditiontothisattitude,theteacherhasaccesstoMontessorimaterials—all well and good—but, if not, she can adapt the educationalequipmentshedoeshaveavailabletoher,orshecandevelopherown.There are todaymany educational tools that, with a few adjustments,can meet the standards and principles Montessori established for hermaterials, and completely new equipment can be developed out ofrelatively inexpensive materials as well. Some very good equipmentwouldundoubtedlybe created in thisway, and it is an approachverymuchinkeepingwithMontessori’sownexperimentaloutlook.Although operating costs are not necessarily higher for Montessori

education,therewillbesomeinitialexpensesforanyclassroomsthatarebegun, either for retraining teachers or for purchasing or developingmaterials.Becausetheydowantabettereducationfortheirchildren,Ibelieve parents themselves would work to raise the needed funds.Undertaken classroom by classroom, it is not such an insurmountabletask,and“parentpower”canbeaformidableforce.TheonethousandorsoexistingMontessori schools in thiscountrywerevirtuallyall startedthroughtheenergy,resources,andinfluenceofparents.Itmaybe thatparentsarerejectingschoolbond issues today inpart

because they reject the type of education their children are receiving.Theymaynotwantmoreofthesame.Schoolboardsmightwellconsidergivingthemsomethingtovotefor,insteadofsomethingtovoteagainst.Theymightoffer them thishighly innovative,highlyvisual,andeasilyunderstoodmethodofeducationwhichtheirchildrenwill,forachange,enjoy.Theresponsemightsurprisethem.(Iamremindedofanine-year-oldfriendofminewho,whenIaskedherwhatshewoulddoifshewereallowedtodowhatevershewantedinschool,replied,“Leave!”Whointhisdayandagewantstospendmoremoneytocontinueaneducationalexperiencetheirchildrenfeelthatwayabout?)Montessorieducationisnotapanaceafortheproblemsofoursociety

today,assomeenthusiastsmighthaveusbelieve.Becausehumanbeingsmust accomplish it, it is always exceedingly difficult to reproducequality classrooms of any educational method on a large scale.Montessoriisnoexception.Inaddition,Montessorieducationrepresentsprimarilythegeniusofonepersonwhodevelopededucationalpractices

basedonanapproachtochildrenthathadneverbeentriedsuccessfullybefore.Itisthereforeapioneeringeffort,andshouldnotberegardedasthefinalanswertothisapproach.Otherequallyeffectivemethodsmaybe developed in the future based on the same approach to the child.Montessoriphilosophyandmethodthendeservecreditasabeginning—thefirstrealbeginning—toseekingtheanswerstothechild’seducationand life out of his experiences and not out of our own. As such, theyrepresentanexcellentfoundationonwhichtobuildtheeducationofthefuture.

*Thisremarkillustratestheawarenessofeventheinner-cityparentofthewidedifferencesinMontessori and traditional education. In reality, most Montessori children make thetransition to more traditional schooling without much difficulty. This has been theexperienceinotherpartsoftheworldwhereMontessorischoolshaveflourishedformanyyears. In this country objective quantitative evidence is currently being collected by Dr.JuneScirraandherresearchteamattheUniversityofCincinnati(seeAppendix).

Appendix:ResearchResults

UNTIL 1964, no scientifically designed research study in Montessorieducation had been undertaken. In that year a group of parents inCincinnatibegantodevelopsuchaprogram.Theyfeltitwasessentialtohave documented proof of the successes they thought they saw in theclassroomifMontessoriwastomovefromitshistoricalpositiononthefringesof the educational sceneandenter themainstream.Theymadethe necessary arrangements for establishing three new Montessoriclasses,obtainedOfficeofEconomicOpportunityfundstofinancethem,interestedtheDepartmentofPsychologyattheUniversityofCincinnatiinorganizingaresearchteam,andraisedapproximately$100,000fromlocalfoundationstocoverresearchexpenses.Theresearchdesignwastocoverathree-yearperiod,withafollow-upstudytobedoneinthesixthyear,whentheoriginalsubjectswereexpectedtobeinthethirdgrade.The studybecameoperative in1965andwasknownas theCincinnatiMontessori Research Project. Dr. Thomas Banta, of the Department ofPsychology, University of Cincinnati, was selected as the ProjectDirector.After the initial pre-testing and selection of approximately 150

