Modern Languages Compared

MODERN LANGUAGES COMPARED

Documenting Language Learning Difficulty

ISBN 978-0-915935-15-4

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number

Copyright 1994 Wesley Edward Arnold

However I now make it publicly available to the world.

Published in Warren Michigan

Wesley Arnold

Warren Michigan

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 2

THE CURRENT LANGUAGE SITUATION 10

HOW COMPARISONS ARE DETERMINED 12

SUITABILITY FOR INTERNATIONAL USE 13

HOW SUITABILITY DETERMINED 13

HOW LANGUAGES COMPARE 16

THE EASIEST LANGUAGE 19

LANGUAGES WITH OVER 1 MILLION 30

LANGUAGES UNDER 1 MILLION SPEAKERS 31

BIBLIOGRAPHY 76

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this book is to provide the reader with a general

information book about the languages found currently on Planet

Earth. The information presented is factual and comes from the

most reliable sources which are documented in the bibliography.

This book came about because in doing university research on

languages I did not find a single book that contained the

information that this book has. Compiling language information is

very time consuming and very difficult to verify even if one finds a

native speaker. If I asked how many idioms, tenses, voices,

moods, inflections, and exceptions were in your language most

native speakers even teachers and even many university professors

do not know. second purpose of this book is to help solve a

terrible problem that has cost thousands of lives and continues to

bring suffering to thousands. This problem is language

misunderstanding-non-understanding, and the mistrust, hate and

violence caused by it.

If you think it doesn't happen here remember the people

that are killed all over this country because they failed to stop

when told to freeze or to put their hands up instead of in their

pockets. Or are harmed because they do not follow directions that

are in a language they don't know. Or they were riding in an

airplane that crashed as a result of a pilot not understanding

directions. Also those that die because their doctor, nurse or care

giver does not fully understand English. In many US cities 7-30%

of the people do not understand English.

The primary purpose of this book is to provide factual

information. To leave out the above factual information would be

a disservice to mankind and to the thousands that have died. This

book is dedicated to those who have died due to language related

misunderstandings.

What are the current world languages?

The following statistics taken from the World Almanac show the

TOTAL SPEAKERS IN THE WORLD FLUENT IN, millions,

(and percent of world)

