module 30: the role of veterinarians in honey bee healthmodule 30: the role of veterinarians in...

Module 30: The Role of Veterinarians in Honey Bee Health

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USDA-APHIS Natio nal Veterinary Accreditatio n Pro gram

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Module 30: The Role of Veterinarians in

Honey Bee Health USDA-APHIS National Veterinary Accreditation Program (NVAP)

Welcome to Module 30: The Role of Veterinarians in Honey Bee Health. The content for this module was developed in cooperation with the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA), and is based largely on the AVMA member resource entitled “Honey Bees: A Guide for Veterinarians”, available on the AVMA website at https://www.avma.org/KB/Resources/Pages/Honey-Bees-101- Veterinarians.aspx. The content for this module was finalized in May 2018.

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Required

• Sign-in

– iPad or paper • Retain certificate of completion • Complete 2-step process to renew

accreditation – Complete modules – Submit an application

USDA-APHIS May 2018 Natio nal Veterinary Accreditatio n Pro gram Center fo r Fo o d Security and Public Health

A few important points about the renewal process. First, you must sign in to get credit for taking each APHIS Approved Supplemental Training Module. This will either be done using a paper sign in sheet that is being passed around or the iPad that is being passed around. Second, at the end of the presentation you will receive a certificate of completion; this is your proof that you have completed the module. Please retain this for your records. Do not send it to APHIS as part of the renewal. You must submit an application for renewal as part of the two-step renewal process. This can either be done online or via paper. Both processes are described on the NVAP website.

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iPad Sign-In Directions

• Tap each field to enter data* • Select Submit

• Review information for accuracy – If not accurate, see me after

presentation

• Select Confirm

• Pass to next participant * If you don’t know your 6 digit national accreditation

number, pass the iPad along and see us after session


In order for the key pad to display the participants must first tap the first field on the screen (first name field). This will display the key pad. The participant must then either tap the stylus pen or their finger into each subsequent field on the screen. The user must tap into each field. Enter your entire National Accreditation number including leading 0’s.

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If No Match Found

• Your name must match exactly what is in our records. e.g. “Jim” not “James”, “McDonald” vs “Mc Donald”

• If “No Match Found” displays after you attempt to re-enter your name and NAN, pass the tablet to next participant and see us after session


However if they have not entered the data the way it is entered into our database, they will get a No Match Found message. They should attempt to re-enter the data two more times and then pass the tablet to the next participant. They must see the instructor after the presentation to ensure they do get credit for the module they have taken. Certain reasons their name is not displayed include: their name is not entered correctly - James vs. Jim, McDonald vs. Mcdonald vs. Mc Donald, etc.

http://www.avma.org/KB/Resources/Pages/Honey-Bees-101-


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Paper Sign-In

• Print clearly • Complete ALL fields • If you do not know your 6 digit National Accreditation Number, please see us after session


If a paper sign in is being used, please make sure you print clearly or you may not get credit for the AAST module. It is critical that we have your updated email address to ensure you receive notifications from NVAP. If you do not know your six digit National Accreditation Number (NAN), please see the instructor after the presentation.

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Supplemental Training

• Familiarize accredited veterinarians with animal health regulatory concepts and activities – Does not supersede the regulations

• For the most up-to-date regulations and standards, please refer to: – Code of Federal Regulations – OSHA – Occupational health specialist – Local VS District Office


This informational presentation is intended to familiarize accredited veterinarians with animal health regulatory concepts and activities. Information presented here does not supersede the regulations. For the most up- to-date regulations and standards, please refer to the Code of Federal Regulations, contact your state or national Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), consult with your workplace’s occupational health specialist, or your local VS District Office.

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• All APHIS Approved Supplemental

Training (AAST) modules are also available on our Website with interactive features and links to additional Web resources.

• Type “NVAP” into your search engine e.g. Bing, Google, Yahoo.


All modules are available on our website free of charge. If you want additional information about any of the presentations, you may check them out on our website where additional resources are available. The NVAP website is available by typing NVAP into your preferred search engine.

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Introduction

• Honey bees play vital role in U.S. agriculture • Honey bees are food producing animal

–Beekeepers must obtain VFD or prescription

• January 2017: water-soluble, medically important antimicrobials require prescription, VFD

• FDA requires veterinarians issue all VFDs in context of VCPR

• Antimicrobial resistance serious threat –Judicious antimicrobial use critical to slow emergence, spread


• Antimicrobial resistance—serious threat to One Health, impacting human, animal, environmental health

• January 1, 2017: all water-soluble, medically important (antimicrobials medically important to treat human illness) administered to food-producing animals in drinking water require prescription; all medically important antimicrobials administered to food producing animals through feed require veterinary feed directive (VFD)

• Honey bees (Apis mellifera)—vital role in U.S. agriculture, security of food supply

• Hive products (honey) are consumed—U.S. FDA classifies honey bees as food-producing animals

• Beekeepers must obtain VFD/prescription from licensed veterinarian for use of medically important antimicrobials in their bees via feed or water

• Veterinarians being asked to visit apiaries, examine hives for signs of disease, authorize appropriate therapy

• Module intended to • Provide AVs with basic knowledge of honey bee biology,

beekeeping


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• Information about relevant honey bee diseases and conditions, to foster communication with beekeepers, ensure stewardship of antimicrobial use in honey bees

• Module focuses on role of veterinarians related to antimicrobial use, issuance of prescriptions and VFDs in honey bees

• Veterinarians offer valuable services to beekeepers: • Assisting hobbyists with plans for parasite

management • Assisting commercial beekeepers with

development of protocols to be followed by staff for disease detection, control

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Overview

• Describe U.S. honey bee industry,

importance of honey bee pollination • Describe current pollinator threats,

mitigation strategies • Communicate effectively with beekeepers • Recognize, diagnose, authorize treatments • Understand, fulfill role as an AV employing

judicious use of antimicrobials in honey bees


After completion of this module, you will be able to • Describe the U.S. honey bee industry and the importance of honey

bee pollination to the U.S. food supply; • Describe current pollinator threats and mitigation strategies; • Communicate effectively with beekeepers regarding honey bee

biology and beekeeping basics; • Recognize, diagnose, and authorize appropriate treatments for

relevant honey bee diseases; and • Understand and fulfill your role as an AV employing the judicious

use of antimicrobials in honey bees through the issuance of prescriptions and VFDs.

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Honey Bees and Veterinarians

• Apiculture products enter human food chain – Honey, propolis, pollen, royal jelly

• January 2017: medically important antimicrobials re-labeled

• GFI #209, #213 • Veterinary oversight required for

therapeutic use of affected medically important antimicrobials – Includes use in honey bees

• 11 applications FDA-approved for use in honey bees – Oxytetracycline, tylosin, lincomycin


• Propolis—a resinous mixture produced by honey bees to seal small, open spaces in the hive

• Royal jelly—a honey bee secretion used to provide nutrition to larvae and adult queens

• Medically important antimicrobials approved for administration in drinking water re-labeled with veterinary prescription legend

• Medically important antimicrobials approved for use in or on feed re-labeled with veterinary feed directive caution statement

• Requirements for completing VFD order, prescription for honey bees same as any other food-producing animals

• More information on VFD • NVAP Module 29: Veterinary Feed Directive, AVMA

website, NVAP Module 23: Use of Antibiotics in Animals • FDA issued GFI #209, #213

• Advance policy to provide veterinary oversight, consultation for use of medically important antimicrobials administered to food-producing animals (in/on feed, in drinking water) to slow development of antimicrobial resistance

• Implementation of policies completed by voluntary transition of labels from over-the-counter to either prescription (Rx) or VFD marketing status

• Veterinary oversight required for therapeutic (prevention, control, treatment) use—beekeepers need authorization from licensed veterinarian for use of affected applications

• 3 applications containing oxytetracycline as active ingredient in VFD marketing status


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• Blue Bird label website • 8 applications in Rx marketing status

• Animal Drugs @ FDA

Photo: Honey bees are classified as food producing animals because a number of apiculture products, such as honey, enter the human food chain. Photo source: Daria-Yakovleva via Pixabay

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Veterinarian-Client-Patient Relationship (VCPR)

• Veterinarian, beekeeper must have valid VCPR – May be defined by State or FDA

• Valid VCPR meets following conditions: 1. Veterinarian responsible for making medical judgments

regarding health, need for medical treatment, client agrees to follow

2. Sufficient knowledge of animal(s) by veterinarian to initiate general, preliminary diagnosis

3. Practicing veterinarian readily available for follow up


• For applications in VFD marketing status, VCPR may be defined by the State or FDA

• Visit FDA listing of VCPR requirements by State to determine which definition applies in your State

• A valid VCPR, according to the Federal definition, is one in which the following conditions are met:

• A veterinarian has assumed the responsibility for making medical judgements regarding the health of (an) animal(s) and the need for medical treatment, and the client (the owner of the animal or animals or other caretaker) has agreed to follow the instructions of the veterinarian;

• There is sufficient knowledge of the animal(s) by the veterinarian to initiate at least a general or preliminary diagnosis of the medical condition of the animal(s); and

• The practicing veterinarian is readily available for follow up in case of adverse reactions or failure of the regimen of therapy. Such a relationship can exist only when the veterinarian has recently seen and is personally acquainted with the keeping and care of the animal(s) by virtue of examination of the animal(s), and/or by medically appropriate and timely visits to the premises where the animal(s) are kept.

• AVMA’s guidelines for VCPRs related to prescriptions

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U.S. Honey Bee Industry Overview

• Honey bees most commonly used agricultural pollinators nationally, globally

• 1/3 of U.S. diet derived from insect-pollinated plants – 80% from honey bees

• Contribute $20 billion USD to value of U.S. crop production

• Estimated 2.7 million colonies in United States – 2/3 transported annually

• Crops dependent on honey bee pollination – Blueberries, cherries—90% dependent – Almonds—100% dependent


• Contribute to U.S. crop production value in form of increased yields, higher quality crops for growers, consumers

• Colonies—the honey bee family unit consisting of individual organisms (bees and their developing young)

• 2/3 transported around country for purposes of crop pollination, honey and beeswax production

• Many of nation’s crops would not exist without presence of honey bees at bloom time

• California almond industry alone requires nearly 1.8 million honey bee colonies to adequately pollinate nearly one million acres of bearing almond orchards

Sources: • National Honey Board website. Available at: National Honey Board

(https://www.honey.com/the-bees-1). Accessed January 26, 2018. • American Beekeeping Federation website. Available

at: (https://www.abfnet.org/general/custom.asp?page=PollinatorF acts). Accessed January 25, 2018.

http://www.honey.com/the-bees-1)

http://www.abfnet.org/general/custom.asp?page=PollinatorF


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Photo: There are an estimated 115–125,000 U.S. beekeepers, and most are hobbyists. Photo Source: Kristen Obbink, Iowa State University

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U.S. Honey Bee Industry Overview

• 115—125,000 beekeepers in United States – Most are hobbyists

• 2016 U.S. honey production – Producers with ≥5 colonies: 161.9 million pounds – Producers with <5 colonies: 766 thousand pounds

• 2016 top five U.S. honey-producing States – North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, California, Florida

• Exported 11.1 million pounds of honey, 41.2 million pounds stored for future sale

• Average per capita U.S. honey consumption 1.61 pounds of honey per person


• Most beekeepers are hobbyists • USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) 2016 Annual

Honey Report • 161.9 million pounds—up 3% from 2015 • 766 thousand pounds—up 6% from 2015 • Only businesses meeting USDA requirement of being a

farm (an entity that sold or would normally have sold $1,000 of agricultural product in a year) included— excluding many hobbyist beekeepers

• United States imported nearly 370 million pounds of honey during 2016

• Majority from Vietnam, Argentina, India, Brazil, Canada, Mexico

• 1.61 pounds of honey per person at an average cost of $0.207 USD per pound

Sources: • National Honey Board website. Available at: Honey Industry Facts

(https://www.honey.com/newsroom/presskit/honey-industry- facts). Accessed January 26, 2018.