children for the Montessori, comparative, and control classes werecompleted,theresearchteambeganthetaskofdevelopingteststouseinevaluating the resultsof theeducationalexperiencesof thechildren. Itwasfeltthatthetestsinusetodetermineintelligenceofyoungchildren,suchastheStanfordBinetorthePeabodyPictureVocabulary,wouldbeinadequate as the solemeasures in the study. These tests, designed tomeasure appropriate, conventional, and quick responses, would notindicatethedevelopmentofotherabilitiesmorepertinenttoMontessorieducation. The tests developed became known as the CincinnatiAutonomyTestBattery. “Autonomy”wasconsideredas“self-regulatingbehaviors that facilitate effective problem-solving.” This meant thatvarious strengths of the child would have to be measured. Fourteen

variableswere selected toassess the followingbehaviors: curiosityandassertiveness, exploratory behavior, creativity, innovative behavior,motor impulse control, attention, persistence, reflectivity, fieldindependence, and analytic perceptual processes. The tests werecarefully designed not to favor Montessori methods, nor were anymaterials used thatMontessori childrenwould findmore familiar thanotherchildren.In the three years of testing, the Montessori children scoredconsistently highest or next to highest on all variables. Because theresults were based on tests whose reliability is not yet sufficientlyestablished, and because the results were not always statisticallysignificant,theycannotbeacclaimedasproofofMontessorisuperiority.Ontheotherhand,theyweresufficientlypromisingtoencouragethosewho had organized the project to extend it for another three years,instead of being satisfied with a follow-up study in the sixth year, asoriginally intended. With the cooperation of the Cincinnati Board ofEducationandtheCarnegieCorporationofNewYork,whichfundedtheresearchcomponentandagoodportionof theclassroomexpenses, theSands School Montessori Class and several control classes wereestablished. The Sands School Montessori Class represented acontinuationoftheMontessoriapproachintoafirst-grade,publicschoolsetting for approximately twenty-five children from Montessori HeadStartclassesinseveralpartsofthecity.Allofthechildrenwereoriginalsubjectsintheresearchprogram,sothatby1970theywouldhavebeenfollowed by research through six continuous years of Montessorieducation, from the ages of three to nine. The major thrust of theevaluationforthesecondthree-yearperiodwastobethecomparisonofperformance of four groups of children: (1) theMontessori classroom,(2)anon-gradedclassroom,(3)childrenwithpre-schoolexperienceandinconventional(graded)classrooms,and(4)childrenwithoutpre-schoolexperienceandinconventional(graded)classrooms.Dr. Banta served as Project Director in the first year of the newlyorganizedproject.Inthesecondyear,Dr.RuthGrossoftheDepartmentofPsychiatry,CollegeofMedicine,UniversityofCincinnati,tookoverasProjectDirectorwhileDr.Bantawasonacademicleave.In the first and second years, Dr. Banta’s Cincinnati Autonomy TestBatterywasagainusedforevaluation,withsomeothermeasuresadded

