1

MonasticismandtheRoyalAbbeyofSaint­DenisByArielaSteifThispaperwaswrittenforHistoryofArt240:TheVisualArtsinMedievalSociety,taughtbyAchimTimmermaninFall2008. TheRoyalAbbeyofSaint‐DenisinthetimeofAbbotSugeremergedinahistorical

momentoftenuousbalance.Poisedbetweenthedeclineofmonasticism,theriseofurban

centers,andamarket‐basedeconomy,theabbeyunderSugerexistedsimultaneouslywith

theemergenceofbureaucraticsecularism,theCistercianandGregoriancontroversies,and

warringforcesofideologyandskepticism.Atthiscriticaljuncture,Saint‐Denisstruggledto

maintainabalancebetweenchurchandstate,betweenamonasticismofresistanceanda

monasticismofreaction,and,ultimately,betweenthepastandthefuture.

Saint­DenisandtheFrenchMonarchy

Saint‐DenisseemstooccupyacuriousplaceinFrenchhistory:neverhastherebeen

achurchsoreveredandyetsoreviled.AlthoughtheAbbeysufferedmanycyclesofdamage

andrestoration,noeventwasasdestructiveastheRevolutionof1789,mostnotablyupon

thecryptandthethreegreatbronzedoors,whichweremelteddown.1Reverenceforthe

church,however,beganveryearlyon.ThefirstmonarchtobeburiedatSaint‐Deniswas

QueenArnegondein570,justoutsidethewesternentrance.2TheburialofQueen

Arnegondeinthesixthcenturystartedalongtraditionofroyalburials,particularlyof

severalnoteworthyMerovingiankings,althoughnospecificreasonisknownwhythey

1SumnerCrosby,TheRoyalAbbeyofSaint­Denis,(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1987),187.2Ibid,280.

2

chosetobeburiedthere.3Intheseventhcentury,KingDagobertIandhissonClovisIIgave

thechurchitsmonasticstanding.Itwasrebuiltintheeighthcenturyasoneofthefirst

greatCarolingianabbeys,anddedicatedin775beforeCharlemagneandhiscourt.By867

Saint‐DenisbecamearoyalabbeyandCharlestheBaldtookonthetitleoflayabbottogive

theAbbeymoreprotectionduringtheNormanraids.However,evenbythistime,Saint‐

Denishadlongbeenrecognizedasthe“patronsaintofthemonarchy.”4Furthermore,after

HughCapetwasburiedatSaint‐Denisin996,everymonarchthatfollowedhimwasalso

buriedthere,withonlythreeexceptions:PhilipI,LouisVII,andLouisXI.5Oneother

notableexception,priortoHughCapet,wasCharlemagne,whowasburiedinhisown

palacechapelatAix‐la‐Chapelle.6

DatingbacktoMerovingiantimes,severaloftheroyalcrownswerehousedatSaint‐

Denis.Inthetwelfthcentury,Sugermadealegalclaimtoalloftheroyalcrowns,basedona

depositioncharterbyLouisVIdatingto1120.Sugeralsohadaneasiertimemakingthis

claimbecauseofthelongtraditionofmonarchialburials,whichwasjustificationforthe

recognitionofSaint‐Denisastheroyalpatron.Bytheendofthetwelfthcentury,thisclaim

was“extendedtoincludethecoronationregaliawhichfromthenonwaskeptatSaint‐

Denis,inreadinessfortemporaryremovaltoRheimsforeachcoronationceremony.”7

However,thechurchandthestatewereconnectedinmanymoreways.

3Crosby,op.cit,9.4SumnerCrosby,etal.TheRoyalAbbeyofSaint­DenisintheTimeofAbbotSuger,(NewYork:TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,1981),13.5Crosby,etal,op.cit.,15.6Crosby,op.cit.,280.7Crosby,etal,op.cit.,103.

3

Saint‐Deniswasthebeneficiaryof“anumberofearlyroyalgiftsandthegrantingof

specialroyalprivileges,”specificallygiftsoflands,whichbolstereditspowerandprestige.8

TheMerovingiansbegantokeeproyaldocumentsatSaint‐Denis,whichformedthebaseof

recordsfortheearlyhistoriesofFrance,anditcouldbebecauseofthesearchivesthat

Saint‐Denisbecamearenownedcenterofeducation.Severalmonarchs,includingPepinthe

ShortandLouisVI,studiedthere;CharlestheBaldlivedunderitsprotectionforsome

time.9In653Saint‐DenisreceivedindependencefromthebishopofParis,androyal

immunitybetweentheyearsof657and664,althoughitdidnotgetthedistinctionof‘royal

abbey’untiltheninthcentury.10

Thesespecialprivilegesfreedthemonksfrommostfeudalobligations.Thesame

privilegedposition,however,requiredcloserelationshipsbetweentheabbeyandthe

monarchalcourt.From867until968eitherthekingorapowerfulnobleassumeddirection

oftheabbeyaslayabbot.Forawhile,theabbeyhadlittlecontroloveritsownrevenues,

particularlyduringtheNormaninvasionswhenmilitaryneedswerepressing.11Infact,

whenCharlestheBaldtookthetitleofabbotin867,heputthesupervisionoftheabbey’s

resourcesdirectlyinthecontrolofthekingandhisofficers.Thiswasacustomthatwas

usedtobringseveralothermonasteriesunderthemonarch’scontrol–Saint‐Deniswasnot

theonlyroyalabbeyintheninthcentury.12Finally,Saint‐Denishousedtherelicsofits

martyr,Denis,13aswellastheOriflamme,thebannerthatthekingcarriedintobattle.

Crosbynotesthattheterm‘Oriflamme’wasacommonname;itwastraditionallycalledthe

8Crosby,op.cit,9.9Ibid,9.10Ibid,9.11Ibid,10.12Ibid,94.13MarilynStokstad,MedievalArt,2nded.,Colorado:WestviewPress,2004,231.

4

“vexillumofSaint‐Denis”becauseKingLouisVI,recognizingSaint‐Denis’simportancein

theprotectionofthemonarchy,originallytookitfromthehighaltarthereduringthe

threatenedinvasionofFrancebyHenryIofEnglandandHenryVofGermanyin1124.14

DuringtheCarolingiandynasty,themonarchyandtheabbeygrewevencloserthan

theyhadbeeninpreviousyears.Fromthebeginningoftheseventhcentury,Saint‐Denis

hadenjoyedthefavoroftherulingking;undertheMerovingianstheabbeybecamerich

throughroyalpatronage.Duringthesecondhalfoftheeighthcentury,theredevelopeda

politicalrelationshipthatledtothepracticeofmonarchstakingonthetitleoflayabbot.