• Bee Culture website—U.S. Honey Industry Report, 2016. Available at: U.S. Honey Industry Report (http://www.beeculture.com/u-s- honey-industry-report-2016/). Accessed January 26, 2018.

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Honey Bee Colony Losses

• Declining health, loss of managed bee colonies is major concern

• CCD—Colony Collapse Disorder • U.S. colony loss surveys conducted annually by the Bee Informed

Partnership since winter of 2006–2007—serve as overall indicator of honey bee health

• USDA-NASS began collecting data on honey bee health, pollination costs in 2016

• 33.2% loss represents second lowest rate of annual colony loss recorded over last 7 years—still well above threshold considered acceptable by most beekeepers (15–20%)

Source: • Bee Informed Partnership website. Available at: Colony Loss Preliminary

Results (https://beeinformed.org/results/colony-loss-2016-2017- preliminary-results/). Accessed January 26, 2018.

Graphic illustration: U.S. colony loss surveys have been conducted annually by the Bee Informed Partnership since the winter of 2006–07 and serve as an overall indicator of honey bee health. Graphic illustration by: Dani Ausen, Iowa State University

• CCD losses first identified in 2006

• 2016–17 Honey Bee Colony Loss Survey – Winter colony loss–21.1% – Summer colony loss–18.1%

• April 2016–March 2017 – 33.2% annual loss


http://www.honey.com/newsroom/presskit/honey-industry-

http://www.beeculture.com/u-s-


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Factors Affecting Honey Bee Health

Colony Collapse Disorder is a poorly understood phenomenon, characterized by a sudden loss of the majority of adult worker bees from a colony and the absence of any dead bees around the colony. CCD continues to pose a threat to honey bees and has garnered a great deal of media attention; yet, reported cases have declined over the past several years. However, there are many other issues facing honey bees and other pollinators that lead to their continued decline. The prevailing theory among scientists in the scientific and regulatory communities is that the general declining health of honey bees is related to complex interactions among multiple stressors.

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Factors Affecting Honey Bee Health

• Major stressors include – Pathogens, parasites, pests – Poor nutrition due to loss of foraging habitat – Pesticide exposure – Management practices – Lack of genetic diversity, poor quality

queen bees


• Management practices (e.g., transport of colonies across the country to support pollination services)

Sources: • United States Environmental Protection Agency website. Available

at: Pollinator Health Concerns (https://www.epa.gov/pollinator- protection/pollinator-health-concerns#factors). Accessed December 27, 2017.

• Pollinator Protection website. Available at: Bee Issues (http://pollinator.org/learning-center/bee-issues). Accessed December 27, 2017.

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Food Resources

• Colonies healthier, stronger with access to diverse sources of pollen

• Floral diversity in landscapes reduced – Urbanization, intensive agriculture

• Climate changes affect seasonal availability

• Artificial sources to meet nutritional demands – Sugar syrup, corn syrup,

pollen substitutes – Nutritional value not as

optimal as pollen


• Access to pollen from diverse sources of flowering plants • Intensive agriculture (single crops, few flowering weeds, limited

hedgerows) • Beekeepers required to use artificial sources to try to meet

increased nutritional demands of their colonies • Important survival tool, nutritional value is not as optimal

as pollen obtained from diverse sources of flowering plants

• Artificial sources of nutrition may be toxic, cause increased yeast production, or cause digestive issues to bees

Source: • Pollinator Protection website. Available at: Bee Issues

(http://pollinator.org/learning-center/bee-issues). Accessed December 27, 2017.

Photo: Honey bee colonies are healthier with access to pollen from diverse sources of flowering plants. Photo source: © R J Higginson and licensed for reuse under Creative Commons License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/), via Wikimedia Commons

http://www.epa.gov/pollinator-

http://pollinator.org/learning-center/bee-issues)



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Pesticides

• Divided into – Insecticides/acaricides—insects, mites, ticks – Fungicides—fungal plant diseases – Rodenticides—rodents – Herbicides—prevent weed competition

• Vary widely in safety to humans, environment • Some insecticides toxic to honey bees • Combinations of products—synergistic effects

– Sub-lethal effects or deadly for honey bees

• Fungicides implicated in beehive troubles


• Herbicides prevent weeds from competing with crops, grasses, ornamental plants

• Usually contain an active ingredient with a known mechanism for killing the target pests

• Sold as a formulation with added ingredients that augment action of the active material when mixed in water for application

• More than 1,200 chemicals registered for use in United States, used in some 18,000 separate products sold under variety of trade names

• Current data on sub-lethal effects suggests: reduced larval survival, altered foraging behavior, shortened lifespan of adult bees

• Mechanism of action of fungicides not well understood • Perhaps synergistic effects with insecticides, miticides • Effects of compounds and their prevalence are active areas of

research Source: • Pollinator Protection website. Available at: Bee Issues


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Management Practices

• Proper management critical component • Colonies placed in adequate foraging

sites, distant from pesticide use • Actively monitor for pests,

administer control methods • Minimize exposure to

lipophilic pesticides, pathogens – Replacing used comb with

fresh comb • Genetic stocks of resistant bees • Transporting hives for pollination

profitable but increases risk USDA-APHIS May 2018 Natio nal Veterinary Accreditatio n Pro gram Center fo r Fo o d Security and Public Health

• Employing best management practices often challenging, expensive for beekeepers

• Must place colonies distant from areas where pesticides are being applied

• Must use chemical and non-chemical methods to control pests, such as varroa mites, as needed

• Should systematically replace used comb with fresh comb in hive • Lipophilic pesticides and pathogens, such as viruses,

bacteria, fungi, accumulate in beeswax • Implementation of other management practices by beekeepers—

transporting hives around country, on an annual basis (crop pollination)—often needed for profitability, food security but results in more stress, increased risk for disease spread as it would in any food-producing animal

Source:

• Pollinator Protection website. Available at: Bee Issues (http://pollinator.org/learning-center/bee-issues). Accessed December 27, 2017.

Photo: Hives are often transported around the country for crop pollination which can increase the risk for disease spread among honey bee colonies. Photo Source: © Pollinator and licensed for reuse under Creative Commons License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0), via Wikimedia Commons




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Genetic Diversity and Queen Quality

• Single queen mates with 10–20 drones – Stores sperm, uses mixture for years – Colonies genetically diverse

• Strains of honey bees have different traits – Forage for pollen – Hygienic behaviors

• Queen produces all workers in colony

• Poor quality queens severely impact colony health

• Rearing conditions, mating number impact queen quality


• Mate during second week of life • Genetic diversity improves disease resistance, productivity of

colonies, overwintering ability • Hygienic behavior—parasitized brood (young, developing bees)

removed • Breeding programs—develop stocks of bees more resistant to

diseases, parasites, better at overwintering in specific climates, productive, gentle

• Queens with low egg-laying capacity, unhealthy queens can limit colony growth, productivity

• Poor quality queens consistently cited by beekeepers as a major factor underlying colony failure

Source: • Pollinator Protection website. Available at: Bee Issues


Photo: The honey bee queen is responsible for producing all the workers in the colony, and her level of quality has a large impact on overall colony health. Photo Source: © Jonathan Wilkins and licensed for reuse under Creative Commons License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by- sa/2.0/), via Wikimedia Commons

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Mitigation Strategies

• June 2014: Pollinator Health Task Force established – Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and

Other Pollinators – Pollinator Research Action Plan

• Research plan elements specific to honey bees – Studies of health of honey bees that asses stressors – Plans for expanding, automating data c DCA-A6tion, sharing – Development of affordable, pollinator-friendly seed

mixes – Identification of best practices for minimizing pest DCA-A7

exposure – Creation of strategies for targeting restoration efforts


• June 2014: President Obama issued memorandum establishing Pollinator Health Task Force—to create national strategy to promote health of pollinators

• Plan targeted at all pollinators, some elements specifically aimed at, encompass protection of honey bees

• Studies of the health of honey bees that assess stressors leading to species decline and Colony Collapse Disorder, as well as strategies for mitigation;

• Plans for expanding and automating data collection and data sharing related to pollinator losses in partnership with the private sector;

• Development of affordable, pollinator-friendly seed mixes and guidelines for evaluating their effectiveness in restoration and reclamation;

• Identification of best practices for minimizing pollinator exposure to pesticides and novel, cost-effective ways to manage pests and diseases; and

• Creation of strategies for targeting restoration efforts in areas that will yield the greatest expected net benefits for pollinator health.

https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ ostp/Pollinator%20Health%20Strategy%202015.pdf https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ ostp/Pollinator%20Research%20Action%20Plan%202015.pdf



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Mitigation Strategies

• Pollinator Partnership Action Plan – Successful examples of past, ongoing public-private

partnerships support each of three overarching goals of Strategy

• Prioritizes and promotes – Research initiatives – Habitat restoration – Policy development, implementation

• Achieving goals requires collaboration among – Federal, State, local, tribal governments – Industry, academic, non-profit sectors – General public


• Multitude of pollinator protector initiatives already implemented by these entities; continue to be developed

https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/whitehouse.gov/files/images/Blog /PPAP_2016.pdf

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Honey Bee and Beekeeping Basics

• All U.S. honey bees same species – European/Western honey bee—Apis mellifera

• Super organism (colony) made up of individual organisms (bees)

• Functions occur within cavity-like-hive on multiple sheets of comb – Series of hexagonal cells

• Three types (castes) based on function – A queen – Drones – Workers


Photo: All honey bees in the United States are the same species—Apis mellifera. Photo source: © Charlesjsharp and licensed for reuse under Creative Commons License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by- sa/2.0/), via Wikimedia Commons

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Queen

• Fertile female of hive, sole source of fertilized eggs—become worker bees

• Colony only produces new queens when – Prepares to reproductively split

by swarming – Old queen has died – Failing queen is superceded

• May requeen to introduce younger, better performing queen

• Colony only functions normally when queen present, laying eggs

• “Queenright”—queen present • “Queenless”—absence of queen USDA-APHIS May 2018 Natio nal Veterinary Accreditatio n Pro gram Center fo r Fo o d Security and Public Health

• Generally one queen in each colony • Lays up to 2,000 eggs per day during peak production • Largest bee in hive—twice length of worker bee, longer than

drones, with more tapered abdomen • Managed colonies—queen may be marked with paint on thorax as

record of year of her birth, make her easier to locate within hive • Many queen cells created—first to emerge kills other queens in

cells, fight with other emerged virgin queens until one remains • 2 weeks after emergence—queen goes on mating flights

• Mate with 10–20 drones, stores sperm for use over lifetime

Photo: In managed colonies, queen bees may be marked with paint as a record of birth year and for ease of locating her in the hive. Photo source: Emmaloola via Pixabay

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Drones

• Male bees, haploid

– Arise from unfertilized eggs

• Large, thick bodies, large eyes covering almost entire head

• No major functions inside hive • Sole purpose to search, mate

with virgin queens on mating flights – Endophallus breaks off, drone dies

• Made whenever sufficient resources present – Most evicted before winter


• Haploid—one chromosome set • Queens, workers diploid—arise from fertilized eggs