MANDARIN (China) 930 16.6%

HINDUSTANI (INDIA, PAKISTAN) 498 8.9%

ENGLISH (USA, Canada, UK) 463 8.2%

HINDI (India) 400 7.1%

SPANISH (Spain, Mexico, Central America) 371 6.6%

RUSSIAN (USSR) 291 5.2%

ARABIC (Middle East) 214 3.8%

BENGALI (India) 192 3.4%

PORTUGUESE (Brazil) 179 3.2%

MAYLAY (Indonesia) 152 2.7%

JAPANESE (Japan) 126 2.3%

FRENCH (France) 124 2.2%

GERMAN (Germany) 120 2.1%

URDU (Pakistan, India) 98 1.7%

PUNJABI (Pakistan, India) 92 1.6%

KOREAN (Korea) 74 1.3%

TELUGU (S.E.India) 72 1.3%

MARATHI (Maharashtra, India) 68 1.2%

TAMIL (India, Sri Lanka) 68 1.2%

WU (Shanghai, China) 65 1.2%

CANTONESE (China, Hong-Kong) 65 1.1%

ITALIAN (Italy) 63 1.1%

JAVANESE (Java, Indonesia) 63 1.1%

VIETNAMISE (Vietnam) 63 1.1%

TURKISH (Turkey) 58 1.0%

The following have less than 1%

(Malaysia) 50_

À_THAI (Thailand) 49

SWAHILI (Kenya, Tanz, Zaire, Uganda) 47

Languages below are under 1 % of world population

UKRAINIAN (Ukraine) 46

À_POLISH (Poland) 44

KANNADA (S India) 42

TAGALOG (Philip.) 43

GUJARALI (India, Pak) 40

HAUSA (Nigeria) 37

MALAYALAM (Kerala) 35

PERSIAN (Iran, Africa) 34

HAKKA (SE China) 34

ORIYA (India) 31

BURMESE (Burma) 31

ROMANIAN (Roman.) 26

SUDANESE (Sudan) 26

ASSAMESE (Assam) 23

PASHTU (Pakistan) 21

FLEMISH (Nedrld) 21

SERBO-CROATIAN (Yugoslavia) 20

YORUBA (Benin) 19

AMHARIC (Ethiopia) 19

SINDHI (Pakistan) 18

IGBO (Nigeria) 17

ZHUANG (S China) 15

AZERBAIJANI (Azer) 15

HUNGARIAN Hungary 14

NEPALI (Nepal) 16

UZBEK (Uzbek) 14

CEBUANO (Philip.) 13

FULA (Cameroon) 13

SINHALESE (SriLanka) 13

CZECH (Czechoslovakia) 12

MALAGASY (Madagascar) 12

GREEK (Greece) 12

Kurdish (s-w Caspian Sea ) 11

AFRIKAANS S Africa 10

MADURESE (Madura) 10

OROMO (Ethiopia) 10

BYELORUSSIAN (SSR) 10

BULGARIAN (Bulgaria) 9

CATALAN (Andorra) 9

MALINKE-BAMBARA 9

SWEDISH (Sweden) 9

KAZAKH (Kazakh) 8

QUECHUA (Peru) 8

SHONA (Zimbabwe) 8

RUANDA (Rwanda) 8

TARTAR (Tartar) 8

KHMER (Thailand) 8

UIGHUR (Xnjiang) 8

XHOSA (s Africa) 8

ZULU(Natal, Lesoth) 8

SOMALI (Somalia) 7

ILOCANO (Luzon) 7

LINGALA (Zaire) 7

ŒAkan (or Twi-Fante) Ghana 7

Luba-Lulua (Kasai, Zaire) 7

Yi (S and SW China) 7

Wolof (Senegal) 7

Panay-Hiligaynon (Philippines) 7

Ilocano (NW Luzon, Philippines) 7

EFIK (Nigeria) 6

Somali (Somalia, Eth, Ken,

Djibouti) 6

Minangkabau (Sumatra, Indonesia) 6

Mongolian (Mongolia, China) 6

Rundi (Burundi) 6

Efik (SE Nigeria; W. Cam.) 6

Finnish (Finland; Sweden) 6

Miao (S China; SE Asia) 6

Norwegian (Norway) 5

Nyanja (Malawi; Zambia; N

Zimbabwe) 5

Nyamwezi-Sukuma (Tanzania) 5

Kikuyu (or Gekoyo) ( Kenya) 5

Baluchi (Baluchistan, Pakistan) 5

Armenian (USSR) 5

Albanian (Albania; Yugoslavia) 5

Santali (E India; Nepal) 5

Slovak (Czechoslovakia) 5

Danish (Denmark) 5

Sylhetti (Bangladesh) 5

Tibetan (China; N India; Nepal) 5

Tajiki (Tajik Uzbek SSR) 5

Galician (Galicia, Spain) 4

ProvenÀ'_Àal (S France) 4

Georgian (USSR) 4

Mbundu (Benguela, Angola) 4

Bugis (Indonesia, Malaysia) 4

Bikol (SE Luzon, Philippines) 4

More (Burkina Faso) 4

Tswana (Botswana; So. Africa) 4

Tigrinya (Tigre, Ethiopia) 4

Luri (SW Iran; Iraq) 4

Guarani (Paraguay) 4

Konkani ( SW India) 4

Kituba (Bandundu, Zaire) 4

Hebrew (Israel) 4

Kashmiri (India, Pakistan) 4

Sotho (Africa; Lesotho) 4

Kyrgyz (Kyrgysttan, Laos) 4