ButduringtheCarolingianperiodabbotsbecameadvisorsandambassadorstotheking,

officiallymakingSaint‐Denisaroyalabbey.15

TheprestigeandrevenueofSaint‐Denisgrewunderthecontrolofnotableabbots

suchasFulradandHilduin,aswellasunderthemonarchiallayabbots.Bytheendofthe

ninthcentury,however,theCarolingianempirewasdisappearingandthethreatofNorman

invadersrising.Overthenexttwocenturiesthemonkswere“preoccupiedwithattemptsto

reestablishtheimportantpositionandresourcesoftheabbey.Notuntilthetwelfthcentury

didSaint‐Denisonceagainparticipateinnationalaffairsandtaketheleadindefiningnew

modesofartisticexpression.”16

Oneofthewaysthatthemonkstriedtoregaintheirlostprivilegesandcontrolover

theirdomainswasbyforgingdocumentsthatreinterpretedhistory,extendingearlygrants

andchangingwording,althoughthesemethodswereprobablyfairlyineffectiveatfirst.17

HughCapetrelinquishedthetitleoflayabbotinthelatetenthcentury,allowingthemonks

14Crosby,op.cit.,11.15Ibid,51.16Ibid,96.17Ibid,96.

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tochoosetheirownabbot.Between1005and1008,theabbotofCluny,Odilon,wasthe

abbotofSaint‐Denisabbotaswell.HeappearstohaveretainedsomecontroloverSaint‐

Denisafterthis,althoughtherewereotherabbotsinpower,upuntilhisdeathin1049.

OdiloninstitutedseveralreformsatSaint‐Denis,themostimportantbeingthe

establishmentofcompletemonasticruleforthefirsttime.HealsofollowedtheBenedictine

custom,asatCluny,ofabolishingthedivisionbetweenregularandsecularclergyrule.

DespiteOdilon’sinfluence,thereisnoevidencethatClunyattemptedtobringSaint‐Denis

underitsrule.18Saint‐Denisalsohadalongtraditionofindependencethatitguardedvery

closelywhichmaybewhyClunydidnotattemptsuchamove.19

FollowingthedeathofHughCapetin966,therewasaseriesofweakandineffective

kings.ThefirstmonarchtorevivetheroyalauthoritywasLouisVI,whoconsolidatedthe

royaldomainsbybringingrebelliousvassalsbackunderhiscontrol.20LouisVIhadbeen

educatedatSaint‐DenisatthesametimeasSuger,wheretheybecamelifelongfriends.21

Thisfriendship,however,wasonlythebeginningofSuger’s“earlyintroductionintothe

royalcourt.”22Attheageof25,herepresentedAbbotAdam(theabbotofSaint‐Denisatthe

time)attheCouncilofPoitiersin1106;healsoaccompaniedAdamtomanyimportant

meetings,attendedcouncils,andwentonspecialmissionsforboththeabbeyandthe

king.23Sugerrosequicklythroughtheranksandwaselectedabbotin1122.24LouisVI

eventuallynamedhissonLouisVIIashissuccessorandarrangedhismarriagetoEleanor

ofAquitaine,abrilliantpoliticalmovethatestablishedthepowerofthekingovermostof 18Cluny,atonepoint,hadagreatnumberofsmallerabbeysandbishopricswithinitscontrol.19Ibid,96‐7.20Ibid,107.21Ibid,16.22Ibid,117.23Ibid,112.24Ibid,109.

6

France.Sugermaintainedanallianceasmuchwiththesonashehadwiththefather,and

whenLouisVIIwentontheSecondCrusade,Sugerwasnamedco‐regentwithCount

GuillaumeIIofNevers,duringwhichtimeSuger“maintainedorderandprosperityin

France.”25

Saint‐Denis,asthebeneficiaryofpowerandprivilegefromthemonarchy,wasalso

givenresponsibilitiesaspartandparceloftheseadvantages.Throughouthistory,the

abbeysoughttomaintainabalancebetweenmonarchyandmonasticism,althoughthis

balancewasupsetintheyearsfollowingthedeclineoftheCarolingiandynastyas

circumstancesfluctuatedwithintherealmofwesternmedievalmonasticism.Formany

yearsbeforethisperiod,however,Saint‐Deniswasexemplaryofthethematicconceptof

regnumetsacerdotium,aconnectionbetweenchurchandstate,“becauseonlypriestsand

kingsofFranceintheMiddleAgeswereconsecratedthroughtheunctionofHolyOil,they

were‘linkedtogethertorulethepeopleofGod.’”26Thisbond,thoughseveredforatime,

wouldriseagaininthetimeofSuger.

TheMonasticEconomyandtheCrisisofWesternMonasticism

Inthesixthcentury,St.BenedictwrotehisRule,acodeforallmonkstofollow,

whichincludedtheprinciplesofopusDei,communalworshipofGod,lectiodevina,divine

readings,andopusmanuum,manuallabor.Inchapter66oftheregulasanctibenedicti.St.

Benedictwrote,“Themonasteryshould,ifpossible,besoarrangedthatallnecessary

things,suchaswater,mill,garden,andvariouscraftsmaybewithintheenclosure,sothat

themonksmaynotbecompelledtowanderoutsideit,forthatisnotexpedientfortheir 25Ibid,107.26PaulaGerson,TheWestFaçadeofSt.­Denis,AnnArbor,MI:UniversityMicrofilmsInternational,1970,146.

7

souls.”27Benedictisdescribingthecloister,anopen‐air,U‐shapedsquarestructurethatis

surroundedbygalleriedporchesandusuallyattachedtothesouthernsideofthe

monastery.Itwouldcontainsuchroomsasthedormitory,therefectory,theprivyand

bathhouse,thekitchen,andthebakeandbrewhouse.Thecloistercanbetracedbacktoa

numberofearlyprototypesincludingtheGreekperistyle,theRomanatrium,thegalleries

ofsomeearlyChristianchurches,andevensomecourtsofSyrianchurches.28WalterHorn

notesthatoriginallythewallsthatsurroundedmonasteriesweresymbols“ofmonastic

self‐determination,shelter–abarrieragainstcontaminationbytheimpureandnoisy

worldoutside–andanaidinestablishingacorporatemoraleandinsupervisingmonastic

chastity.”29

Themonasterythatemergedinthecontextoffeudalismwasmoreself‐sufficient

thanithadbeeninpreviousyears(actuallybeginningtoresembleamanorialestate),and

thus,itkeptmorewithSt.Benedict’sinstructionofthemonasticarrangementofenclosure.

Becauseofthis,thecontemporarycloisterwasdevelopedtoseparatethemonksfromthe

serfsandotherworkers–itwastheestablishmentof“amonasterywithinthe

monastery.”30WhileBenedictencouragedtheeconomicself‐sufficiencyofthemonastery,

and“emphasizedthetherapeuticandasceticvalueofwork,”manuallaborwasalso

consideredalowlyactivity.Eventually,physicallaborbegantobereplacedwithliturgical

labor(opusDeiratherthanopusmanuum).31Thus,therewerethreemajoroptionsthatthe

monasterieshadtohandlemanualwork:theycoulddelegateallworktoafewmonks,each

27WalterHorn,“OntheOriginsoftheMedievalCloster,”Gesta,Vol.12,No.½,1973,19.28Ibid,13.29Ibid,16.30Ibid,40.31IlanaSilber,“Monasticismandthe‘ProtestantEthic’:Asceticism,RationalityandWealthintheMedievalWest,”TheBritishJournalofSociology,Vol.44,No.1,March1993,40.