• Larger body than workers, shorter, thicker than queen • Mating flights occur far from hives • If fortunate enough to mate, endophallus (internally positioned

penis everted during mating) breaks off, dies following mating • Spring, summer—colony can have hundreds of drones

• Evicted before winter so they don’t consume precious resources during resource-scarce season

Photo: Drones are the male bees in the hive, and their sole purpose is to search for and mate with virgin queens on their mating flights. Photo source: USGS Bee Inventory and Monitoring Lab, Public Domain (https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/mark/1.0/)

http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/whitehouse.gov/files/images/Blog


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Workers

• Female bees with variety of functions – Providing for queen’s needs – Cleaning cells in comb – Feeding larvae – Producing wax, forming into honey comb – Guarding, defending hive – Removing dead bees – Cooling hive, heating brood – Collecting water – Gathering, transporting pollen – Gathering propolis, coat hive – Collecting nectar – Producing, sealing honey – Scouting for resources

• Only lay unfertilized eggs that become drones – Suppressed in presence of laying queen

• Varied lifespan USDA-APHIS May 2018 Natio nal Veterinary Accreditatio n Pro gram Center fo r Fo o d Security and Public Health

• Incapable of laying fertilized eggs that become queens or other workers

• Lifespan: may live only 5–6 weeks during spring and summer, may live 5 months during inactive winter period

Photo: Within a colony, there are three types of honey bees based on their function—worker (top), queen (middle), and drone (bottom) bees. Photo source: © Alexander Wild www.alexanderwild.com

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Brood

• Developing bees—eggs, larvae, pupae • Remain stationary within cells • 3 days: egg hatches, larva emerges • 6 days: cell containing larva capped

– Larva pupates inside, known as capped brood

• Emerges as adult bee • Time spent in brood

– Queen: 16 days – Workers: 21 days – Drones: 24 days


• Capped: open top is sealed over by worker bees with porous wax • Colony contains brood during most of the year

• Egg laying temporarily ceases in late fall or early winter, or in times of stress

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Nutrition

• Preferred diet entirely from flowers

– Floral nectar source of carbohydrates

• Prevent fermentation: dry nectar to below 18% water content = honey – Add enzymes to preserve honey

• Collect pollen – Source of proteins, vitamins,

fats, minerals

• Several amino acids essential— collect pollen from variety of plants

• Bee bread


• Prefer fresh nectar when available, will store in cells for when there are no available flowers = honey

• Enzymes such as invertase • Proteins made up of amino acids

• Several essential—bee cannot synthesize them, must be in diet

• Proper blend of amino acids for optimal protein production: collect from plant variety

• To store pollen: bees pack it into cells, add nectar, ferment pollen into storable substance called bee bread

Photo: The preferred diet of honey bees is entirely from flowers. Photo source: Released into the public domain by John Severns— Severnjc via Wikimedia Commons

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Typical Colonies

• Consists of: – One queen – Hundreds of drones (in summer) – Tens of thousands of workers

• Vigorous colony – Queen laying enough eggs – Workers raise enough brood to replace

dying workers – Enough members of each age of worker to perform

all necessary tasks


http://www.alexanderwild.com/


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Honey Bee Products

• Honey most widely known • Other products

– Beeswax – Propolis – Royal jelly – Pollen – Honey comb

• Produce bees for sale – Queens sold to requeen – Nucs, packages, splits used

to start new colonies


• Requeen a queenless hive or replace failing queen • Nucs—Pronounced “nukes”, which are nucleus colonies made up

of three to six frames from a hive with workers, brood, honey, pollen, and a queen

• Packages—2, 3, or 4 pounds of bees with or without a laying queen

• Splits— A portion of the original hive

Photo: Honey bee packages are one option for starting a new colony. Photo source: © Chris Severn and licensed for reuse under Creative Commons License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/), via Wikimedia Commons

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The Hive

• Dark cavity over 40 L volume • Small entrance • Movable frames to construct

honey comb • Langstroth style most common

– Bottom board (solid or screened) – Series of boxes or “supers”

containing frames – Series of covers

• Colony generally lives in bottom boxes

• Excess honey stored in upper boxes


• Honey bees are cavity dwellers—living in hollowed out trees in wild

• In United States, standard boxes come in different widths (8- or 10-frame) and heights (deep, medium, or shallow)

• Bottom boxes (deep supers/brood nest) • Upper boxes (shallow supers)

Graphic illustration (Top): A typical Langstroth hive consists of a bottom board, a series of boxes containing frames, and a series of covers. Photos: (Middle): The Langstroth style hive is the most common in the United States. (Bottom): The colony generally lives in the bottom boxes and stores excess honey in the upper boxes of a Langstroth hive. Graphic illustration (Top): Layton Windust, Iowa State University Photo source (Middle and Bottom): © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com

S l i d e 3 2

Frames

Photos: (Top): The central portion of the frame encompassed by the wooden frame is called the foundation. (Middle): Honey bees create comb by using the foundation as a base, a process beekeepers call "drawing out". (Bottom): All hives must have removable frames to allow for inspection. Photo source (Top): © Peter Grima (Flickr: MALTESE HONEY) and licensed for reuse under Creative Commons License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/) via Wikimedia Commons Photo source (Middle): © nicephotog and licensed for reuse under Creative Commons License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by- sa/2.0/), via flickr. Photo source (Bottom): © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com

• All hives must have removable frames allowing for inspection

• Foundation – Central portion of frame

encompassed by wooden frame

– Flat piece of beeswax or plastic with outline of hexagonal cells embossed into it

• ‘Drawing out’ – Bees create comb using

foundation as a base



12

S l i d e 3 3

Beekeeping Tools

• Hive tool—pry bar – Pry open lid, separate

boxes, frames for removal during inspection

• Soft bee brush – Gently brush bees from

removed frame to allow examination of underlying brood

• Smoker – Move bees away from

areas to be examined, calm bees


Photos: (Top): Hive tools are used to safely separate frames so an individual frame can be removed and inspected without harming the bees. (Middle): A soft bee brush is used to gently brush bees away from a removed frame to allow for examination of underlying brood. (Bottom): A smoker is used to move bees away from areas to be examined and to calm the bees. Photo source: (Top): © Robert Engelhardt and licensed for reuse under Creative Commons License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/) via Wikimedia Commons Photo source (Middle): © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com Photo source (Bottom): CC0 Public Domain (https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en)

S l i d e 3 4

Protection

• May include – Coveralls secured at wrists,

leg hem – Gloves – Screened head cover with veil

• Recommend minimum of veil to protect head and face

• Occasional bee sting likely • Bee sting allergies

– Reaction can be severe, life-threatening

• Work calmly, carefully USDA-APHIS May 2018 Natio nal Veterinary Accreditatio n Pro gram Center fo r Fo o d Security and Public Health

• Protection worn by beekeepers variable • Some experienced beekeepers don’t wear any protective

equipment when handling their colonies • Recommended that at least head is covered to prevent stings to

eyes, other very sensitive areas • Honey bees not typically aggressive—occasional bee sting likely for

those who frequently work with bees, bee sting allergies do exist • Some people may have never been stung, unaware they have an

allergy • Work calmly, carefully and be observant of yourself, those around

you for protection of both you and honey bees

Photo: Protection worn by beekeepers is highly variable. Photo source: Kristen Obbink, Iowa State University

S l i d e 3 5

Honey Bee Hive Inspection


13

S l i d e 3 6

Hygiene

• Use only beekeeper’s equipment to

prevent transmission of disease • Beekeeper should provide smoker,

hive tool – Bring own protective gear

• Disposable nitrile gloves • Remove all wax, propolis, honey from

equipment, protective clothing, self • Remove propolis with denatured alcohol


• Disposable nitrile gloves—prevent most stings, can be discarded after use

• Regular washing of protective gear recommended

S l i d e 3 7

Inspecting the Records

• Provides clues regarding colony’s overall health, potential problems

• Encourage to keep notes in journal, calendar, computer applications

• Hive records include information to answer: – Age and source of colony, queen? – Is queen marked, been recently replaced? – Recent actions taken by beekeeper? – Changes in size, activity of hive? – Signs of pests, pathogens? – Beekeeper monitoring for pests, pathogens,

varroa mite? USDA-APHIS May 2018 Natio nal Veterinary Accreditatio n Pro gram Center fo r Fo o d Security and Public Health

• Review hive records for patterns or sudden changes • Keep notes in a journal, on a calendar, or in one of a number of

computer applications available • Records should answer the following questions:

• What is the age and source of colony and queen? • Is the queen marked, and has she been recently replaced? • What recent actions have been taken by the beekeeper

(treatments, adding equipment, removing honey, feeding)?

• Have there been changes in the size or activity of the hive?

• Are there signs of pests or pathogens? Is the beekeeper monitoring for pests and pathogens, including the varroa mite?

S l i d e 3 8

Examining the Hives

• Activity at hive entrance dependent on: – Colony size, temperature – Time of year, day – Available food resources

• Signs of disease, health issues outside colony: – Large numbers of dead bees in

front of hive – Bees crawling, trembling on landing

board, ground in front of hive – Bee hives with less activity

• Signs of robbing – Higher rate of activity at entrance, holes – Fighting bees – Presence of yellow jackets, other species


• Hive exam starts with external general evaluation • Variation naturally between hives, external factors can provide

clues to colony health • Healthy hive should have bees flying in and out of entrance in

good weather; most hives in apiary should have generally same level of activity

• Weak or sick colony can be robbed—where neighboring bees steal the resources

• Compare hive activity to other hives in same yard—keeping in mind lower activity does not necessarily indicate a problem

• Beekeeper may have information about colony status that would explain lower activity—recent requeening or split

• If no reason for hive to be weak, growing more slowly, hive should be examined for disease

Photo: A good hive exam starts with an external general evaluation. Photo source: Kristen Obbink, Iowa State University

S l i d e 3 9

Examining the Hives

• Work from back or sides when opening • Keep normal flight path clear • Note location, cluster size

– Estimated in “frames of bees” • Cluster generally fills boxes, similar for hives

managed same way • Small cluster

– May indicate health issue • Lack of well-defined cluster

– May indicate queenless colony, too much smoke used


• Working with highly experienced beekeeper: inexperienced veterinarian may wish to allow beekeeper to do all frame handling to avoid issues with damaged bees

• Veterinarian who has learned good bee handling skills may provide valuable service to new beekeeper by teaching those skills

• Bees continue coming and going while you work

• If someone standing in normal flight path at hive entrance, bees will back up outside hive and may become more defensive

• Cluster size—general size of the colony

• Frame counted if both sides are covered with bees


14

S l i d e 4 0

Examining the Hives

• Remove honey supers to access brood nest

• Healthy queen and colony – Presence of eggs, larvae,

capped brood • Color, consistency, pattern

of brood stages • Inspect cells: hold frame at

top bar, angle slightly • Inspect brood: hold frame

perpendicular to line of sight


• Must see into brood nest to identify if colony is healthy • Remove as many frames as necessary to get good assessment of

brood quality • Cells of comb are not flat from front to back, slope downward

toward foundation • Often necessary to view cells with sun over your shoulder or use

flashlight to see bottom of cells and view eggs

Graphic illustration: Cells are arranged within the comb with a downward slope toward the bottom of the cell. Graphic illustration by: © Adam Tofilski, www.honeybee.drawwing.org

S l i d e 4 1

Signs of Honey Bee Health

It is important to know what a healthy, normal colony looks like to be able to recognize abnormal colony states.