the second year by Dr. Gross. Again the Montessori children scoredhighestornexttohighestonallmeasuresusedinthistwo-yeartestingperiod.Althoughitshouldberestatedthereliabilityofsomeofthetestsusedhasstilltobeproven,theresearchteamfoundtheseresults“averypromisingfindingfortheMontessoriMethod.”Anadditionaltest,theMetropolitanReadinessTests,wasgiveninthefirstyearofthestudybytheCincinnatiPublicSchools.Accordingtothemanual of this test, it was “devised to measure the extent to whichschoolbeginnershavedeveloped in the several skills andabilities thatcontribute to readiness for first-grade instruction.” Bonnie Green, aResearchAssociateintheDepartmentofPsychiatry,CollegeofMedicine,UniversityofCincinnati,andamemberof the research team,analyzedtheresultsofthistest:“Inconclusion,attheendofkindergarten,itwasdemonstratedthat theMontessoriclasswasmostmatureandreadyforfirst-grade instruction, as defined by theMetropolitanReadiness Tests,and the control class without pre-school was least ready, with non-graded class and the control class with pre-school being second andthird.”Theresultswereconsideredstatisticallysignificant.In the third year, research was shifted from testing of specificvariables to an interview approach which, while not providing thescientific data of earlier procedures, did provide an opportunity foranswering certain subjective questions. Three studies were done: oneinvolvedinterviewswithfortychildren,tenrandomlyselectedfromeachofthefouroriginalgroups;asecond,interviewswithaselectednumberofmothersrepresentingeachofthefourgroupsofchildren;andathird,interviewswithanumberofMontessori andnon-graded teachers fromthe community, including a number of Sands teachers and twoadministrators.Threefindingswereofparticularsignificance:First, the third-year Sands School Project Report states that “TheMontessorichildrenasagroupappearedmuchmoreextroverted,verbal,andpersonablethantheotherthreegroupsofchildren.Theyhadmoretosay,couldexpressitbetter,andhadfewerarticulationproblemsthanthe other children. The Montessori children’s advanced ability tocommunicate, therefore, made them appear more socially confident,assured,andateaseinadultcompanythantheothergroups.”Second, “Montessori parents appeared more verbal in general thanthose from other groups and more knowledgeable about teaching

objectives.”Becauseofthewayinwhichthechildrenwereselectedforthe classes, the researchers felt it unlikely the parents had beenmoreverbal and aware of educative processes before their children enteredMontessori.ItisreasonabletoassumethattheclosecontactwithparentswhichisanintegralpartoftheMontessorimethodhadhadsomeimpacton the parents, and that it would be a worthwhile area to pursue infurtherresearch.Third, “While other teachers expressed a concern for individual

development of potentialities, Montessori teachers appeared to havemore experience and sophistication in individualization of learning. Ifconventional education accepts individualized learning as a positivevalue, this may be where Montessori as an approach can enter themainstreamofeducation.”A new research program is being developed to pursue further the

areassuggestedbytheresultsofthepastsixyearsofresearchstudy,andinparticulartodescribetheactualprocessesgoingonintheMontessoriclassroomitself.Atpresent theresearchteam,nowunder thedirectionofDr.JuneScirra,isexaminingtheearliesttestscoresfromthefirstyearoftestinginordertorelatethemtograde-schoolperformance.Thislong-term follow-up study is the first systematic effort to assess objectivelythe lasting effects ofMontessori in comparisonwith other educationalprocedures.Copiesofresearchreportscoveringtheyears1965-68canbeobtained

bywriting toDr.ThomasBanta,DepartmentofPsychology,Universityof Cincinnati. Requests for reports for the years 1968-70 should bedirected to Dr. Ruth Gross, Department of Psychiatry, College ofMedicine,UniversityofCincinnati;andforthesix-yearfollow-upstudytobecompletedin1971,toDr.JuneScirra,ChildDevelopmentCenter,UniversityofCincinnati.

Notes

PREFACE

1.DorothyCanfieldFisher,TheMontessoriMother,pp.xiv-xvi.2.E.M.Standing,MariaMontessori:HerLifeandWork,p.59.

CHAPTER1

1.Standing,op.cit.,p.11.2.Montessori,TheMontessoriMethod,pp.38–39.3.Ibid.,p.33.4.Ibid.,p.41.5.Montessori,TheSecretofChildhood,p.129.6.Ibid.,p.114.7.Ibid.,p.129.8.Ibid.,p.133.9.Ibid.,p.134.10.Ibid.,p.156.11.Montessori,TheDiscoveryoftheChild,p.vi.12.WilliamKilpatrick,TheMontessoriSystemExamined,pp.vii—ix.13.Ibid.,p.62.14.Ibid.,pp.62–63.15.Ibid.,p.41.16.Ibid.,p.20.17.Ibid.,pp.15–16.18.Ibid.,p.20.19.Ibid.,pp.27–28.20.Ibid.,pp.28–29.21.Ibid.,pp.34–35.22.Ibid.,p.42.23.Ibid.,p.45.24.Ibid.,pp.49–50.25.Ibid.,p.52.26.Ibid.,pp.47–48.27.Ibid.,pp.21–22.