Luo (Kenya; Nyanza, Tanzania) 4

Kanuri (Nigeria, Niger, Chad,) 4

Makua (Tanzania, Mozambq) 4

Lao (Laos) 4

Batak Toda ( Indonesia) 4

Sango (C.Africa Repb.) 4

Mbundu (Luanda, Angola) 3

Lithuanian (Lithuania ) 3

Ewe (SE Ghana; S Togo) 3

Samar-Leyte (Philippines) 3

Ganda (S Uganda) 3

Achinese (Sumatra, Indonesia) 3

Tamazight (Morocco, Algeria) 3

Sotho, Northern (So. Africa) 3

Futa-Jalon (Guinea, Sra Leone) 3

Kabyle (W Kabylia, N Algeria) 3

Kamba (E Kenya) 3

Balinese (Indonesia) 3

Thonga (Mozambique, Africa) 3

Shilha (W Algeria; S Morocco) 3

Turkmen (Iran, Afghanistan.) 3

Kongo (Zaire; Congo, Angola) 3

Shan (Shan, E Burma) 3

Bhili (India) 3

Gusii (Nyanza, Kenya) 2

Karo-Dairi (Sumatra, Indonesia) 2

Hadiyya (Arusi, Ethiopia) 2

Temne ( Sierra Leone) 2

Nung (Vietnam; China) 2

Aymara (Bolivia; Peru) 2

Gondi ( India) 2

Brahui (Pakistan; Afghan.; Iran) 2

Tumbuka (Malawi, Zambia) 2

Buyi (S Guizhou, S China) 2

Beti (Cameroon, Gabon) 2

Bemba (Zambia) 2

Slovene (Slovenia,Yugova.) 2

Wolaytta (SW Ethiopia) 2

Baule (Ivoire Coast) 2

Tulu (S India) 2

Chuvash (Chuvash ASSR) 2

Fulakunda (Senegambia,

_<_<___ Guinea Bissau) 2

Tho (N Vietnam, China) 2

Gilaki (Gilan, NW Iran) 2

Tiv (SE Nigeria; Cameroon) 2

Esperanto 2

Dong (Guizhou, Hunan,

Guangxi, China) 2

Dyerma (SW Niger) 2

Tonga (Zambia, Zimbabwe) 2

Ijaw ( Nigeria) 2

Mende (Sierra Leone) 2

Romany (Europe; Amer.) 2

Pampangan (Philippines) 2

Lwena (E Angola; W Zambia) 2

Makassar (Sulawesi, Indonesia) 2

Mien (China, Laos, Thailand) 2

Latvian (Latvian SSR) 2

Macedonian (Yugoslavia) 2

Sasak (Lombok, Indonesia) 2

Ngulu (Zambezia, Malawi) 2

Kurukh (India) 2

Sgaw ( SW Burma) 2

Sidamo (Sidamo, S Ethiopia) 2

Kirghiz (Kirghiz SSR, USSR) 2

Mazandarani (N Iran) 2

Pangasinan ( Philippines) 2

Chiga (Ankole, Uganda) 1

Chagga (Tanzania) 1

Nupe ( Nigeria) 1

Zande ( Zaire; SW Sudan) 1

Meithei (NE India; Bangladesh) 1

Yao (Malawi, Tanzania) 1

Nkole (Uganda) 1

Bashkir (Bashkir ASSR) 1

Meru (Tanzania) 1

Mordvin (Mord. SSR) 1

Beja (Kassala, Sudan; Ethiopia) 1

Fon (SC Benin; S Togo) 1

Tudza (N Vietnam; S China) 1

Haya (Kagera, NW Tanzania) 1

Hani (S China) 1

Lampung (Sumatra, Indonesia) 1

Luba-Shaba (Shaba, Zaire) 1

Swati (Swaziland; So. Africa) 1

Ho (India) 1

Khmer, Northern (Thailand) 1

Soga (Busoga, Uganda) 1

Songye (Zaire) 1

Iban (Indonesia; Malaysia) 1

Soninke (Mali) 1

Tausug (Philippines; Malaysia) 1

Lubu (E Sumatra, Indonesia) 1

Edo (Bendel, S Nigeria) 1

Rejang (SW Sumatra, Indonesia) 1

Dogri (India) 1

Dimli (EC Turkey) 1

Malay, Pattani (Thailand) 1

Estonian (Estonian SSR) 1

Luhya (W Kenya) 1

Gogo (Riff Valley; Tanzania) 1

Magindanaon ( S Philippines) 1

Riff (N Morocco) 1

Kenuzi-Dongola (Egypt; Sudan) 1

The above figures are from The World Almanac article "Principal

Languages of the World" compiled by Sidney S. Culbert

University of Washington

THE WORLD HAS A HUGE HINDRANCE TO

INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING known as the

language barrier.

Most people in the US are not aware of this problem because they

can go hundreds of miles in any direction using English.

Once you leave the US, Canada, the United Kingdom or tourist

traps you will discover that 92% of the world's people do not