S l i d e 4 2

Adult Bee Health

• Adult bees uniform in size • Signs of disease in adult

bees include – Stunted growth – Shiny, hairless bodies – Deformed wings, wings held

out at odd angles – Weak, trembling behavior

• Workers highly active, moving throughout hive


Photo: Healthy adult bees should be uniform in size, highly active, and moving throughout the hive. Photo source: © Sarah Scott, USGS

http://www.honeybee.drawwing.org/


15

S l i d e 4 3

Brood Health

• Consistent in appearance, position on frame

• Brood around same age near each other – Rings radiating from center of frame

• Gaps, inconsistent appearance indicate disease, issues

• Normal eggs white, upright in cell – Abnormal positioning indicates queen

absent, workers laying drones • “Laying worker” condition

terminal if no intervention


• Generally queen lays eggs in concentric circles • Normal eggs attached to bottom center of cell • Abnormal positioning, including multiple eggs per cell and eggs

attached to sides of cells, may indicate queen is absent • Eggs may be difficult to see—lighting critical

• Some beekeepers use magnification, small flashlight to see eggs, very young larvae

Photo: Normal eggs are white in color and are attached upright to the bottom center of the cell with a ratio of one egg per cell. Photo source: © Piscisgate and licensed for reuse under Creative Commons License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/), via Wikimedia Commons

S l i d e 4 4

Brood Health

• Healthy larvae

– Pearly white – Plump, glistening – “C” shape in cell

• Healthy capped brood (pupae) – Soft, papery looking capping – Worker brood: cappings flat to

slightly raised – Drone brood: cappings raised,

bullet-shaped

• “Shotgun” patterns, heavy patchiness indicate brood problem


• When larvae first emerge from egg, they are about size of the egg, lie in pool of royal jelly

• Larva grows quickly, nearly filling bottom of cell before it is capped • Cappings can change from yellow to brown as they age and as

frame is reused • Capped brood pattern should be very consistent, many of same

age altogether, few spaces between cells • Small amount of patchiness (inconsistency) is acceptable

Photos: (Top): Healthy larvae are pearly white in color and form a "C" shape in the cell. (Bottom): Normal, healthy capped brood (pupae) should be consistent, with few spaces in between cells. Photo source: (Top): © Waugsberg and licensed for reuse under Creative Commons License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/) via Wikimedia Commons, (Bottom): CC0 Public Domain (https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en)

S l i d e 4 5

Nutritional Assessment

• Colony health strongly associated

with nutritional status – Function of amount, quality of

incoming pollen • ‘Bee bread’: Band of stored

pollen in arc above, to sides of brood – 1” arc, multiple colors optimal – Narrow arc, one color may

indicate food shortage • Should have excess stored nectar

and/or honey, pollen at all times


Photo: A healthy frame of brood with ample stored food. Capped honey is visible in the upper left of the photo, a band of stored pollen separates the honey from the larvae, and various ages of larvae and capped pupae are visible in the lower right of the photo. Photo source: Sarah Scott, USGS


16

S l i d e 4 6

Nutritional Assessment

• Most direct assessment of nutritional status—amount of brood food workers are placing around young larvae

• Well-fed larvae have ample royal jelly covering entire bottom of cell – Colonies likely in good health

• Under nutritional stress: bees forced to restrict amount of royal jelly being fed to developing larvae – Larval cells often exhibit dry

bottoms containing little to no jelly


Photos: The most direct assessment of nutritional status is to see how much brood food the workers are placing around young larvae. The top photo shows well-fed larvae while the bottom photo shows poorly-fed larvae. Photo source: (Top): © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com, (Bottom): © Alexander Wild www.alexanderwild.com

S l i d e 4 7

Queen Assessment

• Presence of healthy queen determined by identifying well-laid eggs

• Issue with queen if: – No eggs present – Cells contain multiple cells – Queen cells present

• Queen cells—peanut-shaped, perpendicular orientation – Issue with current queen – Queen killed, being replaced – Colony will soon swarm – May indicate nothing

• Queen cups present throughout year USDA-APHIS May 2018 Natio nal Veterinary Accreditatio n Pro gram Center fo r Fo o d Security and Public Health

• Not necessary to find queen to identify disease within colony • Queen cells immediately recognizable because of their size, point

towards earth (worker, drone brood lie horizontally/parallel to ground)

• Indicate nothing: sometimes bees make them, later tear them down

• Queen cups: wax bowls facing down, without brood—not same as queen cells

• Serve as base for queen cells

Photo: Queen cells are immediately recognizable and may indicate a problem with the current queen or nothing at all. Photo source: © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com

S l i d e 4 8

Honey Bee Diseases and Conditions

• Honey bees can be host to variety of bacterial, viral, fungal, and microsporidial diseases

• Two honey bee diseases are commonly treated with medically important antibiotics and require veterinary oversight:

• American foulbrood (AFB); and • European foulbrood (EFB).

• Helpful for veterinarians to have basic understanding of common honey bee diseases and to recognize them, even if antibiotics are not indicated

• Important to keep in mind that colony can have multiple diseases at a time, so identification of key clinical signs is vital

• Important to identify how heavily infected a colony is and if condition is worsening or improving

• To record disease severity, record percentage of brood demonstrating signs of disease

http://www.alexanderwild.com/


17

S l i d e 4 9

Introduction

• Honey bees play vital role in U.S. agriculture • Honey bees are food producing animal

–Beekeepers must obtain VFD or prescription

• January 2017: water-soluble, medically important antimicrobials require prescription, VFD

• FDA requires veterinarians issue all VFDs in context of VCPR

• Antimicrobial resistance serious threat –Judicious antimicrobial use critical to slow emergence, spread


• Antimicrobial resistance—serious threat to One Health, impacting human, animal, environmental health

• January 1, 2017: all water-soluble, medically important (antimicrobials medically important to treat human illness) administered to food-producing animals in drinking water require veterinary prescription; all medically important antimicrobials administered to food producing animals through feed require veterinary feed directive (VFD)

• Honey bees (Apis mellifera)—vital role in U.S. agriculture, security of food supply

• Hive products (honey) are consumed—U.S. FDA classifies honey bees as food-producing animals

• Beekeepers must obtain VFD, prescription from licensed veterinarian for use of medically important antimicrobials in their bees via feed or water

• Veterinarians being asked to visit apiaries, examine hives for signs of disease, authorize appropriate therapy

• Module intended to • Provide AVs with basic knowledge of honey bee biology,

beekeeping • Information about relevant honey bee diseases and

conditions, to foster communication with beekeepers, ensure stewardship of antimicrobial use in honey bees

• Module focuses on role of veterinarians related to antimicrobial use, issuance of prescriptions and VFDs in honey bees

• Veterinarians offer valuable services to beekeepers: • Assisting hobbyists with plans for parasite

management • Assisting commercial beekeepers with

development of protocols to be followed by staff for disease detection, control

S l i d e 5 0

Overview

• Recognize, diagnose, authorize treatments • Understand, fulfill role as an AV employing

judicious use of antimicrobials in honey bees

The following information is available on the Web version of the Honeybee module:

• Describe U.S. honey bee industry, importance of honey bee pollination

• Describe current pollinator threats, mitigation strategies

• Communicate effectively with beekeepers


After completion of this module, you will be able to • Recognize, diagnose, and authorize appropriate treatments for

relevant honey bee diseases; and • Understand and fulfill your role as an AV employing the judicious

use of antimicrobials in honey bees through the issuance of prescriptions and VFDs.

• Describe the U.S. honey bee industry and the importance of honey bee pollination to the U.S. food supply;

• Describe current pollinator threats and mitigation strategies; • Communicate effectively with beekeepers regarding honey bee

biology and beekeeping basics; * • *these three bullets are available in the Web version of

the module but are not covered in this PPT


18

S l i d e 5 1

Bacterial Diseases: American and European Foulbrood

• Two significant bacterial diseases—may require veterinary intervention

• Worldwide distribution, commonly treated with antibiotics

• “Foulbrood” – Foul smell arising from decay of infected brood

• AFB, EFB not closely related • Two known bacterial infections result in

beekeepers using medically important antibiotics – Require antibiotic order from veterinarian


S l i d e 5 2

American Foulbrood

• American foulbrood is a reportable disease in some States. • Make sure you are aware of the regulations for AFB in your State. • Check with your State Department of Agriculture before you

begin working with beekeepers.

S l i d e 5 3

American Foulbrood

• Paenibacillus larvae – Spore-forming, Gram-negative bacteria

infects larvae

• Vegetative, infective state susceptible to oxytetracycline, lincomycin, tylosin

• Spores formed by bacterium: – Not affected by antibiotics – Resistant to temperature changes, chemicals – Can live in honey, persist in environment for years


• FDA-approved applications containing oxytetracycline, lincomycin, tylosin can be found on FDA’s website (https://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/DevelopmentApprovalPro cess/ucm589399.htm)

http://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/DevelopmentApprovalPro


19

S l i d e 5 4

AFB—Physical Examination Findings

• Shotgun brood pattern

– First sign consistently observed with disease affecting brood

– Brood dying before capped • Perforated caps

– Sunken, discolored caps – Dark, greasy as they liquefy

• Distinctive foul odor


• Not all signs need to be present to identify AFB; some signs overlap with other diseases

• Examination findings may include the following: • Shotgun brood pattern: The first sign consistently

observed with any disease affecting the brood is a spotty (or “shotgun”) pattern of the brood cells. This is indicative of brood disease but it is not pathognomonic for foulbrood.

• Perforated caps: Perforated caps can be distinguished from incomplete caps (where the bees are in the process of capping over larvae for normal development) by appearance and location of the hole. Healthy, incomplete caps have a clean-edged, central defect that will be filled if inspected again later by worker bees, while perforations have irregular edges and may or may not be centrally located.

• Foul odor: AFB odor is distinctive—something between decomposing bees and old gym socks. EFB is either odorless or produces a sour milk-like smell. Other unidentified diseases can have strong smells, but none are the same as AFB. Experienced beekeeper can easily smell AFB a few feet away from colony entrance. A colony with small infection may not have noticeable odor. Dogs have been trained to detect the odor.

Photos: (Upper left): A "shotgun" brood pattern typical of AFB. This frame came from a colony with advanced disease. (Upper right): Brood infected with AFB demonstrating apparent propupal segments and melted appearance along the cell wall. (Lower left): Typical AFB infection. Note the black, raised scales lining the bottom wall of several cells, as well as the sunken, perforated caps. (Lower right): A deceased pupae demonstrating the pupal tongue characteristic of infection with AFB. Photo source: (Upper left, upper right, lower left): © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com, (Lower right): The Management Agency, National American Foulbrood Pest Management Plan, New Zealand


20

S l i d e 5 5

AFB—Physical Examination Findings

• Larval scale – Infected larvae die, melt

flat against bottom wall of cell

– Can form a visible scale as they dry

• Pupal tongues – Developing proboscis

exposed – Presence characteristic of

AFB


• Not all signs need to be present to identify AFB, some signs overlap with other diseases

• Examination findings may include the following: • Larval scale: Larvae melt flat against bottom wall of cell

(towards the ground). Scale visible at the bottom of the cells. Other diseases, such as EFB, form scales, but AFB scales are much harder to dislodge. Removal of AFB scales often results in damage to or destruction of the honey comb. To inspect for signs of AFB scale, hold the frame horizontally so you can see the bottom of the cells. Make sure you have good lighting. Positioning yourself so sun is over your shoulder makes it easier to see into cells.