28.Ibid.,pp.58–59.29.Ibid.,p.55.30.Ibid.,p.58.31.Ibid.,p.60.32.Ibid.,p.40.33.Ibid.,pp.63–64.34.Ibid.,pp.65–66.35.Montessori,SpontaneousActivityinEducation,p.64.36.Montessori,WhatYouShouldKnowAboutYourChild,p.130.37.H.F.Harlow,“Mice,Monkeys,MenandMotives,”pp.29–30.38. J.McV.Hunt, “The Epigenesis ofMotivation andEarly CognitiveLearning,”p.365.

39.Ibid.,p.366.40.JeanPiaget,ThePsychologyofIntelligence,p.119.41.JeanPiagetandBarbelInhelder,ThePsychologyoftheChild,p.5.42.Piaget,op.cit.,p.123.43.PiagetandInhelder,op.cit.,p.153.44.Forotherexperiments,seeDonaldW.FiskeandSalvatoreR.Maddi,FunctionsofVariedExperience.

45.PiagetandInhelder,op.cit.,p.13.46.Ibid.,p.149.47.Piaget,op.cit.,pp.150–51.48.RudolfArnheim,VisualThinking,pp.v,264.49.Ibid.,p.13.50.Ibid.,p.205.51.Ibid.,pp.300–301.

CHAPTER2

1.Standing,op.cit.,p.348.2.Montessori,TheChildintheChurch,p.7.3.Ibid.,pp.9,7.4.TheDiscoveryoftheChild,p.xiv.5.WhatYouShouldKnowAboutYourChild,p.25.6.Montessori,TheAbsorbentMind,p.140.7.TheSecretofChildhood,p.103.8.TheAbsorbentMind,p.86.9.Ibid.,p.146.10.Ibid.,p.147.11.Ibid.,p.83.12.Ibid.,p.97.13.TheSecretofChildhood,p.44.14.Ibid.,p.58.15.Ibid.,p.87.16.Ibid.17.Ibid.,p.82.18.Ibid.,p.207.19.TheAbsorbentMind,p.25.20.Ibid.,p.117.21.WhatYouShouldKnowAboutYourChild,p.54.22.TheAbsorbentMind,p.165.23.TheSecretofChildhood,p.208.24.TheAbsorbentMind,p.92.25.TheSecretofChildhood,p.212.26.Ibid.,p.211.27.TheAbsorbentMind,p.85.

28.Ibid.,p.217.29.Ibid.,p.206.30.Montessori,EducationforaNewWorld,p.71.31.TheAbsorbentMind,p.254.32.Ibid.,p.255.33.WhatYouShouldKnowAboutYourChild,p.73.34.Ibid.,p.84.35.TheAbsorbentMind,p.257.36.Ibid.,pp.252–54.37.Ibid.,pp.256–57.38.Ibid.,p.257.39.Ibid.40.Ibid.,p.253.41.GeorgeDennison,TheLivesofChildren,pp.112–13.42.SpontaneousActivityinEducation,p.195.43.Ibid.,p.198.44.Ibid.,p.202.45.Ibid.,p.212.46.Ibid.,p.257.47.TheAbsorbentMind,pp.254–55.48.See Arthur Koestler’s stimulating bookTheAct of Creation, for anexcellent description of the creative process which encompassesMontessori’sownapproach.

49.SpontaneousActivityinEducation,p.335.50.Ibid.,p.337.51.Ibid.,p.340.52.EducationforaNewWorld,pp.2–3.