8

monkcouldhaveaspecificduty,or,iffinanciallypossible,themonasterycouldemploylay

personnel.TheCistercians,though,hadafourthoption:theyusedasystemof

‘laybrothers’,monksthatwereilliterateandfollowedamoresimplisticmonasticregimein

additiontodoingallphysicalandeconomicwork,allowingthehighermonkstofully

devotethemselvestospiritualwork.32Therearesomewhoevenarguethatmonastic

economicsuccessmayhavecomebecauseofthedenigrationofmanualwork–themonks

hadmoretimeforstudyandprayer,anditalsoledtothedevelopmentofmechanical

sourcesofpowerandlabortosavetimeandwork.33

Thecloister,infact,canoperateasasynecdocheforthemonasteryasawhole.The

monasterywaslargelyself‐sufficientaswellasaninstitutionthatwaseconomicallyand

administrativelyoneunit;“toachaoticsociety,themonasterywasamicrocosmoforder.”34

Thecoreofthisideagoesbacktoearlyhistoriesofthemedievalperiod.InmostofWestern

Europe,forlongperiodsoftime,themonasterywasthedominantformofecclesiastical

organization.35Therewasabasicdivisionoflaborinmedievalsociety:work(peasants),

war(knightsandsoldiers),andprayer(monks),astructurethattendedtoberather

stable.36Beyondthisstructuralbasis,therewasanequilibriumevidentintherelationship

betweentheChurchandtherestoftheworld.Thisequilibrium“wasfoundeduponthe

cooperationandevenmoreupontheinterpenetrationandidentificationoftheChurchand

theworld”37tothedegreethattheywereessentiallythesamething.Therewasan

32Ibid,110.33Ibid,110.34J.A.Raftis,“WesternMonasticismandEconomicOrganization,”ComparativeStudiesinSocietyandHistory,Vol.3,No.4,July1961,459.35Ibid,452.36Ibid,453.37NormanCantor,“TheCrisisofWesternMonasticism,1050‐1130,”TheAmericanHistoricalReview,Vol.66,No.1,October1960,56.

9

exchangeofservicesbetweenthemonarchyandtheChurch;themonarchyreceived

controloverthechurchesandmonasteriesintheirarea,aswellasaidandsupport–

revenues,knights,administrativepersonnel,and“thefosteringofpopularvenerationfor

thepiousruler.”38Inexchange,theChurchwasgivenmonarchialprotectionagainstthelay

nobility,enormousestatesformonasteriesandbishoprics,churchesandcathedrals,the

raisingofhigherclergytotherankofnobility,attendanceincourtsandcouncils,andsome

influenceoverpolicy.NormanCantordescribesthebasisofthissystemas“theabsorption

ofthesecularintothespiritualrealm.”39

Themonasteryhadexceptionallegalandsocialstatusinsociety.Theyreceived

numeroustaxexemptionsandtradingprivileges,andalargeamountoftheirwealthwas

fromnon‐monasticdonations.Donationswereoftenintheformoflandfromthose

sufferingfrom“soteriologicalanxiety”whohopedthegiftoflandtothemonasterywould

bringsalvation.40Furthermore,thereexisteda“legalandcorporatecontinuityofthe

monasticinstitution”whichenabled“theprogressiveaccumulationofwealthacross

generations”andallowedforlong‐termplanning.Theyalsohadahighleveloffinancial

creditandthusagreaterabilitytoengageinlong‐termormoreriskyeconomicventures

becauseof“institutionalself‐confidenceandlegitimacy.”41Finally,throughthe“cultivation

andquasi‐monopolyofliteracy”themonasterieswereabletokeeprecordsofpropertyand

transactions–theyevenhadtheabilitytoforgedocuments.42Furtherinterdependence

betweenchurchandstateexistedinanoverarchingconceptofmonarchiallegitimacy:“The

38Ibid,56.39Ibid,57.40Silbur,op.cit,112.41Ibid,112.42Ibid,111.

10

bureaucraticandpoliticalusesofmonasticismareespeciallysalientinthecontextof

caesaropapism,wheremonksplayedanessentialroleinsupportingtheregime’slegitimacy

anddomesticatingitssubjects.”43Thisinterconnectionandcloserelationshipbasedon

exchangeofgoods,services,privileges,andlegitimacybetweenchurchandstatesolidified

theeconomicstrengthofthemonasteryandthecentralizedpowerofthemonarchy.

Theeconomicorganizationofthemonasterythatwassosuccessfulbearsstrong

resemblancetothelate‐moderncapitalistmodelofbusinesscorporations.44Abbeyswere

highlyregulated,andtotalobediencetotheabbotwasexpected.Themonks,however,

werenotpaid,andonlyprovidedwithminimalfoodandclothing.45Economicorganization

was“consumption‐oriented.”Besidesfoodandclothing,therealsoexisteda“ceremonial

consumption:themaintenanceofaliturgicalstyleworthyoftheworshipofGod

and…expensivearchitecturalprojects,suchasthebuildingofmonasticchurchesand

residentialstructures.46Thiscultureofconsumptionleftlittleroomforthegenerationof

newsourcesofrevenue,andafewmonasteriesranintoeconomictrouble.Monasteries

werealsosupposedtogivesomeportionoftheirwealthtocharity,althoughamounts

variedandsometimesitwasmerelysymbolical.Thus,thetwofundamentalconceptsthat

themonasticeconomywasfoundedonwere“consumptionandgift‐giving/receiving.”47

Byandlarge,westernmonasticismwashighlysuccessfuleconomically,andpartof

thissuccesswasduetotheanticipationofsomefeaturesofmoderncapitalismincluding

rationality,technology,bookkeeping,organizationoflabor,andtheoperationofextensive

43Ibid,107.44Ibid,111.45Ibid,111.46Ibid,113.47Ibid,113.

11

markets.48Monasteriesheldanenormousproportionofallcultivatedlands;theyledthe

wayintheapplicationanduseofnewtechnologiessuchasthewatermill,themechanized

clock,intensivemethodsofcultivation,andoftenoperatedasabankinginstitutionand

insurancecompany.Theyalsoencouragedoperationoflocalfairsand“translocaltrade,”

furtheredurbandevelopment,andsupportedtheartsrelatedtopracticalandceremonial

monasticneeds.49Monasterieswereeducationalcenters,mainlybecauseofthemonks’

literacy,althoughSaint‐Deniswasaparticularlylegendarycenterbyvirtueofitshistorical

archives.MaxWeber,inEconomyandSociety,makestheintriguingpointthatmonksare

“politically,theleastdangerousteachers…ifthepoliticalrulerwantstocreateanapparatus

ofofficialsandacounterweightagainstthenobility…hecannotwishforamorereliable

supportthantheinfluenceofthemonksonthemasses.”50Thispoliticaltoolisyetanother

pieceinalongchainofevidencethattiesthemonasterytothemonarchy,furtheringthe

interpenetrationandinterdependenceofchurchandstate.

