module 10 - cell membranes
DESCRIPTION
Discussion on cell membranesTRANSCRIPT
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Walls and Membranes
BME 111
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Why membranes?
Cells are fundamental functional units of lifeCells may cooperate to form an organismBUT cells must maintain own internal order and structure in order to function properly Differs from environment May differ from adjacent cells
Average human has about 10 X 1012 cells200 different kinds of cells
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AnimaliaIngest food
BacteriaProkaryotesUnicellularMicroscopic
ArchaeaProkaryoticunicellularmicroscopic
Eukarya
ProtistaUnicellular eukaryotes
Fungidecomposers
PlantaeProduce their own sugars and food
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Prokaryotic Cells
First appeared in fossil record about 3.5 billion years agoAbout 1-10 microns in diameterMost prokaryotes are bacteriaNo membrane bound organellesSingle chromosome Some have extra-
chromosomal piece of circular DNA = plasmid
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Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotes do not have membrane-bound organelles. This means that they have no mitochondria. So, how do they produce ATP from glucose? The electron transport chain and ATP
synthase is embedded in the plasma membrane (phospholipid bilayer).
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Electron Transport chainin Prokaryotes
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Prokaryotic ATPase
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Impact of Prokaryotes
Nutritionally diverse Some are able to harness light energy through
photosynthesis Some use CO2 as carbon source and extract energy from
inorganic substances such as hydrogen sulfide or ammonia Some must consume organic molecules
Not all are pathogenic to animalsMany participate in chemical recycling, e.g., nitrogenBioremediation - use of organisms to
remove pollutants from water, air, or soil Sewage treatment, e.g., sludge breakdown by
anaerobic bacteria Petroleum Mining sites of heavy metals, arsenic,
copper, zincLavender Pit Mine, Bisbee AZ
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Eukaryotic Cells - Animals
Several chromosomesMembrane bound organelles Nucleus Mitochondria Endoplasmic
reticulum Rough Smooth
Golgi apparatus Vacuoles
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Eukaryotic - Plant Cells
What is unique in a plant cell?
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Plant Cell Walls
Outside of plasma membranesComposed of cellulose and pectinsPrevent cells from bursting
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About Cell Membranes
1.All cells have a cell membrane
2.Functions: a.Controls what enters
and exits the cell to maintain an internal balance called homeostasis
b.Provides protection and support for the cell
TEM picture of a real cell membrane.
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3.Structure of cell membrane
Lipid Bilayer -2 layers of phospholipidsa.Phosphate head is polar (water loving)
b.Fatty acid tails non-polar (water fearing)
c. Proteins embedded in membrane
About Cell Membranes (continued)
Phospholipid
Lipid Bilayer
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Plasma membrane is about 50 atoms thick and serves as a selective barrier.
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Eukaryotic cells contain many compartments created by intracellular membranes
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Lipid Bilayers
Every cell must be surrounded by a “wall” to separate them from environmentPlasma Membrane Lipid bilayer Spontaneously self-
assembles ~4 nm thick
H2C-C-CH2
PO3
C=O O=C OH
Un
charg
ed
Hyd
rop
hobic
Charg
ed
Hydro
ph
ilic
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The phospholipids in the cell membrane are amphipathic.
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Phosphatidylcholine is the most common type of phospholipid.
Positive
negative
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Three kinds of membrane lipids, all amphipathic, include phospholipids, sterols, and glycolipids.
Hydrophilic heads
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Hydrophilic molecules interacting with water molecules.
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Hydrophobic molecules in water. Water molecules are repelled by hydrophobic molecules bind to each other
forming a cage structure that prevent direct contact with the hydrophobic molecule
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Phospholipid bilayer
polarhydrophilicheads
nonpolarhydrophobictails
polarhydrophilicheads
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Self-sealing property
“free edges” are quickly eliminated because they are energetically unfavorable - hydrophobic areas are in contact with water.
The lipids will spontaneously seal and will always form a closed compartment.
A small tear will be repaired. A larger tear may lead to the break up of the membrane into separate vesicles.
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With water inside and out, the lipid bilayer remains intact, no lipids leave. However, the lipids do move freely within the bilayer. Experiments use liposomes, which form spontaneously.
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Due to thermal motions, lipid molecules within a monolayer rotate very rapidly and diffuse rapidly through the fluid membrane. Any drop in temperature decreases the rate of lipid movement, making the lipid bilayer less fluid. This inhibits many functions of the cell’s membranes. All this has been confirmed in whole cells.
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• The fluidity of a lipid bilayer depends on its composition.– As temperature and environment changes, the fluidity of
the cell’s membranes must be kept functional.– The closer and more regular the packing of the tails, the
more viscous and less fluid the bilayer will be– The length and degree of saturation with hydrogens
affect their packing• shorter tails can not interact as much - more fluid• one of the two hydrocarbon tails often has a double bond -
unsaturated. This creates a kink - less packing, more fluid.
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• In bacterial and yeast cells, both the lengths and the unsaturation is constantly adjusted to maintain the membrane at a relatively constant fluidity.– At higher temperatures the cell makes longer
tailed lipids with fewer double bonds.• In animal cells, membrane fluidity is
modulated by cholesterol, which is absent in plants, yeast and bacteria.
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Cholesterol fills in the spaces left by the kinks; stiffens the bilayer and makes it less fluid and less permeable.
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Lipid bilayers are impermeable to solutes and ions. Rate of diffusion varies depending on size and solubility properties. This has been demonstrated in synthetic bilayers.