• Pupal tongues: AFB kills young bees at a specific developmental stage, and they sometimes die in a characteristic manner with the developing proboscis (a straw-like tongue used for sucking liquids and tasting) exposed, referred to as a “pupal tongue”. Presence is characteristic of AFB, but absence does not rule out the disease.

Photos: (Upper left): A "shotgun" brood pattern typical of AFB. This frame came from a colony with advanced disease. (Upper right): Brood infected with AFB demonstrating apparent propupal segments and melted appearance along the cell wall. (Lower left): Typical AFB infection. Note the black, raised scales lining the bottom wall of several cells, as well as the sunken, perforated caps. (Lower right): A deceased pupae demonstrating the pupal tongue characteristic of infection with AFB. Photo source: (Upper left, upper right, lower left): © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com, (Lower right): The Management Agency, National American Foulbrood Pest Management Plan, New Zealand

S l i d e 5 6

AFB—Field Tests

• Matchstick/rope test – Positive rope test

pathognomonic for AFB – Insert matchstick into

cell with discolored, oozing cell cap and slowly pull out

– Decaying products form viscous string, rope out 2 cm or more—positive


• Negative rope test does not rule out AFB because larvae must be in an appropriate stage of decay in order for test to be positive

• Other diseased larvae may look similar—only rope slightly, removed as blob—will not string to 2 cm

Photos: (Top): Typical AFB "rope" being drawn out with a pine needle. Note the viscosity of the ropey pupae, as well as the distinctive caramel color. (Middle): Positive match stick test, indicating AFB infection. Note the length of the rope from the frame to the matchstick, which is >2 cm. (Bottom): Results of the Holst Milk Test from an AFB-infected comb. Photo source (all): © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com


21

S l i d e 5 7

AFB—Field Tests

• Holst milk test – Two test tubes filled with

highly diluted milk – Add scale or infected

larvae to one tube – Incubate tubes,

occasionally stirring – Diseased tube changes to

transparent, brownish fluid—suggestive of AFB


• Holst milk test: • Two test tubes filled with small amount of highly diluted

milk—powdered milk will work but easier to dilute liquid milk

• Add scale, infected larvae or contents from rope test removed from affected cell to one of the tubes—other tube used as a control

• Incubate both tubes in pocket or warm cup of water for 10–20 minutes

• AFB if opaque milky fluid in diseased tube changes to transparent, brownish fluid

• Negative test does not rule out AFB—larvae must be in appropriate stage of decay for positive result

Photos: (Top): Typical AFB "rope" being drawn out with a pine needle. Note the viscosity of the ropey pupae, as well as the distinctive caramel color. (Middle): Positive match stick test, indicating AFB infection. Note the length of the rope from the frame to the matchstick, which is >2 cm. (Bottom): Results of the Holst Milk Test from an AFB-infected comb. Photo source (all): © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com

S l i d e 5 8

AFB—Field Tests

• Field ELISA test

– Commercial field test from Vita Europe

– False negative results possible— diagnosis made based on combination of physical examination findings, tests


• Field ELISA test available in United States from most bee supply companies

• Veterinarian can carry kits onto field


22

S l i d e 5 9

AFB—Laboratory Testing and Reporting

• Samples sent to USDA-ARS laboratory • Brood samples collected, packaged as follows

– Comb sample at least 2x2 inches, contain as much dead, discolored brood as possible • NO HONEY PRESENT IN SAMPLE

– Sent in paper bag or loosely wrapped in paper towel, newspaper, sent in heavy cardboard box

– If comb cannot be sent—probe can be wrapped in paper, sent to lab in envelope

• Provide accurate national incidence data


• USDA-Agricultural Research Service laboratory in Beltsville, Maryland (https://www.ars.usda.gov/northeast-area/beltsville- md-barc/beltsville-agricultural-research-center/bee-research- laboratory/docs/bee-disease-diagnosis-service/)

• Loosely wrapped in paper towel, newspaper, etc. • AVOID wrappings such as plastic, aluminum foil, waxed

paper, tin, glass, etc. • Probe used to examine a diseased larva in the cell may contain

enough materials for tests • Even if certain of your diagnosis for AFB and you are practicing in a

state without mandatory reporting requirement, important to provide accurate national incidence data

• Submitted samples often tested for additional characteristics (antibiotic susceptibility patterns) which are tracked across nation

• USDA-ARS website for more details on specimen submission • https://www.ars.usda.gov/northeast-area/beltsville-md-

barc/beltsville-agricultural-research-center/bee-research- laboratory/docs/how-to-submit-samples/

S l i d e 6 0

AFB—Treatment

• Three types of antibiotics FDA approved – Oxytetracycline – Tylosin – Lincomycin

• Oxytetracycline-resistant strains exist • Antibiotics not effective against spores, use

not sufficient against active infection – Requires further action to prevent reinfection by

spores remaining on hive equipment • Control methods implemented if even a single

infected cell is identified


• FDA approved applications containing these drugs can be found on the FDA’s website (https://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/DevelopmentApprovalPro cess/ucm589399.htm)

• Resistance can be identified by national laboratories • Antibiotic therapy can be used to control existing infections so

they don’t worsen and spread; further action must be taken • Carefully inspect all other colonies in apiary, being extra cautious

to not spread the disease • Recommended preventive measures:

• Cleaning hive tool, smoker bellows between hives • Wearing new disposable gloves for each hive

http://www.ars.usda.gov/northeast-area/beltsville-

http://www.ars.usda.gov/northeast-area/beltsville-md-



23

S l i d e 6 1

AFB—Treatment

• Be familiar, comply with State’s regulations

regarding hive abatement for AFB control • Most common method: burning hive • Sterilization options for infected equipment:

– Gamma irradiation – Scorching interiors of equipment – Boiling in lye bath

• May be necessary to depopulate bees, place hive boxes in bags, transport to be burned

• Consult State Apiarist to ensure compliance with State regulations


• Many states require colony diagnosed with AFB be abated immediately

• Even if burning hive not required in your state, recommended because it can fully halt infection, prevent spread of spores

• Areas that do not allow burning, or where it would be imprudent to burn a hive—depopulate bees, place hive boxes in bags and transport them to where they can be burned

• Polystyrene, plastic frames may pose environmental risks when burned, deep burial or irradiation may be indicated

• Legality of different hive destruction methods varies by State • Veterinarians should contact their State Apiarist and other

appropriate authorities to ensure compliance with State regulations regarding hive destruction for AFB control.

http://www.apimondia.com/apiacta/articles/2005/baggio_1.pdf

S l i d e 6 2

AFB—Treatment

• Hive entrances reduced, cracks,

holes, sealed • Depopulation performed during

periods of low bee activity – Ensures highest level of efficacy

• Diesel fuel application – Sprinkled over entire cluster of bees – Lid replaced firmly—bees do not escape – Fuel only used to kill bees—not fire

accelerant • Practice fire safety if colony is to be

burned


• Hive sealed during periods of low bee activity (nighttime, rain, colder temperatures, very early in morning)

• Bees depopulated prior to burning hive using methods in compliance with all regulatory requirements

• Diesel fuel application • May be necessary to split boxes and apply diesel fuel to

lower chambers, depending on where cluster is located • Do not apply excessive amounts of diesel fuel to hive • Beeswax is extremely flammable, already sufficient wax in

combs to fuel the fire if colony is later burned • After minimum of 10 minutes, check to see if adult bees

immobilized—if not, repeat process, add sufficient diesel fuel to wet remaining adult bees

• Practice fire safety • Call utilities before digging a pit in which to place, burn

the hive(s) • Consider calling local fire department to notify them of

planned burn, obtain burn permit • Do not burn near building, vehicles,

flammable/combustible materials • Do not burn on windy day • Must cover all ashes completely with soil

• Check with State Apiarist to ensure proper destruction and site management, be sure to comply with all State, local ordinances

Photo: Because of the severity of AFB, some States require infected colonies to be burned and buried. Photo source: © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com

http://www.apimondia.com/apiacta/articles/2005/baggio_1.pdf


24

S l i d e 6 3

European Foulbrood

S l i d e 6 4

European Foulbrood

• Melissococcus pluton – Non-spore forming, Gram-negative bacteria – Infection associated with variety of bacterial strains

• Only affects honey bee larval stage – More contagious than AFB

• Affects stressed colonies – May resolve spontaneously if stress reduced,

health improved • Shifted pathogenicity in United States

– No longer spontaneously clears with arrival of good nectar flow

– Infection likely to persist in hive USDA-APHIS May 2018 Natio nal Veterinary Accreditatio n Pro gram Center fo r Fo o d Security and Public Health

• Less severe than AFB but can still cause devastating brood loss

S l i d e 6 5

EFB—Physical Examination Findings

• Spotty brood pattern – As larvae perish, healthy

brood pattern disrupted

• Larval discoloration – Death of larvae typically

within 4–5 days – Larvae turn yellow or gray – Trachea apparent


• Not all signs need to be present to identify EFB; some signs can overlap with other diseases

• Spotty brood pattern: Similar to AFB and other brood diseases, brood infected with EFB will exhibit spotty brood pattern as larvae perish and healthy pattern of brood is disrupted

• Larval discoloration: EFB infection typically occurs in early larval stages, and larvae typically die within 4–5 days. EFB-affected larvae exhibit discoloration (turn yellow or gray) and lose their normal, glistening appearance. The trachea of developing larvae often become apparent, looking like an internal skeleton of the larvae. EFB often found with a variety of other bacteria; common to see twisted, yellow, and gray larvae together in same frame. Drone brood may be first to show signs of EFB, so make sure to inspect drone larvae if present.

Photos: (Top): A brood comb badly infected with EFB. Note the discoloration of the larvae, as well as their twisted shape in contrast to healthy larvae which forms a flat C-shape at the cell bottom. (Middle): A brood frame from a colony heavily infected with EFB. Note


25

the bright yellow liquid surrounding the larvae. Note also the visible trachea in the larvae in the lower right of the photograph. (Bottom): A brood frame from a colony heavily infected with EFB. Note the twisted larvae, discoloration, and yellow infected brood food. Photo source (all): © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com

S l i d e 6 6

EFB—Physical Examination Findings

• Larval deformation

– Twisted, corkscrew position

– Melted appearance – Malnourished, deflated

• Yellow brood food – Healthy brood food pearly

white


• Not all signs need to be present to identify EFB, some signs can overlap with other diseases

• Larval deformation: Infected larvae often assume a twisted or corkscrew position as they die. Sometimes the larvae have a melted appearance as they die and decay or may look deflated or malnourished when infected.

• Yellow brood food: The royal jelly/brood food mix surrounding healthy larvae should be pearly white. In EFB colonies, one of the first signs of infection is often a yellowing of the food.

