Mongol Eurasia and Its Aftermath13th -14th centuries

Mongol Rulers

Genghis Khan1206-1227

Jochi

Jagadai1227-1242

(Jagadai Khanate of

Central Asia)

Ogodei1227-1241

Tolui

Batu1224-1255

(Golden Horde of Russia)

Guyuk1246-1248

Mongke1248-1257

Khubilai1265-1294

(Yuan Empire of China)

Hulegu1256-1265

(Il-khan Empire of Iran

Steppe Commanders• Mongol way of life is best described

as nomadism – Superb riders, herdsmen, and hunters

• Made possible by the steppes (prairies) and deserts of Central and Inner Asia

• Mongols made public decisions through councils with representatives from powerful families that ratified the decisions of the leader, khan.

• Weak groups and conquered peoples followed the command of the Mongols and were provided with protection in exchange for slaves, livestock, weapons, silk, and tribute (cash payment)

Mongolian SteppesMongolian Steppes

Xinjiang Region – Typical Uigher [Mongol] “Yurt”

Xinjiang Region – Typical Uigher [Mongol] “Yurt”

Rise of the Blacksmith:Temujin

(Chingghis Khan)• 1206?-1227 C.E.• An explanation for the legacy

and successes of the Mongols can best be seen in his value statement:

– "The greatest joy a man can know is to conquer his enemies and drive them before him. To ride their horses and take away their possessions. To see the faces of those who were dear to them bedewed with tears, and to clasp their wives and daughters in his arms" 

Skillful Leadership of Genghis Khan

• Temujin became known as Genghis Khan, or “supreme leader” of the Mongols and their allies in 1206

• His advisers were adherents to many religions of the Middle East / East Asia as well as speakers of many languages

• His diverse empire throughout the kingdoms of Eurasia, northern China, and Iran rapidly improved the expansion of markets, increased demands for more goods, and developed greater trade routes (including a resurgence of trade along the Silk Road)

• By 1221, Genghis was able to skillfully conduct campaigns without his personal participation and subordinate leaders often commanded his armies abroad

• He and his extended family were able to live off of the tribute paid by conquered peoples

The MONGOLS Under Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan’s Tax Laws:– If you do not pay homage,

we will take your prosperity.

– If you do not have prosperity, we will take your children.

– If you do not have children, we will take your wife.

– If you do not have a wife, we will take your head.

Used cruelty as a weapon some areas never recovered from Mongol destruction!

Mongol Methods of Conquests

• Mongol military domination despite often fewer numbers of soldiers can be attributed to superb tactical fighting

– Each conquered group was added to the Mongol armies, sometimes forced to fight upfront

– Timely surrender by the enemy would relieve them of mass slaughter and starvation

• Extraordinary horseback riding abilities along with superior bows

– Soldiers learned to fire bows when horse was off ground

– Bows made of laminated layers of wood, leather and bone could shoot 1/3 further than enemies

– Conservative use of arrows at times as well as the use of flaming arrows and catapults to penetrate fortifications

– Iron stirrups for stability when firing arrows– Secure saddles for stability when firing

arrows

Mongol Society• Leading families solidified alliances through

arranged marriages settled in childhood• Women from prestigious families could negotiate

and manage politically, though were not immune to assassination or execution attempts and did not accept the Chinese practice of foot-binding.

• Mongols primarily practiced shamanism but often included believers in Buddhism, Christianity, or Islam

• Mongol beliefs included leadership by a khan who could communicate to and for an ultimate god

• Mongol society ultimately prized agricultural self-sufficiency through meat, milk, and the preparation of furs provided in herding (usually conducted by women)

• Mongol society did depend on settled regions with iron resources in order to design bridles, stirrups, cart fittings, and weapons.

• Blacksmithing and ironworking were highly revered.• Mongols had greater appreciation for entertainers,

artists, and merchants than the Chinese by the Yuan dynasty.

Extent of Mongol Empire at Genghis Khan’s Death (1227 C.E.)

The Legacy Continues• Upon the death of Genghis in 1227, his third son,

Ogedei took succession as the Great Khan (1227-1241).

• He continued Genghis’ policies and destroyed the Tanggut and Jin (Jurchen) empires of central and eastern China, putting them under Mongol governors.

• Ogedei’s primary objective became territorial rule rather than tribute payment as he soon issued a total conquest of Europe to the Atlantic.

• His death in 1241 thwarted the conquest of Europe, yet not before Genghis’ grandson Batu khan conquered Kievan Russia, Moscow, Poland, and Hungary.

• By 1260, the Mongol empire had also included Baghdad, as well as Persia which saw the execution of the last Abbasid caliph in 1258.

• By the end of Ogedei’s rule, the imperial capital at Karakorum attracted merchants, missionaries, ambassadors, and adventurers from Asia, the Middle East, Russia, and Europe

Mongol Empire in 1246 C.E.

A Broken Family?• After the death of Ogedei in 1241, family unity

began to come undone and Genghis’ grandson, Khubilai eventually declared himself Great Khan in 1265

• Descendents of other branches of the family refused to accept his authority such as the Khanate of Jagadai who had closer relations with the Turkic-speaking peoples of Central Asia rather than the people of China

• Khubilai soon transferred his court to the old Jin capital that is now Beijing

• By 1271 he declared himself founder of the Yuan Empire and the Civil Service Exams discontinued to prevent greater authority of the scholar-gentry

• Chinese locals could hold positions of lower authority and Mongol military forces kept themselves from the Chinese

• As Khubilai and the Yuan destroyed the Southern Song in China and demanded tribute from Annam (northern Vietnam), and Champa (southern Vietnam) between 1279-1283, Central Asia had become an independent Mongol center adopting Islam within its western territories

Shinto beliefs regarding Mongol failures

“Kamikaze”(Divine Wind)

In 1274, Japan was “saved” from a naval attack by the Mongols under Kubilai Khan and again in 1281. The Japanese Shinto perspective was that they were protected through Kamikaze (probably a typhoon).

Mongol Empires in 1280 C.E.

Peace?, Trade, and “Visitors”• During Khubilai’s reign, the integration of

commercial exchange in trade brought cosmopolitanism all throughout the Mongol empire = “Pax Mongolica” (Peace of Mongols)

• New styles of clothing, silk, wall hangings, porcelain, and furnishings all contributed to trade from Japan and Tibet in the far East to as far west as the Middle east, Morocco, and England

• Under the Mongol Empire, those who traveled with paisa (“card”, or “sign”), were granted permission to travel by the ruler

• Traders such as Marco Polo from Venice, were welcomed by Khubilai’s court around 1279 C.E.

– This stirred interest back home in Europe about fantastic luxuries and wealth in Asia

• Exchange and travel also brought other “visitors” such as flea-infested marmots, dogs, and rats that carried the bubonic plague

– This infected the Mongol army stationed in the southwestern Yunnan province of China

– The plague-infected Mongol army brought this disease to the city of Kaffa on the Crimea in 1346

– The “great pandemic” of 1347-1351 had killed more than 1/3 of Europe’s population and had devastating effects on its economy

Marco Polo’s Travels