Benedictinemonasteries,suchasSaint‐Denis,tookeagerlytothedevelopingmarket

andmonetaryeconomiesthatemergedwithcapitalistgrowth.51Acrucialideainthe

monasticeconomywasthedistinctionbetweenindividualandcollectivewealth.

Maintainingthatdifferenceallowedfortheaccumulationofmonasticwealthwhilestill

“preservingtheidealofindividualpoverty.”52Itisinthisrespectthatthemonasterybears

similaritiestocapitalistbusinesscorporations.Theabbeyinsistedonthewealthofthe

collectiveratherthanthe“individualentrepreneurship”ofsearching“forthematerialsigns

48Ibid,109.49Ibid,110.50MaxWeber,EconomyandSociety,Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1978,1171.51Silbur,op.cit,114.52Ibid,116.

12

ofone’ssalvation,”althoughthisdidnotmeanthatsomeindividualmotivationswithinthe

monasterywerenottakenintoaccount.53This“monasticdepersonificationofwealth”was

alsoinaccordancewiththeecclesiasticalstancethatlegitimizedprosperityonlyifitwas

usedforChristianpurposes.54

Theuseof“Christianpurposes,”however,wasnotalwaysthecase,andultimately,

“monasticcapitalismfailedtoproduceitsownsourcesoflegitimacy.”55Itcouldnotjustify

unprecedentedlevelsofeconomicgrowthandaccumulationofwealthwithintheapparatus

ofcapitalism.Furthermore,itbecameapparentthattherewasacyclebetweenwealthand

asceticism:whentherewasasurplusofwealth,itbred“laxityandcorruption”that,inturn,

spurredareturntoasceticideals.Unfortunately,theChurchalwayshadanuneasy

relationshipwhichthisasceticismbecauseareestablishmentofaustereChristianpoverty

threatenedecclesiasticwealthand“thesocialorderatlarge.”56

Theaccesstospecialprivilegeswasnottheonlyapparatusthattiedthemonastery

topolitics.Becauseoftheireconomicsuccesses,too,monasteriesoftenbecame“implicated

inpoliticalresponsibilities.”57Underfeudallawmonasteriesweregivenlegaljurisdiction,

land,andmen.Monasterieswerehighlysubjecttothefeudalkingsinparticular.58These

privilegesbroughtseveralpoliticalresponsibilitiessuchascontributingmoneyand

resourcestowarefforts.59Moreover,thiswasoneoftheincentivesformonasteriesto

generateasurplus–preservingtheirindependence.60

53Ibid,111.54Ibid,117.55Ibid,117.56Ibid,117.57Raftis,op.cit.,455.58Ibid,460.59Ibid,456.60Ibid,457.

13

Intheeleventhcentury,Clunybegan“aneraoflavishliturgicalexpenditure”inthe

serviceofGod.Thiswaspossiblebecauseofincreasedrevenuefromprioriesinforeign

landsthatpaidrenttoClunyfortheuseoftheirproperty(althoughitshouldbenotedthat

Clunyalsocontinuedtheirservicetothepoor).Theexpenditureconstitutedarevivalin

whichmonasteriescouldreceiverevenueandmaintaintheirhighplaceinsocietywithout

thepoliticalinvolvementthatexistedbeforeunderfeudallaw.61Abbotsbegantoestablish

fairsandmarkets;anewrelationshipwasdevelopingbetweenmonasteriesandmerchants

becauseofthefreedomofmonastictradeandtheemergingmarketeconomy.62The

opportunitiesthattheneweconomybroughtaboutopenedatremendousnumberofdoors

forabbeys;however,itwasalsothebeginningoftheendformonasticismatlarge.

Inpreviousyears,becauseoftheirliteracy,monksheldseveraldifferentprestigious

positionsinsociety,includingadvisorsandcouncilorstomonarchs,orroyalchancellorsor

chaplains.Abbotswereoftengiventhepowerofcourtsandlocaladministrationonbehalf

ofthemonarch,andsometimesevenwereresponsibleforthewritingofgovernment

documentsbecauseoftheircalligraphicabilities.63However,by1130,“itwasclearthatthe

Benedictinemonasterieswerelosingtheirpreeminentpositionsbothinthereligiousand

inthesecularlifeofWesternEurope.”64Inthesecondhalfoftheeleventhcentury,inItaly,

France,andGermany,therearosemonasticfactionsthatbelievedtheClunaicmodelwas

notasceticenough.Coupledwiththelossofmonasticentitlement,therewasalsoa

dilemmaintheChurchduringthemid‐eleventhcentury.TheChurchwassointerconnected

withtherestoftheworldthattheirpiousdistinctionandidentitystartedtofade:“Foras

61Ibid,462.62Ibid,463.63Cantor,op.cit.,49.64Ibid,50.

14

laypietysteadilyincreasedthroughoutWesternEurope,thespecialqualitiesoftheclergy

stoodoutlessclearly.”65ThiswasalsoaproblemfortheChurch’s“traditionalhierocratic

doctrine,”anditwasonlybecauseofthathierarchythatjustificationwasmadefor

“sacerdotalpowers.”66Asdoubtofthisjustificationgrew,sodidthefearthattheclergy

wouldlosetheirprestigiouspositioninsociety.Itseemedthatonlyamoreintensive

moralityandfiercereligiousfervoramongtheclergycouldsetthemapartfromthelay

populationandthusrationalizethecontinuationoftheirexclusivepowersandtherespect

thatthemonkscommanded.67Thegrowingmovementtowardsconservatismand

zealousnessculminatedinthefoundationofanewmonasticorder–theCistercians–

duringtheearlytwelfthcentury,whichcriticizedCluny’swealth,comforts,andartistic

beauty.68TheCistercianspracticedstrictpovertyanda“returntothespiritualidealofthe

apostolicchurch.”69Theybelievedthatthe“wealthandpowerofthegreatBenedictine

communitieswereasourceoftemptationtotheirmembers,leadingthemawayfrom

completerealizationofthemonasticideal.”70TheBenedictinesrespondedquicklyand

forcefullytotheaccusationsoftheCistercians,sayingthatthenewreformistmovement

wasguiltyofthesinofpride,thattherewashypocrisy“intheirostentatiousself‐

righteousness.”71

Thus,asharpdivisionhadbeguntoappearinthemonasticorderofWestern

Europe,while,simultaneously,thedominantroleofmonksbegantolosetheirdominant

roleinsecularsociety.Asaresultofeconomic,political,anddemographicchanges,asmall 65Ibid,61.66Ibid,62.67Ibid,62.68Ibid,52.69Ibid,63.70Ibid,62.71Ibid,52.