Photos: (Top): A brood comb badly infected with EFB. Note the discoloration of the larvae, as well as their twisted shape in contrast to healthy larvae which forms a flat C-shape at the cell bottom. (Middle): A brood frame from a colony heavily infected with EFB. Note the bright yellow liquid surrounding the larvae. Note also the visible trachea in the larvae in the lower right of the photograph. (Bottom): A brood frame from a colony heavily infected with EFB. Note the twisted larvae, discoloration, and yellow infected brood food. Photo source (all): © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com


26

S l i d e 6 7

EFB—Testing

• Commercial field test

– Vita Europe

• EFB shares visual similarities with AFB – EFB among differential diagnoses

• Use appropriate test for disease being tested

• Laboratory testing – USDA-ARS – Same instructions as AFB

submissions USDA-APHIS May 2018 Natio nal Veterinary Accreditatio n Pro gram Center fo r Fo o d Security and Public Health

• EFB among differential diagnoses when signs of AFB and/or EFB are observed; characteristic tests for AFB are negative

• Commercial field test for AFB, EFB from Vita Europe in almost identical packages

• Can differentiate them by the stickers added to package and to back of testing slide

Photo: The commercial field tests for AFB and EFB from Vita Europe are in nearly identical packages. Make sure to use the appropriate test for the disease being tested. Photo source: Christopher J Cripps, DVM, Betterbee https://www.vita-europe.com/beehealth/products/efb- diagnostic-test-kit/

S l i d e 6 8

EFB—Treatment

• Oxytetracycline, tylosin used to control

– Oxytetracycline only FDA approved drug for EFB

• EFB may resolve without therapy – Stress reduction—feeding, requeening colony – No spore form—equipment destruction not required

• Employ watchful waiting if infection not severe – Remove, replace frames, antibiotics if severe infection

• Extralabel drug use of water soluble tylosin, lincomycin allowed with prescription


• Many beekeepers believe tylosin not effective, choose to use oxytetracycline

• Watchful waiting—infected frames marked, colony re-inspected in approximately one week to determine if infection spreading, improving

• EFB has no spore form—frame, equipment destruction not required

• Can be reused following several months of storage or sterilization with bleach solution

• Water soluble forms of oxytetracycline, tylosin, lincomycin approved for use in honey bees by prescription

• Tylosin, lincomycin only approved for treatment of AFB • ELDU of water soluble tylosin, lincomycin allowed with

prescription under ELDU regulations • AMDUCA, 21 CFR Part 530—statute and regulation

• https://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/Guidanc eComplianceEnforcement/ActsRulesRegulations/ ucm085377.htm; https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi- bin/text- idx?SID=ca9ba8fd2928f4a3b998535095e897d9& mc=true&node=pt21.6.530&rgn=div5

• Valid VCPR required when writing prescription for ELDU

http://www.vita-europe.com/beehealth/products/efb-

http://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/Guidanc

http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-


27

S l i d e 6 9

EFB—Treatment

• VFD orders do not allow for legal ELDU • Oxytetracycline only drug available by VFD • Valid VCPR, preliminary diagnosis of AFB,

EFB necessary for use of VFD • Decision to issue VFD at discretion of

issuing veterinarian • FDA expects all use of oxytetracycline in

honey bees for controlling progression of foulbrood disease


• VFD orders must expire within 6 months of issue—veterinarian may specify shorter expiration date

• At least a preliminary diagnosis of AFB, EFB needed prior to initiating treatment

• FDA does not require laboratory diagnosis to use a VFD feed • Once veterinarian determines that AFB or EFB infection exists

within colony or group of colonies, whether or not clinical signs appear yet, may write a VFD order to authorize use of oxytetracycline

S l i d e 7 0

Veterinarian-Client- Patient Relationship

The definition of a valid VCPR varies by state. The FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine has examined the definition of VCPR in each state and has ruled whether you should follow the State guidelines for VCPR or the Federal guidelines when issuing a VFD. Veterinarians should consult the FDA listing of VCPR requirements by State to determine which definition of a valid VCPR they should follow in each state.

• https://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/DevelopmentApp rovalProcess/ucm460406.htm

S l i d e 7 1

Veterinarian-Client-Patient Relationship

• Veterinarian must physically visit apiary – VCPR cannot be formed by remote

inspection with photographs, videos

• Veterinarian must be licensed, practicing in accordance with requirements

• Issue VFD at “permanent location” – May move bees to another State

within expiration date of VFD

• One distributor to fill out entire order • Records kept of dates, drug, dosage,

withholding time, identity of treated hives


• Veterinarian licensed, practicing in accordance with State licensing, practice requirements applicable to an animal’s permanent location

• Beekeepers tend to move bees between states regularly, knowledge of regulations between states important

• VCPR in each state through which bees are moved is not necessary while operating under the terms of that lawful VFD order

• If VFD order expires, or additional therapy needed while bees are in a State other than their permanent locations, new VFD must be written under valid VCPR by veterinarian with authority to practice in that state

• Distributor to which veterinarian, client submit VFD order only distributor filling out entire order

• Special circumstances (if beekeeper unable to receive shipment from his or her original distributor when bees in transit for pollination services); may be a need for two distributors to fill entire order

http://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/DevelopmentApp


28

• Client, distributors keep records documenting situation so it is clear the animals received only the medicated feed authorized by VFD order

• With a valid VCPR and proper staff training, veterinarian could authorize an antibiotic to be used when beekeeper’s staff recognizes AFB, EFB

Photo: For a valid VCPR, the veterinarian must physically visit an apiary when establishing a VCPR. Photo source: © Topp-digital-Foto and licensed for reuse under CC0 Public Domain (https://pixabay.com/en/service/terms/#usage) via Pixabay

S l i d e 7 2

Veterinarian-Client-Patient Relationship

• State Apiarists, State Bee Inspectors play important role in diagnosis, regulation – Provide information about diagnosis to veterinarian

issuing VFD • 21 CFR §530.3(i)(2)

– Valid VCPR requires “sufficient knowledge of the animal(s) by the veterinarian to initiate at least a general or preliminary diagnosis of the medical condition of the animal(s).”

• Only veterinarian can authorize use of VFD medicated feed – Beekeeper must be in possession of VFD


• For applications in VFD marketing status (https://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/DevelopmentApprovalPro cess/ucm589399.htm), FDA regulations do not prohibit a State Apiarist, State Bee Inspector from submitting a diagnosis/request for product directly to a veterinarian

• Distributor of VFD medicated feed will need to receive a lawful VFD order form veterinarian who has VCPR with client, honey bees

• For applications in Rx marketing status (https://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/DevelopmentApprovalPro cess/ucm589399.htm), State practice acts generally require VCPR for a veterinarian to write lawful prescription—see your State practice act to determine requirements for your state

• If provided to veterinarian, diagnosis of foulbrood by State Apiarist, State Bee Inspector with regulatory authority to make a diagnosis may be one way to assist licensed veterinarian in gaining sufficient knowledge of medical condition of honey bees on particular premises

• Only veterinarian can authorize use of VFD medicated feed in honey bees; VFD must be written for client who is owner, caretaker of the bees

• Beekeeper required to be in possession of VFD in order to feed VFD medicated feed to honey bees

https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text- idx?SID=ca9ba8fd2928f4a3b998535095e897d9&mc=true&node=pt21. 6.530&rgn=div5#se21.6.530_13



http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-


29

S l i d e 7 3

Bee Hive Identification

• Modular structures—individual organisms make up super organism

• Parts of one hive removed, added to another hive – Disease spreads easily

• Some States require beekeepers mark hives – Individual identification not typical

• Individually identified by painting numbers, names on boxes, livestock eartags

• Apiary identified by 911 address, GPS coordinates


Photo: An apiary may be identified by its 911 address or GPS coordinates. Photo source: © (WT-shared) 2old at wts wikivoyage and licensed for reuse under Creative Commons License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/), via Wikimedia Commons

S l i d e 7 4

Antibiotic Usage Guidelines

• Oxytetracycline

– Mixed with powdered sugar, applied to top of frames – Dusting of uncapped brood cells reported to cause

death of larval honey bees

• Extender patties – Allows antibiotics to be present in colony longer – Increases risk of honey contamination, potential for

resistance development

• Off label, extralabel use of medicated feeds not permitted – FDA CPG 615.115


• For control of EFB, AFB—oxytetracycline can be mixed with powdered sugar, according to labeled instructions, applied to top of frames of brood nest following dosage, timing on label

• Do not dust uncapped brood cells • Oxytetracycline can degrade rapidly when used in sugar syrup—

fresh syrup solution prepared daily • Extender patties (mix of vegetable oil, sugar, antibiotics) can be

used as medicated feed to administer oxytetracycline • Off label or extralabel use of medicated feed products, including

VFD products, is not permitted • FDA Compliance Policy Guide (CPG) 615.115—allows FDA

to exercise regulatory discretion for extralabel use of medicated feed in minor species, including VFD feed, in certain circumstances; however, its applicability to honey bees is extremely limited as there are no similar animal species for which medicated feeds are approved that could be used per the CPG in honey bees (https://www.fda.gov/ucm/groups/fdagov- public/@fdagov-afda- ice/documents/webcontent/ucm074659.pdf)

http://www.fda.gov/ucm/groups/fdagov-


30

S l i d e 7 5

Antibiotic Usage Guidelines

• If indicated—antibiotics fed early in spring or fall, consumed before main honey flow

• Oxytetracycline removed at least 6 weeks prior to main honey flow

• Tylosin used in fall, not in spring – Potential residues in honey

• Stored honey during medication periods removed following final medication – Not used for human food

• Do not use honey in manner contrary to State apiary laws, regulations


• Antibiotics should be consumed by bees before main honey flow begins to avoid contamination of production honey

• Tylosin can only be used according to directions as a powdered sugar mixture immediately after mixing

• Honey from colonies likely infected with foulbrood should not be used for feeding other colonies—may be contaminated with spores of foulbrood, may spread disease

• Each state has specific regulations relative to disease control, medications

• Contact appropriate official, State departments of agriculture for specific intra, interstate laws, regulations

S l i d e 7 6

Diseases That Look Similar to European and

American Foulbrood

• Currently do not know the etiologic agents for every disease that affects honey bees

• Some issues affecting bees cannot be clearly identified • Two brood diseases may present similarly to EFB and AFB but may

not require antibiotics: • Idiopathic brood disease (IBD) • Parasitic mite syndrome (PMS)

• Specific etiologic agents of these two diseases remain unknown, although thought that they are caused by multiple viruses and could be found in the presence of secondary bacterial infections

S l i d e 7 7

Idiopathic Brood Disease

• Prevalent brood syndrome

– Appears similar to AFB, EFB, PMS • Often referred to as “snot brood”,

“atypical EFB” • Colonies with IBD display host of

signs that overlap with AFB, EFB



31

S l i d e 7 8

IBD—Physical Examination Findings

• Larval deformation – Older larvae can die in twisted,

melted-type appearance – Appear white, gummy and can turn dark

gray, form loose scale (larger, looser than AFB scales)

• Perforated/sunken cappings – Cappings oozing with dark liquid, indicate

dead pupae, prepupae underneath


• While AFB, EFB typically infect only certain stages of development, and bees die in peculiar fashion, brood frames from colony infected with IBD will have wide range of signs

S l i d e 7 9

IBD—Diagnosis

• Pupal cappings similar to AFB • Pupal tongue not present • IBD will not rope out with matchstick test

– Dead pupae come out in clump • Some IBD samples sent to USDA lab do

receive positive EFB diagnosis, many do not – Co-infection possible, not necessarily related

to EFB • Mite check performed to rule out PMS • No definitive field, lab diagnostic test for IBD


• Pupal cappings often perforated or sunken, larvae can darken to brown color similar to AFB

• When matchstick test performed, may rope slightly but not nearly the 2 cm as with AFB

• IBD generally associated with colonies with low levels of mites

S l i d e 8 0

IBD—Treatment

• Many beekeepers report improvement after course of antibiotics— oxytetracycline, tylosin – Some report no improvement with antibiotics or

that signs spontaneously clear

• Association of IBD with exposure to some insecticides (fungicides)

• Removal of diseased frames, breaking brood cycle, requeening useful in clearing up infection


• Breaking brood cycle—using various methods to prevent the queen from laying eggs for several weeks