speak English. In fact the percentage that speak English is

declining. The US Census bureau reports that a growing number

of Americans speak a foreign language at home with more and

more city residents having trouble under-standing English. In New

York 41% ages 5 and up speak a foreign language in their homes

and half indicated that they did not speak English very well. In

Miami 3/4 speak a language other than English at home and 67%

indicated they do not speak English well. Near Dearborn

Michigan are 300,000 Arabic speakers many of which are not

fluent in English.50% of Paterson NJ, 40% Santa Fe NM, 40%

Hartford Conn, 30% in Providence RI, 30% LA students, 26% in

Boston etc. 1 in 7 people in the USA speak a language other than

English at home. (A 35% increase since 1980) In California this

ratio is 1 in 3. 20% of those do not speak English. (S.F. Chronicle

5-83) Nearly 18 million people in the US speak Spanish. Other

languages in descending order are: French, German Italian,

Chinese, Tagalog, Polish, Korean, Vietnamese and Portuguese.

(S.F.Chronicle Mayª1993) Millions of immigrants from foreign

lands keep pouring in.

The future of English may be in question as the birth

rate of non English speakers is much higher than that of

English speakers.

Some countries have tremendous language problems.

Haiti's leaders insist that French be the only language used in the

countries schools even though nearly 100% of the people speak

Creole. Students do not understand what is being taught. Senegal,

Kenya, Nigeria are countries where citizens often do not

understand each other because of language differences.

In many parts of the world languages change within rather short

distances. In Africa there are over 700 languages, in India over

800, in Europe dozens, in Asia and the Pacific hundreds more.

With travel and business by non Americans increasing and with the

dollar on the decline, English is less in demand. If you have to

communicate with people in several countries you will discover

that just knowing English does not suffice. For example the

biggest country in South America, Brazil, speaks Portuguese.

Unlike the US people in most other countries learn more than

one language.

Only a small percentage of American students even try to learn

another language and two thirds of them find it too difficult and

quit.

Less than 1% go on to become fluent in another language.

Half the states do not require foreign language study and 20% of

schools do not even offer any. (San Francisco

Chronicle 5-91) Under 8% of college students are now taking

foreign languages courses.

An old joke goes "People that speak three languages are

called trilingual, people that speak two are called IntlVocabingual.

What are those that speak only one language called?"

The answer is "Americans"

Japan has thousands of sales reps here who speak fluent

English but we have very few reps who speak fluent Japanese.

(Richardson) Which country is selling more products to the other?

If you learned French, Spanish and English you could understand

less than 18% of the world's people.

If you learned 9 languages English, French, Spanish,

German, Russian, Polish, Swedish, Italian and

Portuguese you could still understand only about 30%

of the people on earth.