15

intellectualelitedeveloped,alongwiththeemergenceofthebeginningsoftheuniversity.72

Butthecontrolofhighereducationwasnottheonlythingthatmonasterieslost.

Professionalbureaucratsreplacedmonksintheirpositionsasroyalministers,andbecause

themonarchyfoundnewsourcesofmilitaryrecruitment,includingmercenaries,the

monarch’sdependenceonthemilitaryresourcesofthemonasterydeclined.Thecathedral

clergywasgainingrapidinfluencewithexpandedrolesineducationandgovernment.This

particulargroupwasoneoftheharshestcriticsofmonasticism;theywerejealousof

monasticprivilegesandpossessionsandhadagreatdealofcontemptforthemonks.73

ThecrisisofmonasticismbetweentheCisterciansandtheBenedictinestookplace

withinalargercrisisofWesterncivilizationduringtheeleventhcentury,termedeitherthe

InvestitureControversy,ortheGregorianReform(sonamedforitsleader,PopeGregory

VII).TheGregoriansbelievedinestablishinga“homogeneousnewworldorderintheform

ofpapaldominance”overbothchurchandstate;theywantedtocompletelyfreetheChurch

fromstatecontrolanderadicatethedoctrineofcaesaropapism.74Eventhoughthey

ultimatelydidnotachievethesegoals,theydidsucceedinbreakingdownthemedieval

equilibriumbetweentheChurchandtherestoftheworld,specificallythemonarchy.75

Thus,unliketheCistercians,whorebelleddirectlyagainsttheClunaicorder,theGregorians

revoltedagainstsomethingmuchlarger,althoughitwasalsoagainst“manythingsthat

eleventh‐centuryClunyanditsalliesrepresented.”76TheGregorianstookthesameideas

thattheCisterciansespoused–asceticism,austerity,poverty,andpurity–andattempted

72Ibid,52.73Ibid,54.74Ibid,55.75Ibid,56.76Ibid,61.

16

toapplythemtotheworldatlarge,adoctrineofaunifiedChristianworldsystem,known

asChristianitas.ThetheorybehindChristianitascanbepartlyexplainedbythemedieval

equilibrium:ifthechurchandtheworldaresynonymouswitheachother,“thenhowcould

asceticismandreformstopwithinthelimitsoftheChurch?”77

OneofthereasonsthattheGregoriansfailedisbecausetheywere“naïveand

provincial.”TheylargelycamefromareassuchasLorraineandNorthernItalywherethe

monarchswereweakanddisorganized.Gregorianmonksdidnotunderstandthe

relationshipbetweenthemonasteriesandmonarchs,therespectthatmonkshadforkings

likeHenryIIIorWilliamtheConqueror,inAnglo‐NormanEnglandandtheGermanEmpire.

Thefailureofthereformmovement,ifnothingelse,demonstratedthatasceticismcouldnot

foistitsprinciplesupontherestofcivilization;thatonecannotturntheentireworldinto“a

monasterywithauniversalabbotdemandingobediencefromallrulers.”78However,in

responsetotheGregorianReform,theCisterciansandevensomeoftheBenedictine

monasterieslikeClunywithdrewfromtheworld,culminatinginthematerializationofa

newequilibrium–theseparationoftheChurchandthesecularworld.79

Thereisevidenceofthisnewequilibriumasearlyasthe1090’s,butitreallycameto

fruitioninthe1130’s.Eventhesecularclergyhadtakenupanewasceticismandbegunto

withdraw,andtheevolvingsecularstatewasnotdisappointedinthepartialseveranceof

tieswiththemonasticorderandthechurchatlarge.Theadventofamarket‐based

economywenthand‐in‐handwithanewsecularspirit.Thiscouldbeseenmost

prominentlyinthecourtsofthemonarch,where“bydivestingkingshipofitsquasi‐

77Ibid,64.78Ibid,65.79Ibid,65.

17

sacramentalbasis,theGregorianReformencouragedmonarchy’sgreaterrelianceon

purelysecularpowerthroughthebuildingupofadministrativebureaucracy.”80Inthis

respect,itispossiblethattheGregoriansachievedoneoftheirgoals–abolishingthe

doctrineofcaesaropapism,or,attheveryleast,lesseningit.Nonetheless,itseemshighly

significantthataroleoncesocloselyidentifiedwiththemonasterywasnowbeinghanded

tosecularbureaucrats,andisatestamenttothe“new,grasping,penetratingsecularist

spirit[that]cametodominateEuropeanpoliticallife.”81

Cantoracknowledgesthe“comparativebackwardnessoftheCapetianmonarchy,”

evidentinSuger’sexpandedroleinFranceduringthe1130’sand1140’s.82Despitethis

anomaly,theBenedictineSaint‐Denishadasimilardiscordantrelationshipwiththe

CisterciansastheotherBenedictinemonasteriesdid.Ofparticularnoteistherelationship

betweenAbbotBernardofClairvauxandSuger,consideredtobethefirstandthesecond

mostinfluentialecclesiasticalfiguresinFrance,respectively,duringtheirtime.83Abbots

aroundroughlythesameperiod,BernardandSugerweretremendouslydifferentfigures.

Bernardwasofnoblebirth,Sugerofhumbleorigins.Bernardlefttheworldofprivilegeto

“espouseasceticself‐denialinaCisterciancloister”whileSuger“embracedthechurchasa

waytosalvationand,suspiciousofextremes,approachedtheconductofhumanaffairswith

prudenceandmoderation.”84Bythesametoken,hewasamanofcontemplation;whilehe

supportedthekinginmilitaryendeavorsagainstinvasions,he“soughtconversionby

reasonratherthanbytheswordandreconciliationbymediationratherthanviolence.”85

80Ibid,66.81Ibid,67.82Ibid,67.83ConradRudolph,ArtisticChangeatSt.­Denis,Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1990,3.84Crosby,op.cit.,109.85Ibid,110.

18

In1127,BernardwrotealettertoSugercongratulatinghimonaseriesofreforms

thatheconductedatSaint‐Denis,butseverelycriticizingtheconditionsthathadexisted

before.Hewrote,“thatthecommunitygavemoreeasilytoCaesarwhatwasCaesar’sdue

thantoGodanddescribedthecloisterasfilledwithsoldiersandbusinessmen,thehallsas

resoundingwithquarrelsandevenworse,forwomenwerenotstrictlydeniedaccess.