32

S l i d e 8 1

Varroa Mites

• Varroa destructor: ectoparasites with worldwide distribution – Number one killer of

honey bees

• Mites feed on bees— puncture exoskeleton – Research suggest mites

consume hemolymph and/or fat bodies of bees


• Varroa mites reported in United States since 1987 • Beekeepers identified varroa mites as single most serious problem

causing colony losses today • Understanding what exactly mites consume is an active area of

research • Hemolymph—a fluid in arthropods analogous to the

blood in vertebrates • Fat bodies in insects integral in energy, protein

metabolism and storage, detoxification

Photo: The varroa mite (Varroa destructor) is the number one killer of honey bees. Photo source: © USDA ARS and licensed for reuse under Creative Commons License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/), via Wikimedia Commons

S l i d e 8 2

Varroa Mites

• Mites can cause larval,

pupal death and can transmit: – Deformed wing virus,

acute bee paralysis virus – Israeli acute paralysis

virus, slow bee paralysis virus

– Other pathogens


• Mites target larvae about to be capped, move to bottom of cell, feed on larvae once cell is capped

• Foundress (adult female) mite entering cell has already mated, lays a male and several female eggs

• Mites mate inside cell and mature • Once bee emerges from cell, carries mated female mites • Number of mites maturing on brood is greater in drone

brood than worker brood due to extra 3 days available for maturation

• Affected larvae may spiral up cell, eventually curling around opening of cell in half-moon shape

Photo: The varroa mite (Varroa destructor) is the number one killer of honey bees. Photo source: © USDA ARS and licensed for reuse under Creative Commons License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/), via Wikimedia Commons

S l i d e 8 3

Parasitic Mite Syndrome

• Associated with viruses transmitted by

varroa mite • Severely mite-infested colony: bees may

express PMS • Most commonly seen in late season in

colonies where mites not actively managed • Deformed wing virus (DWV)

– One of the major pathogens causing disease in PMS



33

S l i d e 8 4


• Chewed pupae, melted larvae

– Spotty brood pattern, brown, black spots as decay begins

• Bees dying on cell emergence – May look fully formed in cells with proboscises

sticking out

• Guanine deposits – Appear like grains of course salt stuck to sides of

cells


• Because varroa mites carry multiple viruses and because a stressed colony can experience secondary infections, PMS may present with a variety of signs

• Bees dying on emergence: bees infected with PMS die at many stages, including one disease where they die when they are almost fully formed trying to exit from their cells

• Guanine deposits: To view, hold frame horizontal as you would to view AFB scales

S l i d e 8 5



• Photos: (left): Typical PMS due to a high level of varroa infestation. Note the partially chewed-out pupae and the larvae that appear similar to EFB or AFB, along with a few cells where a pupa has been recently uncapped. (right): Varroa fecal deposits (guanine) are visible as small white specks on the sides of the cells. Frame is held with the bottom bar towards the viewer.

S l i d e 8 6


• Deformed wings

– Young bees moving on frames, crawling outside of hive

• Visible varroa mites – May not be observed—mites underneath cappings,

underside of bees

• Collapsing cluster size/absconding – Beekeeper reports colony was full of bees, upper hive

body full of honey, bees now have disappeared


• Deformed wings: Often young bees will be present, exhibiting wrinkled, deformed wings. They may be seen moving on the frames or crawling outside of the hive. You may not see any bees with deformed wings, as they often abandon the hive or are removed.

• Visible varroa mites: Mites visible with naked eye but may not be observed on inspection. Generally, varroa mites on adult bees are only observed when an infestation is very advanced.

• Collapsing/absconding: Typical for a colony heavily infested with varroa to abscond or for the colony to get much smaller. Telltale signs of the cause are the dead un-emerged adults with their proboscises out (they will have deformed wings) and the white


34

mite fecal deposits on the cell ceilings. Generally, beekeeper will not have records of mite counts from monitoring.

S l i d e 8 7


• (Left): Bees exhibiting signs of deformed wing virus. One bee in the upper left part of the photo has characteristic deformed wings and a stunted body. Five other bees with deformed wings are visible around the edge of the photo. (Right): Two mites are visible on the abdomen of this newly emerged bee. Photo source (all): © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com

S l i d e 8 8

PMS—Treatment

• Only prevented, controlled by managing populations of varroa mites

• May not be possible to save colony depending on time of year, location

• Warmer climates: can sometimes have colony rebound with treatment, feeding

• Colonies exhibiting PMS before winter rarely survive

• Recommended to treat infested colonies to kill mites, prevent spread


S l i d e 8 9

Management of Varroa Mites

• Mites found in every hive, most devastating parasites of bees in U. S.

• Must have management strategy in place • Know about life cycle, monitoring methods,

control points, treatment methods • Small scale beekeepers should practice IPM

– Actively monitoring mite populations, employing multiple physical, mechanical, chemical controls

• Commercial beekeepers – Manage through repeated applications of

chemical miticides


• Most devastating parasites of bees found in United States because of their ability to vector other disease agents

• Beekeepers must have strategy in place to manage varroa mite; those that do not will experience high mortality of their hives, can transmit disease to nearby colonies

• Mite-associated disease remains one of the leading causes of honey bee death, especially among hobby, small scale beekeepers

• More information: • Honey Bee Health Coalition: Tools for Varroa Mite

Management (https://honeybeehealthcoalition.org/varroa/)

• Michigan State University—Michigan Pollinator Initiatives: Varroa Resources (https://pollinators.msu.edu/resources/beekeepers/varro a/)

• Integrated pest management (IPM)

S l i d e 9 0

Honey Bee Viruses and other Diseases

• Honey bees susceptible to a number of viruses • Historically, viruses were not large concern for beekeepers;

however, with introduction of varroa mites to the United States, number of known and recognized viruses affecting honey bees has grown tremendously


35

S l i d e 9 1

Paralytic Viruses

• Can cause: – Shivering wings – Darkened, hairless

abdomens, thoraxes – Can progress to paralysis, death

• Chronic bee paralysis virus

exhibits as two forms: - Hairless black syndrome: infected adults tremble, groomed

clean of setae, wing edges ragged from biting - Other form: dying bees drop to bottom board, look like

pesticide kill


• Paralytic viruses include: • Israeli acute paralysis virus • Slow bee paralysis virus • Chronic bee paralysis virus • Acute bee paralysis virus

• Setae—body hairs

Photo: A bee exhibiting signs of chronic bee paralysis virus. Note the hairless or "greasy" appearance of the body of the bee with hair remaining on the head. Photo source: © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com

S l i d e 9 2

The Sacbrood Virus

• Attacks larvae – Shrunken head appearance – Failure to pupate

• Larvae observed on floor of cell with discolored, blackened heads angled upward

• Obvious fluid sac when larvae pulled out of cell

• Viral infection spontaneously resolves—no significant colony setback

• Requeening possible in severe infestations


Photo: Typical Sacbrood infection with propupae dying with upraised, shrunken heads. Photo source: © Rob Snyder, Bee Informed Partnership

S l i d e 9 3

Microsporidial Diseases: Nosema Infections

• Spores spread by feeding, fecal-oral transmission

• Signs of Nosema disease: – Bees wandering on ground outside

of colony – “K-wing” – Yellow, orange, brown fecal

staining on front of hive – Poor bee growth – Death

• Diagnosis must be confirmed by simple microscopy

• Currently no approved treatment – FDA allowing importation of fumagillin-

containing application USDA-APHIS May 2018 Natio nal Veterinary Accreditatio n Pro gram Center fo r Fo o d Security and Public Health

• Nosema apis—tends to be worse in northern climates, outbreaks occur more often in fall and winter when bees cluster together to maintain hive warmth

• Nosema ceranae—can be present year round • “K-wing”: uncoupling of forward and rear pairs of wings that

results in wings that resemble the letter K • Veterinarian should be aware of normal honey bee feces and

multiple causes of diarrhea so they do not misdiagnose “Nosema” when they see fecal matter

• Many colonies clear infection, in chronic cases—requeening, food supplementation may be useful

• Currently no approved treatment • Use of unapproved drugs in food animals

strictly prohibited • Though it is not approved for use in United States, beekeepers still

treat with Fumagilin-B®, Medivet • FDA allowing importation of the fumagillin-containing application

approved for use in Canada as an exercise of regulatory discretion because the approved product in the United States was withdrawn due to manufacturing issues rather than for safety or efficacy reasons; no other product available to treat Nosema disease

• Use of fumagillin for control of Nosema ceranae not recommended by some experts due to spore hyperproliferation upon withdrawal of the antibiotic

Photos: (Top): Nosema spores at 400x in a hemocytometer. (Bottom): A microscopic view of Nosema spores among pollen grains and bee parts. Photo source (both): © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com


36

S l i d e 9 4

Chalkbrood

• Ascosphaera apis fungus

• Best controlled by reducing stress through good management practices and by using disease-resistant bees

• In some cases, chalkbrood can become persistent, in which case requeening and removal of diseased brood frames is recommended.

Photos: (Top): Chalkbrood mummies at the hive entrance. (Bottom): Typical chalkbrood mummies still in the comb. Note the distinctive two-tone appearance, with a tan oval surrounded by white tissue. Photo source (both): © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com

attacks larvae, pupae • Commonly seen in spring

– More prevalent in rainy, wet weather, colony has been chilled

• White fungal growth, white or black “mummies” of dead larvae, pupae – Brood cells, entrance of hive

• No chemical therapy – Best controlled by reducing stress

• Hygienic behavior of strong

colony will clear infection


S l i d e 9 5

Other Parasites and Pests: Tracheal Mites

• Acarapisosis difficult to recognize until damage severe

• Mite females infest 1–2 day old bees – Penetrate thorax, trachea and lay eggs – Offspring mature, mate inside trachea

• Crowded colonies at higher risk – May develop “K-wing”—not unique

to tracheal mite infestation

• Confirmation with microscopic evaluation

• Resistant queens preferred control method – Grease patties, menthol also used


• Infestations tend to peak in fall, winter when bees are clustered • Disease has not been widely found in United States in recent years,

may be related to high use of miticides for varroa control

Photos: (Top): K-wing in a honey bee. (Bottom): Scar tissue in the trachea of a bee with tracheal mite infestation, viewed under a dissecting microscope. Photo source (both): University of Florida

S l i d e 9 6

Small Hive Beetles

• Aethina tumida • Females lay eggs in brood cells

– Larvae feed on brood, honey, pollen

• Resistant colonies best control method

• Most beekeepers control beetles with trapping—frayed fabric, commercially available trap

• Biological control— entomopathogenic nematodes

• Pesticides available, can be detrimental to bees – Essential to follow labeled directions


• Originated in Africa, first observed in Southeast United States in mid-1990s

• Feed before leaving hive to pupate in the surrounding ground and start life cycle again

• Beetle larvae excrement may ferment honey • Beetles are opportunistic scavengers • In northern states with hard winters, beetles generally indicative

of another underlying issue that weakens colony, though beetles can severely infest strong colonies in warmer climates

Source: • Vidal-Naquet N. Pests and enemies of honeybee colonies. In:

Honeybee Veterinary Medicine: Apis mellifera L. 1st ed. United Kingdom: 5m Publishing, 2015;173–176.