CHAPTER3

1.TheMontessoriMethod,p.105.2.Ibid.3.TheSecretofChildhood,p.224.4.TheMontessoriMethod,p.28.5.Ibid.,p.15.6.TheAbsorbentMind,p.205.7.TheSecretofChildhood,p.207.8.TheMontessoriMethod,pp.95–98.9.EducationforaNewWorld,p.79.10.TheMontessoriMethod,p.93.11.Ibid.,p.87.12.Ibid.,p.93.13.Ibid.,p.87.14.Ibid.,pp.80–81.15.Ibid.,p.88.16.Ibid.17.SpontaneousActivityinEducation,p.70.18.Ibid.,p.43.19.TheMontessoriMethod,p.21.20.TheAbsorbentMind,pp.223–24.21.Ibid.,p.224.22.TheAbsorbentMind,p.223.23.TheMontessoriMethod,p.153.24.Ibid.,p.155.25.WhatYouShouldKnowAboutYourChild,p.105.26.TheMontessoriMethod,p.171.27.TheAbsorbentMind,p.221.

28.SpontaneousActivityinEducation,p.81.29.Ibid.,pp.73–74.30.Ibid.,pp.77–79.31.Ibid.,pp.73–74.32.Ibid.,p.81.33.Ibid.,p.77.34.Ibid.35.TheAbsorbentMind,p.248.36.SpontaneousActivityinEducation,p.75.37.Ibid.,p.76.38.TheMontessoriMethod,p.107.39.Ibid.,p.115.40.Ibid.,pp.107–8.41.SpontaneousActivityinEducation,p.43.42.TheAbsorbentMind,p.179.43.Ibid.,p.108.44.Ibid.45.Ibid.,pp.108–9.46.Ibid.,pp.357–58.47.JohnandEvelynDewey,SchoolsofTomorrow,pp.157–58.48.TheMontessoriMethod,p.225.49.Ibid.,p.226.50.Ibid.,p.227.51.WhatYouShouldKnowAboutYourChild,p.114.52.TheMontessoriMethod,p.360.53.TheDiscoveryoftheChild,p.345.54.TheMontessoriMethod,pp.162–66.55.SpontaneousActivityinEducation,p.311.56.Ibid.

57.TheAbsorbentMind,p.229.58.Ibid.,pp.225–26.59.Ibid.,p.228.60.Ibid.,p.226.61.Ibid.,p.227.62.TheMontessoriMethod,p.93.63.Ibid.,p.94.64.Ibid.,p.210.65.Ibid.,p.211.66.TheAbsorbentMind,p.132.67.TheSecretofChildhood,p.115.68.Ibid.,p.11.69.Ibid.,p.12.70.Ibid.,pp.79–80.71.SpontaneousActivityinEducation,p.130.72.TheMontessoriMethod,p.87.73.Ibid.,p.88.74.SpontaneousActivityinEducation,pp.130–31.75.TheMontessoriMethod,p.9.76.Ibid.,p.12.77.Ibid.,p.104.78.Ibid.,p.13.79.SpontaneousActivityinEducation,p.122.80.Ibid.,pp.122–24.81.TheAbsorbentMind,p.278.82.Ibid.83.Ibid.84.Ibid.,p.246.85.Ibid.,pp.248–49.

86.Ibid.,p.134.87.TheMontessoriMethod,pp.37–38.88.TheSecretofChildhood,pp.96–97.89.TheMontessoriMethod,p.61.90.Ibid.91.Ibid.,pp.61–62.92.Ibid.,pp.63–64.93.Ibid.,p.6494.TheAbsorbentMind,p.263.95.Ibid.,p.264.96.Ibid.,pp.268–69.97.Ibid.,p.279.98.Ibid.,pp.279–80.99.Ibid.,p.270.100.Ibid.,p.274.101.Ibid.,p.275.102.Ibid.103.Ibid.,p.281.104.Ibid.