Bernardwonderedhowthemonksinthat‘synagogueofSatan,’that‘forgeofVulcan,’could

havethoughtgodlythoughts.”Bernarddidadmitthatthathehadnotseenthiswithhis

owneyes,thatitwasallbasedonhearsay.HemusthaveseenSugerinpersonatsome

pointthough,becausehealsocommentedonthestateofSuger’sclothes,sayingthatthey

“appearedabittooexcessive.”86Suger’sreformsofSaint‐Denis,aswellasofhisown

conduct,thatBernardmentionsinhisletterwerenotreallyreformsatall.Sugerwanted

hischangestoappeartobereforms,partlytomollifyBernardandtheotherCistercian

critics,andpartlytogiveSaint‐Denistheillusionofcontemporaneity.Reformatthattime,

asexemplifiedbyClairvauxandtheotherCistercianabbeyswasconsidered“cutting‐edge”

monasticism,andmoreover,“contemporaneitywasanimportantelementofpublicrespect

andofself‐respectforamonastery.”87BernardalsohadastakeincongratulatingSuger–

hewasabletopubliclydemonstratehisinfluencebyforcingahighlyvisibleabbotofa

traditionalmonasterytoconductadegreeofreform,eventhough,inreality,itwas“a

reformthatseemstohaveinvolvednosubstantivechanges.”88Itshouldalsobenotedthat

inthemidstoftheClunaic‐CisterciancontroversytherewerefactionswithinBenedictine

monasticismpushingforasceticartisticreform;Sugerwasforcedtojustify–onevery

86Ibid,109.87Rudolph,op.cit.,11.88Ibid,69.

19

monasticfront–hisnewartisticprogramatSaint‐Denisonanintellectualandspiritual

level.89

Suger’sreconstructionofSaint‐Deniscameduringuniqueperiodinhistory,a

crossroadsintime.Itwasacollisionoftremendousevents,fromthereformmovementsof

theCisterciansandtheGregorianstothedecliningroleofthemonasteryandfeudalism,

fromthedevelopmentofabureaucraticsecularismtotheevolutionofamarketeconomy.

Anditispossiblethatonlyatthisparticulartime,inthisparticularplace,inthemidstofso

muchchaos,couldsomethingasextraordinarilyinnovativeastheartisticprogramatSaint‐

Denisarise.

Suger’sIconographicProgramandItsJustification

BernardofClairvaux,astheprinciplerepresentativeoftheCistercianorder,90was

oneofthechiefmonkswhoragedagainstthe“excessesofClunaicart.”Itwashewho

orderedthatCistercianbuildingsbedevoidofart.Incontrast,Sugerbelievedthatthe

churchshouldbea“heavenlyJerusalembuiltinthisworld”;ametaphorfortheHolyCity,

and,inthismanner,shouldbeadornedwithbeautifulandpreciousmaterials“tothehonor

andgloryofGod.”91Theideaofbeautyinordertohelponeriseupintosalvationisa

dominantconceptinSuger’sartandarchitecture.

Sugerwascommittedtotwomajorbeliefs:astablecentralauthorityconsistingofa

strongmonarchandarespectedpapacy,andtheglorificationofthechurchtoboth

outshineandserveasanexampletoothers.Sugeralsohadtremendousadministrativeand

89Ibid,19.90Ibid,8.91Crosby,op.cit.,110.

20

financialskills,withastrictattentiontodetail,enablinghimtoreorganizeandgreatly

increasetheabbey’srevenues.92Heimprovedrundownproperties,persistentlytriedto

recoverrightsthathadbeenlost,developedunusedland,andinstitutedseveralfairs.93The

reconstructionbeganinthe1130’satthewestendofthechurch.Therewasalegendthat

theolderchurchbuiltbyDagobert,ontheeveofitsconsecration,wasconsecratedby

Christandacrowdofangels.Forthisreason,theentirebuilding,downtoeverylastbrick,

receivedthekindofvenerationgiventoarelic,soSugerwasforcedtobuildhischurch

piecemeal–firstthewesternnarthex,andthenthechoir,withtheoriginalstructureleft

standinginbetween.94Thiswas,however,onlyalegend;itignoredthefactthattheparts

builtbyDagobertwerecompletelyreplacedinlateryearsbyAbbotFulrad,whosechurch

wasdedicatedin775beforeCharlemagneandhiscourt.Yetpopularopinionembracedthe

legendsoenthusiasticallythatitwasheldastruth.95Sugerwasallowedtoteardownthe

westernendforhisnewfaçadebecausethatparticularpartwassaidtobeanaddition

madebyCharlemagne,notDagobert.96Also,ifpeoplesawthemagnificenceofthenew

structureinthewest,Sugerthought,theywouldbemoreinclinedtosupporttherebuilding

ofchoir.97ThereisarchaeologicalevidencethatSugeractuallydidbeginthetranseptand

nave,followingtheconsecrationofthechoir,buthediedin1151beforeitcouldbe

finished.98

Thewesternendofthestructure,completedin1140,andtheeasternend,

completedin1144,areextraordinarilydifferentfromeachother.“Thewestwerkwasthe 92Crosby,etal,op.cit.,15.93Crosby,op.cit.,113.94Crosby,etal,op.cit.,17.95Crosby,op.cit.,280.96Ibid,281.97Ibid,123.98Ibid,267.

21

symbolofsecularauthorityasdistinctfromtheauthorityoftheclergy,whopresidedover

thechurchattheeasternend…thedistinctionbetweenthematerialworldofourphysical,

terrestrialandcognitiveexperiences,andtheimmaterialuniverseofcelestial

hierarchies.”99Therearealsoverydistinctivedifferencesindesignbotharchitecturallyand

stylistically–betweenthewesternnarthexandtheeasternchoir,suggestingtheworkof

twodifferentmasters.100OneoftheunusualaspectsofSaint‐Denisisthecrenellationson

thewesternend.ThesewererebuiltunderSuger,althoughhementionsthattheywerea

partoftheoriginaldesign.Moreimportantly,however,isthatthecrenellations,or

battlements,werenotthereforaspecificallymilitarypurpose,butinsteadwereindications

that“thepatronsaintwasprotectorofthemonarchyandthatthechurchguardedtheroyal

crownsandtheBannerofSaint‐Denis.”101Therearethree“royal”portals,whichrecallthe

Romantriumphalarch,andfeatureacomplexiconographicprogram.LiketheNormanSt.

Etienne,therearefourcontinuousverticalbuttresses,andtherearetripletsofwindows

thatechotheshapeoftheportals.Thereweretwowesterntowers,althoughthenorthern

onewastakendowninthenineteenthcenturyforstructuralreasons.Finally,thereisa

rosewindowinthecenteroffaçade,thefirstinexistence.Saint‐Denisiswidelyconsidered

thefirstGothiccathedralbecauseofitsuniquecombinationoffeatures:thetwowestern

towers,theverticalcompositionorganizedinunitsofthree,thesculpturedportals,andthe

rosewindow.Severalofthesefeatureshadalreadyappeared,butnotuntil1140atSaint‐

Denisdidtheyappeartogether.102

99Crosby,etal,op.cit.,17,21.100StephenGardner,“TwoCampaignsinSuger’sWesternBlockatSt.‐Denis,”TheArtBulletin,Vol.66,No.4,December1984,574.101Crosby,etal,op.cit.,19.102Stokstad,op.cit.,232.