In this way, cells control the passage of molecules across its membranes
Specialized transport proteins transfer specific substrates across the membrane
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• Membrane fluidity is important to a cell for many reasons.– 1. Enables membrane proteins to diffuse rapidly and interact
with one another - crucial in cell signaling etc.– 2. Provides a simple means of distributing membrane lipids and
proteins by diffusion from sites of insertion.– 3. Allows membranes to fuse with one another and mix their
molecules– 4. Ensures that membrane molecules are distributed evenly
between daughter cells.• Remember though, cell has control - cytoskeleton and
other interactions can limit the mobility of specific lipids and proteins.
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Membrane is a collage of proteins & other molecules embedded in the fluid matrix of the
lipid bilayer
Extracellular fluid
Cholesterol
Cytoplasm
Glycolipid
Transmembraneproteins
Filaments ofcytoskeleton
Peripheralprotein
Glycoprotein
Phospholipids
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Plasma Membrane
Unsaturated Fatty acid
CHOLESTEROLCan make membrane
much stiffer, decrease
packing density
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Plasma Membrane Proteins
Alpha helix
extracellular
cytoplasmicCh3 fig 33 Lodish
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Membrane Proteins
Proteins determine membrane’s specific functions cell membrane & organelle membranes each
have unique collections of proteins
Membrane proteins: peripheral proteins
loosely bound to surface of membrane cell surface identity marker (antigens)
integral proteins penetrate lipid bilayer, usually across whole membrane transmembrane protein transport proteins
channels, permeases (pumps)
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Proteins domains anchor molecule
Within membrane nonpolar amino
acids hydrophobic anchors protein
into membrane
On outer surfaces of membrane polar amino acids
hydrophilic extend into
extracellular fluid & into cytosol
Polar areasof protein
Nonpolar areas of protein
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Other trans membrane proteins form aqueous pores that allow water-soluble molecules to cross the membrane. These are more complicated, often cross the bilayer a number of times as alpha-helices or as beta-barrels
In these cases alpha-helices contain both hydrophobic and hydrophilic amino acid side chains, with the hydrophobic side chains on one side and hydrophilic on the other side.
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Although the alpha-helix is the most common, transmembrane portions of a protein can be beta-barrels (two beta-sheets connected by a disulfide bond. The loop areas often form the active site or binding site.
Beta-barrels are less versatile since the can form only wide channels.
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Transmembrane portions are composed largely of amino acids with hydrophobic side chains. However, the peptide back bone (peptide bonds) is hydrophilic. Therefore, a helical structure is the most energetically favorable.
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The peptide bonds are hydrogen bonded to each other in the interior while the hydrophobic amino acid side chains contact the lipid chains.
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Many Functions of Membrane Proteins
Outside
Plasmamembrane
InsideTransporter Cell surface
receptorEnzymeactivity
Cell surface identity marker
Attachment to thecytoskeleton
Cell adhesion
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The lipid bilayer is asymmetrical, with the cytoplasmic side being different from the non-cytoplasmic side. Proteins are embedded with a specific orientation crucial for their function. Phospholipid composition also varies.
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Due to thermal motions, lipid molecules within a monolayer rotate very rapidly and diffuse rapidly through the fluid membrane. Any drop in temperature decreases the rate of lipid movement, making the lipid bilayer less fluid. This inhibits many functions of the cell’s membranes. All this has been confirmed in whole cells.
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New phospholipid molecules are synthesized in the ER by membrane-bound enzymes which use substrates (fatty acids) available only on one side of the bilayer.
Flipases transfer specific phospholipid molecules selectively so that different types become concentrated in the two halves. One sided insertion and selective flippases create an asymmetrical membrane
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In eukaryotic cells nearly all new membrane synthesis occurs in the ER. The new membrane is exported to the Golgi apparatus for modification and export. Carbohydrate chains are added in the Golgi - glycolipids. The enzymes that add sugar groups to lipids are confined to the Golgi apparatus and sugars are added only to the non-cytoplasmic side. No flippases exist for glycolipids. Forms a protective coat on most animal cells.
Intracellular signal transduction
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Most of the proteins in the plasma membrane have short chains of sugars (oligosaccharides) linked to them - glycoproteins. Others have longer polysaccharide chains - proteoglycans. All the glycoproteins, proteoglycans, and glycolipids are found on the noncytosolic side of the lipid membrane. They form a sugar coating called the glycocalyx.
Glycocalyx helps to protect the cell surface from mechanical and chemical damage, absorb water and give the cell a slimy surface to help cells squeeze through narrow spaces and prevent them from sticking to each other or the walls of blood vessels.
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The lipid bilayer is a two-dimensional fluid. Many lipids and proteins move freely within the plane. This is demonstrated by staining mouse cells with rhodamine and human cells with fluorescein. These two cells are then fused. Within 30 minutes the proteins from the mouse and human cells have diffused and are intermixed.
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However, lipids and proteins do not all float freely in the membrane. The cell controls the movement of many proteins. Cells have ways of confining particular plasma membrane proteins to localized areas, creating membrane domains which are functionally specialized.
Proteins are moved together when signaled by receptors like adhesion molecules.
Tethered to the cell cortex
Bound by the extracellular matrix
Held by proteins on another cell
Stopped by diffusion barriers.
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In epithelial cells that line the gut, uptake of nutrients from the gut is confined to the apical surface while proteins involved in the transport of solutes out into the tissues and bloodstream is confined to the basal and lateral surfaces. This asymmetric distribution is maintained by a barrier formed by tight junctions - seals between adjacent cells.