CHAPTER4

1.TheSecretofChildhood,pp.248–49.2.Ibid.,p.249.3.Ibid.,pp.233–34.4.Ibid.,p.234.5.WhatYouShouldKnowAboutYourChild,pp.26–27.6.TheAbsorbentMind,p.99.7.TheSecretofChildhood,p.18.8.TheAbsorbentMind,pp.100–101.9.TheSecretofChildhood,p.179.10.TheMontessoriMethod,p.69.11.TheSecretofChildhood,p.263.12.TheAbsorbentMind,pp.14–15.13.Ibid.,p.103.14.Montessori,ReconstructioninEducation,pp.4–5.15.ErikErikson,ChildhoodandSociety,p.69.16.TheSecretofChildhood,pp.93–94.17.Fisher,TheMontessoriMother,p.24.18.TheSecretofChildhood,p.99.19.Ibid.,pp.235–36.20.TheAbsorbentMind,pp.103–4.21.Ibid.,p.100.22.TheAbsorbentMind,pp.104–5.23.Ibid.,p.106.24.Ibid.,p.109.25.TheSecretofChildhood,p.74.26.SpontaneousActivityinEducation,p.297.27.TheSecretofChildhood,pp.81–82.

28.Ibid.,p.86.29.Ibid.,p.87–88.30.Ibid.,p.90.31.Ibid.32.WhatYouShouldKnowAboutYourChild,p.12.33.TheMontessoriMethod,pp.96–99.34.Ibid.,p.100.35.TheAbsorbentMind,p.93.36.WhatYouShouldKnowAboutYourChild,p.131.37.Erikson,op.cit.,pp.235–36.38.EducationforaNewWorld,p.64.39.TheSecretofChildhood,p.173.40.Ibid.,pp.91–92.41.Ibid.,p.92.42.EducationforaNewWorld,p.64.43.Ibid.,p.65.44.WhatYouShouldKnowAboutYourChild,p.73.45.ReconstructioninEducation,p.10.46.SeeVirginiaM.Axline,DibsinSearchofSelf(NewYork:BallantineBooks, 1969), an excellent book for all adults who work withchildren.

47.WhatYouShouldKnowAboutYourChild,p.131.

CHAPTER5

1.Dr.Montessori’sOwnHandbook,p.134.

CHAPTER6

1.WhatYouShouldKnowAboutYourChild,p.132.2.TheMontessoriMethod,p.155.3.TheDiscoveryoftheChild,p.99.4.Ibid.,p.98.5.Forfurtherinformation,writetoMinnesotaOutwardBoundSchool,330WalkerAvenue,Wayzata,Minnesota55391.

Bibliography

Arnheim,Rudolf.VisualThinking.London:Faber&Faber;Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1969.

AssociationMontessoriInternationale.MariaMontessori,ACentenaryAnthology.Amsterdam,1970.

Bruner,JeromeS.,etal.StudiesinCognitiveGrowth.NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,1966.

Dennison,George.TheLivesofChildren.NewYork:RandomHouse,1969.

Dewey,JohnandEvelyn.SchoolsofTomorrow.NewYork:E.P.Dutton,1915.

Elkins,David,“PiagetandMontessori,”HarvardEducationalReview,XXXVII(1967),535–46.

Erikson,ErikH.ChildhoodandSociety.NewYork:W.W.Norton,1940.Fisher,DorothyCanfield.MontessoriforParents.Cambridge,Mass.:RobertBentley,Inc.,1965.

———.TheMontessoriMother.London:Constable,1913.Fiske,DonaldW.,andMaddi,SalvatoreR.FunctionsofVariedExperience.Homewood,Ill.:DorseyPress,1961.

Harlow,H.F.“Mice,Monkeys,MenandMotives,”PsychologyReview,LX(1953),23–32.

Hebb,DonaldO.“DrivesandtheC.N.S.,”inCurrentResearchinMotivation,ed.RalphNormanHaber,pp.267–78.NewYork:Holt,Rinehart&Winston,1966.

———.OrganizationofBehavior.NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,1949.Hess,Eckhard.“EthologyandDevelopmentalPsychology,”inCarmichael’sManualofChildPsychology,ed.PaulMussen,pp.1–33.NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,1970.