22

Thechoirintheeast,whichwasnotstarteduntilaftertheconsecrationofthe

westernend,featuresadoubleambulatorywithribbedvaultsandsevenradiatingchapels

aswellasamoreskeletalwallstructure.EarlierRomanesquewallsweremadeofthick,

heavymasonry;whatcametobeknownasGothicarchitecturereducedthewallsto

massivepiersandbuttressesandsheathedinenormousexpansesofstainedglass.This

style,beforeitwascalled‘Gothic,’wasdescribedasthe‘CourtStyle’or‘RayonnantStyle’

becausethemonumentsinwhichitwasimplemented(Saint‐Denis,SainteChapelle,and

Notre‐Dame)wereallassociatedwiththemonarchy.103Sugerdescribedthechoiras

neitherearthlynorheavenlybut“amaterial,celestialJerusalem,anearthlyabodeofGod,

whichwouldencouragethemindtomovefromthematerialtotheimmaterial.”104This

themeoftransformationwasoneofthecenterpiecesofhisjustification–somuchsothatit

wasinscribeduponhisgreatbronzedoors.

ThecenteroftheiconographicprograminthewesternendistheLastJudgment

uponthecentraltympanum,atrumeau‐figureofSaint‐Denis(nowdestroyed),theTrinity

attheverytopofthearch,andtheWiseandFoolishVirginsuponthedoorjambs.The

bridegroomisanallegoricalfigureforChristandtheVirginsstandfortheBlessedandthe

Damned,respectively;itisaparableaboutbeingpreparedforthecomingofChrist,105and

forthe“openandcloseddoorstoSalvation,106thusthematicallylinkingittotheLast

Judgmentabove.Thecolumnstatuesthatframedthedoorswerecarvedwithkingsand

queensfromtheOldTestament,alsothoughttobetheroyalancestorsofChrist.Theuseof

thisimageryisconsideredtorefertoregnumetsacerdotium,thesecularandthespiritual

103Ibid,296.104Crosby,etal,op.cit.,21.105Gerson,op.cit.,114.106Crosby,etal,op.cit.,26.

23

realmsinorderto“reiteratethebalanceofauthorityandemphasizethepositionofthe

ChristianChurchinitsterrestrialworld.”107Thepurposeofthemonasterywastoprovide

security,encouragereflection,andofferawaytosalvation;itwascommontohaveimages

oftheLastJudgmentandotherdoomsdayimageryontheportalsandcapitalsofchurches

inordertoappealtothoseinsearchofredemption.108Anunusualelementinthis

particulardepictionofChrististhatheisactuallyonthecross;theexplanationofthis

requiresanunderstandingofthehistoriesassociatedwiththefigureofSaint‐Denis.

Bythetwelfthcentury,Saint‐Deniswasacompositefigure.Thefirstpartisaman

calledDionysiustheAreopagite,namedinActsXVII,whowasconvertedandmentoredby

St.Paul.ItisthisparticularaspectofSaint‐DenisthatpertainstowhyChristisonthecross

intheLastJudgmenttympanum.Denissawtheeclipsethatoccurredatthemomentof

Christ’sdeathanditwasthenthathefirstbegantothinkaboutChristianityandlight

metaphysics,althoughtheseideaswerenotorganizeduntilmuchlaterunderthetutelage

ofSt.Paul.Nonetheless,Denisunderstoodthatthemomentoftheeclipsewasoneof

tremendousimportance,109andthustheLastJudgmentChristis,forSaint‐Denis,a

unificationofthebeginningandtheend.

ThesecondcomponentofSaint‐Denisoccurredinthethirdcentury.Afterthedeath

ofSt.Paul,DionysiustheAreopagitewassenttoGaultocovertthepeople.Hewasso

successfulinthisendeavorthatthepaganssentencedhimtodeath.Thenightbeforehis

execution,Christappearedtohimandhistwocompanions,gavehimtheEucharist,and

said,“Takethis,myBelovedone,forthyrewardisgreatwithme.”Thethreewere

107Ibid,19.108Crosby,op.cit.,110.109Gerson,op.cit.,122.

24

beheadedthenextdaywhileconfessingtheirfaithintheTrinity,afterwhichDenispicked

uphisheadandwalkedtwomilestohischosenburialplace.110Theleftportaltympanum

featuredthecaptureandimprisonmentofSt.Denis,surroundedbythefiguresofthe

Zodiac,whiletherightdepictedChrist’sappearancetoSt.Deniswhileheisinprisonand

thedoorjambshavetheLaborsoftheMonths.111

ThefinalcomponentofSaint‐DeniswasalatefifthcenturyNeo‐Platonictheologian

whowentbythenameDionysiusthePseudo‐Areopagite.Heisconsideredtheauthorof

severalmystictreatisesthatincludesaworktitledCelestialHierarchythathasbeen

attributedtoDionysiustheAreopagite.Thethreefigureswerecombinedintheninth

centurybyAbbotHilduinofSaint‐DenisinhisworkAreopagitica,“primarilytoestablish

theabbey’sorigininapostolictimesandtogiveitindependencefromthejurisdictionofthe

bishopofParis.”Bythetwelfthcentury,Saint‐Deniswasafirmlyestablishedcharacter.112

Inhismysticalwritings,thePseudo‐Areopagitedescribeda“processofascent”calledthe

anagogicusmos,or“theupward‐leadingmethod.”Describingtheuniverse,God,andChrist

inmetaphysicalterms,hesaysthattheuniverseismadeby“‘theOne,’thesuper‐essential

Light.”GodiscalledtheFatherofLights,andChrististhe“firstradiance.”Thebasicidea

behindthis“processofascent”isthatallpeoplecanparticipateintheessenceofGod;the

earthisinrelativedarknessand‘light’(GodandChrist)comesdownfromtheheavens.“As

onegoesupwardonegetsclosertotheimmaterialHeavenandtheLord.”113Itisbythis

meansthatSugerenvisionedapersonmovingfromthematerialtotheimmaterial;“that

110Ibid,94.111Ibid,3.112Ibid,93.113Ibid,60.

25

whichstartsthisupward‐leadingmovementtothenon‐materialisthespectacleof

beautifulthings,theirluster,brightness,orexcellenceofexecution.”114

TheanagogicusmosisreflectedinSuger’sinscriptionuponhisbronzedoors:

“Whoeverthouart,ifthouseekesttoextolthegloryofthesedoors,

Marvelnotatthegoldandtheexpensebutatthecraftsmanshipofthework.

Brightisthenoblework;but,beingnoblybright,theworkShouldbrightentheminds,sothattheymaytravel,through

thetruelights,TotheTruelightwhereChrististhetruedoor.Inwhatmanneritbeinherentinthisworldthegoldendoor

defines:ThedullmindrisestotruththroughthatwhichismaterialAnd,inseeingthislight,isresurrectedfromitsformer

submersion.