Photos: (Top): Small hive beetles exposed from under the hive cover. (Bottom): A "slime out" from SHB larvae and their associated yeast. Photo source (both): © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com

S l i d e 9 7

Wax Moths

• Opportunistic pests—invade weak hives, stored

beekeeping equipment • Two species: greater, lesser wax moth • Larvae burrow tunnels through comb, into wood

of frames, boxes • Wax foundations, comb can be severely

damaged by tunnels, extensive silky webbing • Prefer darkness, little air flow • Females lay eggs inside weakened/stored hives,

on ground – Larvae can gain access by gnawing through, into hive


• Greater wax moth: Galleria mellonella • Lesser wax moth: Achroia grisella • Lesser wax moth much less a problem than greater wax moth,

both found in United States • Silky webbing left behind by wax moths

Source: • Vidal-Naquet N. Pests and enemies of honeybee colonies. In:

Honeybee Veterinary Medicine: Apis mellifera L. 1st ed. United Kingdom: 5m Publishing, 2015;173–176.


37

S l i d e 9 8

Small Hive Beetles and Wax Moths

• Larvae difficult to differentiate • SHB larvae:

– Congregate in corners – Three pairs of jointed, “true” legs

behind head – Bodies with tough exteriors

• Wax moth larvae: – Scattered throughout hive – Larger than SHB larvae – Many small, fleshy, uniform legs

along length of body – Distinctive head – Bodies soft, easily penetrated


Source: • Extension—John Skinner, University of Tennessee. Available

at: Extension (https://articles.extension.org/pages/44111/how- can-i-tell-the-difference-between-small-hive-beetle-larvae-and- wax-moth-larvae). Accessed March 14, 2018.

Photos: (Top): Wax moth larvae, a common scavenger in weak or dead hives, should not be confused with SHB larvae. (Bottom): SHB larvae, bristly and without the distinctive head of wax worms. Photo source (both): © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com

S l i d e 9 9

Tropilaelaps spp.

• Genus—four species identified – None found in United States

• Damage similar to varroa mites – Irregular brood patterns – Stunted adults with deformed

wings, shrunken abdomens • Mites reddish brown, smaller

than varroa mite – Seen running on frames

between cells • High regulatory concern

– Report suspicious infections to State Apiarist, State Bee Inspector


• When Apis mellifera has been kept in regions where mite is found, can create severe infection

• Mites are 1 mm long and 0.6 mm wide

Photos: (Top): Tropilaelaps mites are smaller than varroa mites but cause similar damage. Any suspicious infections should be reported to the State Bee Inspector immediately. (Bottom): Varroa mites, shown here, should not be confused with Tropilaelaps mites, which are of high regulatory concern. Photo source (both): Denis Anderson, CSIRO

S l i d e 1 0 0

Malnutrition

• Weakens immune system – Honey bees more susceptible to stress, disease

• Honey bee nutrition impacted by: – Diverse plant habitat loss—urban,

suburban expansion – Drought, other severe weather

• Artificial diets available, may not be sufficient


S l i d e 1 0 1

Pesticide Toxicity

• EPA—strict regulations to protect honey bees • Fall 2016: pollinator risk assessment

guidance resource – “Part of a long-term strategy to advance the science

of assessing the risks posed by pesticides to bees” • Sub-lethal effects identified from pesticides,

environmental chemicals • May suspect pesticide damage if large number

of dead, dying bees at front of hive entrance • Follow State reporting guidelines and record

incident carefully USDA-APHIS May 2018 Natio nal Veterinary Accreditatio n Pro gram Center fo r Fo o d Security and Public Health

• EPA Guidelines: • Protect honey bee colonies from pesticide misuse, offers

guidance for investigating possible pesticide-related mortalities

• https://www.epa.gov/compliance/guidance-inspecting- alleged-cases-pesticide-related-bee-incidents

• https://www.epa.gov/pollinator-protection • Sub-lethal effects difficult to identify based on visual inspection • Make sure that you follow State reporting guidelines; take care

to record the incident (photos, sample collection) so it can be properly reported

http://www.epa.gov/compliance/guidance-inspecting-

http://www.epa.gov/pollinator-protection


38

S l i d e 1 0 2

Overly Hygienic Hive

• Remove diseased pupae, larvae • Good hygiene imperative for properly

functioning colony – Damaging if normal brood unnecessarily destroyed

• Eggs don’t develop into worker bees— nurse bees cull brood despite being fertilized, diploid

• Uncapped, chewed pupae noted on physical examination


S l i d e 1 0 3

Drone-laying Queen

• Queen lays drone eggs in worker cells – Brood usually healthy

• Brood pattern chaotic, can produce excessive drones – Do not contribute to hive

• Necessitates requeening the hive


S l i d e 1 0 4

Laying Worker

• Pheromones from queen, brood in hive prevent workers from laying

• Absence of pheromones (loss of queen, no brood)—one or more workers lay eggs – Workers never mate—eggs haploid,

become drones • Brood pattern spotty, all drone

brood laid in worker cells • Colonies under severe stress,

signs of disease, malnutrition, pest invasion

• Terminal condition—cannot be righted with addition of queen


• Pheromones from both queen and brood in a hive inhibit ovary development in worker bees

• Absence of pheromones—workers develop to point that they can lay eggs

• Typically many eggs in a cell, likely to be poorly laid, attached to sides of cell

• Deal with laying worker colonies to prevent disease transmission in the apiary

• Small laying worker colonies can be shaken out, equipment removed (bees will enter other hives)

• Can also be directly added to other colonies in yard • Large laying worker colonies should be combined with a nuc or

other colony Photos: (Top): Laying worker colony, with many eggs in each cell and eggs attached to the sides of the cells. (Bottom): Laying worker colony, with spotty brood pattern and bullet-shaped caps on cells, indicating drone brood. Photo source (both): © Randy Oliver, ScientificBeekeeping.com

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Colony Collapse Disorder

• 2006: dramatic declines in honey bee colonies • CCD defined as:

– A dead colony with no adult bees, no dead bee bodies but with a live queen, usually honey, immature bees (brood) still present

– Does not include colonies lost due to any reason • Cause not yet determined

– Complex set of factors—not uniform in all incidents • Recommended beekeepers focus on

– Improving general health, habitat – Reduce stress – Mitigate known causes of reduced production, death


• Does not include colonies lost due to any reason—losses due to poor management or nutrition, varroa mites, other diseases described previously, even though colony size may seem to “collapse”

• Intensive research continues, numerous theories suggested • An emergency response kit

(https://beeinformed.org/programs/emergency-response-kits-2/) is available to evaluate a collapsing hive, protocols are available for sampling live bee and salt water solution (https://beeinformed.org/programs/emergency-response-kits- 2/erk-live-bee-salt-water-sampling-protocol/) and pollen (https://beeinformed.org/programs/emergency-response-kits- 2/erk-pollen-sampling-protocol/)


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Summary

• Recognize, diagnose, authorize treatments

• Understand, fulfill role as an AV employing judicious use of antimicrobials in honey bees

The following information is available on the

Web version of the Honeybee module: • Describe U.S. honey bee industry,

importance of honey bee pollination • Describe current pollinator threats, mitigation

strategies • Communicate effectively with beekeepers


• Now that you have completed this module, you should be able to • Describe the U.S. honey bee industry and the importance

of honey bee pollination to the U.S. food supply; • Describe current pollinator threats and mitigation

strategies; • Communicate effectively with beekeepers regarding

honey bee biology and beekeeping basics; • Recognize, diagnose, and authorize appropriate

treatments for relevant honey bee diseases; and • Understand and fulfill your role as an AV employing the

judicious use of antimicrobials in honey bees through the issuance of prescriptions and VFDs.

• As a veterinarian, you may be asked to visit apiaries, examine hives for signs of disease, and authorize appropriate treatments.

• Should possess knowledge of honey bee biology, beekeeping, and relevant honey bee diseases and conditions in order to effectively communicate with beekeepers and ensure that antimicrobials are used judiciously in honey bees

Photo: Veterinarians can offer many valuable services to beekeepers. Photo source: Kristen Obbink, Iowa State University

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• This informational presentation has been approved expressly to serve as one unit of supplemental training for participants in USDA’s NVAP

• Please ensure you complete, sign, and retain a certificate stating that you attended this presentation

• Contact your local VS District Office for more details


This informational presentation has been approved expressly to serve as one unit of supplemental training for participants in USDA’s National Veterinary Accreditation Program. Please ensure you complete, sign, and retain a certificate stating that you attended this presentation. Contact your local VS District Office for more details on renewing your accreditation.

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Acknowledgments

Contributors from the Center for Food Security and Public Health include • Authors: Kristen Obbink, DVM, MPH, DACVPM; Abbey Canon, DVM, MPH, DACVPM • Design and Development: Dani Ausen, BFA; Andrew Kingsbury, BFA; Vered Friedberg, BSc; Naomi

Backous, BS • Editor: Janet LaVille, MA • Student Intern: Ali Nehas, BS; Layton Windust Additional contributors and reviewers include • Kelvin Adee, President, American Honey Producers Association • Charles L. Barley, RN, Apiculturist, U.S. Army Retired, Master Explosive Ordinance Disposal Technician • Francis J. Boyd, Washington Representative, American Beekeeping Federation • Gene Brandi, President, American Beekeeping Federation • Christopher J. Cripps, DVM, Betterbee—The Northeast Center for Beekeeping, LLC • Michael Costin, DVM, MBA, Assistant Director, Division of Animal and Public Health, American

Veterinary Medical Association • Chris Hiatt, Vice President, American Honey Producers Association • Christine Hoang, DVM, MPH, CPH, Assistant Director, Division of Animal and Public Health, American

Veterinary Medical Association • Donald E. Hoenig, VMD, One Health Veterinary Consulting, LLC; Belfast, Maine • Tony Jadczak, Apiculturist; Former Maine State Apiarist



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USDA-APHIS Natio nal Veterinary Accreditatio n Pro gram

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Acknowledgments (cont’d)

• Terry Ryan Kane, DVM, MS, A2 Bee Vet, Ann Arbor, Michigan

• Kimberly May, DVM, MS, DACVS; Department Director, Communications, American Veterinary Medical Association

• William McBeth, DVM, MS; Livestock-Equine Veterinary Manager, Zoetis • Meghan Milbrath, PhD, MPH; Academic Specialist, Honey Bees and Pollinators Extension and Research,

Department of Entomology, Michigan State University • Mike Murphy, DVM, JD, PhD, Veterinary Medical Officer, U.S. Food and Drug Administration • Dragon Momcilovic, DVM, PhD, Veterinary Medical Officer, U.S. Food and Drug Administration • Elina L. Niño, Ph.D., Assistant Specialist in CE—Apiculture, Department of Entomology and Nematology,

University of California, Davis • Randy Oliver, MS; ScientificBeekeeping.com • Eric Silva, American Honey Producers Association • Robert Wills, DVM, PhD, ACVPM; Professor, Department of Pathobiology and Population Medicine, College of

Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University • Jennifer Wishnie, DVM, MSc, MPH, DACVPM, Assistant Professor, Animal Science Department, Cal Poly State

University This module was reviewed within the USDA-APHIS-VS National Veterinary Accreditation Program by • Todd Behre, DVM, PMP, Coordinator • Clement Dussault, VMD • Jamie Snow, DVM, MPH

The content of this print manual has been reviewed and approved by USDA-APHIS Legislative and Public Affairs.


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Thank you for your time. I would be glad to answer any questions as time allows. The NVAP website can be found by typing “NVAP” into

Questions? your search engine.

The NVAP website can be found

by typing “NVAP” into your search engine

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To Report a Suspected FAD

Daytime: 866-536-7593 After hours: 800-940-6524

These numbers are available on the NVAP website. We recommend you copy these numbers and put them on your phone for quick

reference.


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