Holt,John.HowChildrenFail.NewYork:Pitman,1964.Hunt,J.McV.“TheEpigenesisofMotivationandEarlyCognitiveLearning,”inCurrentResearchinMotivation,ed.RalphNormanHaber,pp.355–70.NewYork:Holt,Rinehart&Winston,1966.———.IntelligenceandExperience.NewYork:RonaldPress,1961.Itard,Jean.WildBoyofAveyron.NewYork:Appleton-Century-Crofts,1962.Kagan,Jerome,andKogan,Nathan.“IndividualityandCognitivePerformance,”inCarmichael’sManualofChildPsychology,ed.PaulMussen,pp.1273–1353.NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,1970.Kilpatrick,William.TheMontessoriSystemExamined.Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1914.Koestler,Arthur.TheActofCreation.NewYork:Macmillan,1964.Lillard,PaulaP.AMontessoriStudyGuide.NewYork:AmericanMontessoriSociety,1970.Montessori,Maria.TheAbsorbentMind.Wheaton,Ill.:TheosophicalPress,1964.———.TheChildintheChurch,ed.E.M.Standing.St.Paul,Minn.:CatecheticalGuild,1965.———.TheDiscoveryoftheChild.Wheaton,Ill.:TheosophicalPress,1962.———.Dr.Montessori’sOwnHandbook.NewYork:SchockenBooks,1965.———.EducationforaNewWorld.Wheaton,Ill.:TheosophicalPress,1963.———.TheFormationofMan.Wheaton,Ill.:TheosophicalPress,1969.———.TheMontessoriMethod.NewYork:SchockenBooks,1964.———.ReconstructioninEducation.Wheaton,Ill.:TheosophicalPress,1964.———.TheSecretofChildhood.Calcutta:OrientLongmans,Ltd.,1963.———.SpontaneousActivityinEducation.NewYork:SchockenBooks,1965.

———.ToEducatetheHumanPotential.Wheaton,Ill.:TheosophicalPress,1963.———.WhatYouShouldKnowAboutYourChild.Wheaton,Ill.:TheosophicalPress,1963.Piaget,Jean.ThePsychologyofIntelligence.Totowa,N.J.:Little-field,Adams,1963.—–,andInhelder,Barbel.ThePsychologyoftheChild.TranslatedfromtheFrenchbyHelenWeaver.NewYork:BasicBooks,1969.Rambusch,NancyMcCormick.LearningHowtoLearn.Baltimore:HeliconPress,1962.Séguin,Edouard.IdiocyandItsTreatment.Albany,N.Y.:PressofBrandowPrintingCo.,1907.Spitz,R.A.“Hospitalism:AnInquiryintotheGenesisofPsychiatricConditionsinEarlyChildhood,”inThePsychoanalyticStudyoftheChild,I,pp.53–74.NewYork:InternationalUniversitiesPress,1945.Standing,E.M.MariaMontessori:HerLifeandWork.Fresno,Calif.:AcademyGuildPress,1959.———.TheMontessoriRevolutioninEducation.NewYork:SchockenBooks,1966.White,Jessie.MontessoriSchools.London:OxfordUniversityPress,1914

SUGGESTEDREADINGINCONTEMPORARYEDUCATION

Axline,VirginiaM.DibsinSearchofSelf.NewYork:BallantineBooks,1969.Dennison,George.TheLivesofChildren.NewYork:RandomHouse,1969.Ginott,Haim.BetweenParentandChild.NewYork:Macmillan,1967.Holt,John.HowChildrenFail.NewYork:Pitman,1964.———.HowChildrenLearn.NewYork:Pitman,1967.———.TheUnderachievingSchool.NewYork:Pitman,1969.———.WhatDoIDoMonday?NewYork:E.P.Dutton,1970.

Kohl,Herbert.TheOpenClassroom.NewYorkReviewPress,1969.Leonard,George.EducationandEcstasy.NewYork:Delacorte,1968.Silberman,Charles.CrisisintheClassroom.NewYork:RandomHouse,1970.