Afterthecompletionofthechoir,theseverseswereadded:

Oncethenewrearpartisjoinedtothepartinfront,Thechurchshineswithitsmiddlepartbrightened.Forbrightisthatwhichisbrightlycoupledwiththebright.Andbrightisthenobleedificewhichispervadedbythe

newlight;Whichstandsenlargedinourtime,I,whowasSuger,beingtheleaderwhileitwasbeing

Accomplished.115

Sugerbeginsbytellingtheviewernottolookattheexpense,butatthecraftsmanship

itself;thisisthefirstlevelofremovingmateriality.Hesaysthat‘bright’,orexpensiveand

preciousworkshould‘brightenthemind,’orupliftittotheessenceofGod.Thephrase,‘To

theTruelightwhereChrististhetruedoor’canperhapsbeseenasthecenterpieceofthe

inscription.Therearefirstmultiplicitiesofmeaningintheword‘door’:Christisboth“the

114Ibid,61.115EdwinPanofsky,ed.,AbbotSugerontheAbbeyChurchofSt.­DenisanditsArtTreasures,2nded.,Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1946,47‐51.

26

truedoorofthechurch,thedoortosalvation,”116the‘goldendoor,’andthebronzedoorsof

thechurchuponwhichthesewordsarewritten.ThelinemaywellbeareferencetoJohn

10:9:“Iamthegate.Whoeverentersbymewillbesaved,andwillcomeinandgooutand

findpasture.”117‘TotheTruelightwhereChrististhetruedoor’ultimatelyisametaphor

forsalvation,andthus,toSuger,itisthroughtheuseofthebeautifulthatmancanattain

salvation,andthroughmaterialityonecanbetransformedtoimmateriality,abeliefthat

justifieshislavishartisticprogram.

Suger’srationalesdonotappeartobeafalsefrontashis“reforms”were.Thereare

twohighlyinterestingordersonthepartofSugerthatwererecorded.First,comparingthe

newabbeytotheCityofGod,Sugerhadgemsplacedinthefreshfoundationofthechoir.118

Second,hehadtheholywaterthatwasusedinthe1140consecrationofthewesternfaçade

savedsothatitcouldbemixedwiththemortarofthefoundations.119Theseactions

indicatethatSuger’sjustificationsformaterialitywerenotonlyoutwardones,butinward

onesaswell.HeseemstohavetrulymeantitwhenhewritesinhisDeAdministratione:

Thus,when–outofmydelightinthebeautyofthehouseofGod–thelovelinessofthemany‐coloredgemshascalledmeawayfromexternalcares,andworthymeditationhasinducedmetoreflect,transferringthatwhichismaterialtothatwhichisimmaterial,onthediversityofthesacredvirtues:thenitseemstomethatIseemyselfdwelling,asitwere,insomestrangeregionoftheuniversewhichneitherexistsentirelyintheslimeoftheearthnorentirelyinthepurityofHeaven;andthat,bythegraceofGod,Icanbetransportedfromthisinferiortothathigherworldinananagogicalmatter.120

116Gerson,op.cit.,110.117TheNewRevisedStandardVersion.John10:9.118Crosby,etal,op.cit.,19.119Crosby,op.cit.,216.120Panofsky,ed.,op.cit.,63.

27

AsnoonebutGodwouldeverseethegemsorholywater,onehastobelievethatSuger

honestlywantedhischurchtobeaheavenlyJerusalemthatwouldinduceapersonto‘that

higherworld’.

Therewerepracticalreasons,too,forthereconstructionoftheabbey.Theprized

relicsincludedthreefromthePassion:anailfromthecross,apartofthecrownofthorns,

andthearmofSaintSimeon.121Theolderchurch,lastbuiltunderCharlemagne,wasfartoo

smalltoaccommodateallofthepeoplewhofloodedinonspecialoccasions–afterall,

Saint‐Deniswasamonastery,amausoleum,apilgrimagechurch,andamartyrium,aswell

asthepatronsaintofthemonarchy.Onfeastdaysandotheroccasions,especiallywhenthe

Passionrelicsweretakenout,thehallswereoverrunwithpeople.Atoneparticulartime,

whenthemonkswereshowingtherelics,themassesofpeoplepressedinsoforcefullythat

themonkswereforcedtoescapeoutthewindowsbehindthem.122

Sugerseemedtobeterrifiedthathisworkandachievementswouldbeforgotten.

TherearetwoknownimagesofhiminSaint‐Denisthatillustratehisdesiretoimmortalize

himself,nottomentiontheentirebodyofwritingthatheproduced,documentingthe

constructionofhischurch.Thefirstimageofhimisinthechoir,inthestained‐glassscene

oftheAnnunciation,withintheInfancyofChristwindow.123Thesecondrepresentationof

himisinthecentralportal,kneelingattherightfootofChrist.Onthelintelthereisanother

inscription:“Receive,OsternJudge,theprayersofThySuger;GrantthatIbemercifully

numberedamongThyownsheep.”124Thislinereferstochapter25ofMatthew:“Whenthe

SonofMancomesinhisglory,andalltheangelswithhim,hewillsitonhisthronein

121Crosby,op.cit.,101.122Ibid,121.123Ibid,19.124Panofsky,ed.,op.cit.,49.

28

heavenlyglory.Allthenationswillbegatheredbeforehim,andhewillseparatethepeople

onefromanotherasashepherdseparatesthesheepfromthegoats.Hewillputthesheep

onhisrightandthegoatsonhisleft.”125ItisalsoforthisreasonthattheimageofSuger

kneelingistotherightofChrist.Thusthereisan“emphasisplacedontheactofjudgment

anditsrelationshiptofinalsalvation.”126

ItisthroughmultiplelayeringofwordsandiconographythatSugerjustifiesthe

beautyandexpenseofhisedificetotheCisterciansandotherreformistorders,tohimself,

andtoGod.Itreflectshishardworkinre‐attainingthepowerfulpositionofSaint‐Denisin

France,and,furthermore,thecomplexitiesoftheiconographicprogrampaintsapictureof

amanwhounderstoodnuanceandshowedloyaltytocountry,king,andGod.

TheAbbeyofSaint‐Denis,whichhadfallenfromfavorandprivilegefollowingthe

declineoftheCarolingiandynasty,didnotrisetoitsformerpositionuntilthereignofLouis

VI—justafewyearsbeforeSugerwaselectedabbot.Thedesiretoregainthosepast

privileges,theartisticandideologicaldissentionbetweentheBenedictinesandthe

Cistercians,therevolutionarycharacteroftheGregorianReform,andthemajoreconomic

changesofthetimeswasthecrucibleinwhichSaint‐DenisunderSugerwasforged,and

institutedanewartisticandarchitecturalspiritthatwouldforeverchangetheaesthetic

faceofEurope.

125TheNewInternationalVersion,Matthew25:31‐33.126Gerson,op.cit.,113.

29

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