However learning any of these national languages is difficult-so

difficult in fact that most People don't and won't do it. Many try

and many give up. Even Einstein who spent the last 20 years of

his life in the USA clung to his native German. It takes 4-10 years

to become fluent in a language with the single exception of

Esperanto in which 1 year = 4 years of study. (Thorndike)

THE CURRENT SITUATION

There are tremendous language barriers in the world at the present

time. U.S. citizens are for the most part unaware of this terrible

situation because they can travel hundreds of miles in any direction

and get by quite well with English. But go out of the United States

and the situation is vastly different. There are about 3000-5000

languages in current use in the world today. (McFarian, 1990, p.

144) Well over 200 are major languages with millions of speakers.

(Culbert, 1993, p. 606) Each of those is mutually not

understandable. Because languages are so different speakers from

different countries and sometimes even within countries frequently

cannot understand each other. There is a need for a common easy

to learn language for all mankind. Each human being needs to

be able to understand other human beings. There are times

when ones life depends on it. For example there have been and

will continue to be many lives lost due to pilots not understanding

important communications. In several countries pilots do not

know English and are discouraged from learning it because of

political and religious considerations. A person who walked into a

strangers house and did not stop when told to "freeze" was shot.

He did not know what "freeze" meant as he was a Japanese

exchange student.

Police in our cities and soldiers in many foreign lands most

recently Somilia must make split second decisions. Put yourself in

his place. You catch sight of a person with what may be a gun in

his hand. You tell him to put his hands up. Instead the person

begins to point the object at you. One more warning to drop it but

he doesn't. Your life is on the line you must either shoot or be

killed yourself. There is no time to ponder. Soldiers are trained to

shoot.

If there is a language difference someone may die.

Unfortunately today around the world many people die or are

injured because they do not understand someone else's language.

There is no time in these situations for interpreters. Language

knowledge becomes a life or death matter. What if you were a

tourist and a foreign policeman said drop it in some language you

did not understand.

Imagine if you were visiting a shopping mall when

suddenly you felt your were going into diabetic shock, you fell

onto a bench but no one understood your pleas for help because

they do not speak

English and they don't know if you are drunk or sick so

they ignore you. Diabetics can die if not treated soon in these

situations.

There are occasions when it is necessary to be able to

communicate and be understood. You would want your doctor, fire

department, or police to understand you especially when you need

help. What if you were visiting another city when you notice a

gang beginning to strip your car. You go into a local shop and tell

the sales clerk to call the police but he does not speak English. At

Work your boss has received an inquiry about a possible big

overseas order.

He asks you to call the person overseas and obtain the order

information. You do not speak the native language of that region

and they do not speak English. International trade and business are

hindered by language difficulties.

More and more people the world over have the need to

communicate with each other. Almost everyone wants their

own native language used as the international language.

Language misunderstandings are occurring more often now

than in the past in the U.S. because we now have large numbers of

non-English speakers sometimes as high as 30-60% in a some city

locations. Sorry to report that many other languages are growing

faster than English. According to the World Almanac English

speakers (both native and non native) now account for only 8.2%

of the world's population.

That means that 92% of the world’s people do not speak

English. In San Diego California I had to ask eight people for

directions before I found one that spoke English. Tourists in

Miami often complain that store clerks there do not speak English.

Sometimes it is hard to find someone who speaks English

away from the main tourist traps.

It is also important to note the human cost of language non-

understanding. One example is the thousands of people that died

or were seriously poisoned by eating insecticide treated grain that

was meant for planting not cooking. The bags were clearly

marked in English. If groups of people and individuals do not

understand each other fears, animosities, misunderstandings often

result. Ethnic strife is often fueled by misunderstanding. But even

worse there has been much language related violence resulting in

the deaths and injury to thousands world wide. This is not a

pleasant fact but nevertheless it is a fact which provides urgency to

the search for an easy-to-learn common world language for

mankind.

The United States is a virtual desert when it comes to

language education prior to college. Of high school graduates

fewer than 4% have more than two years of a foreign language.

(Simon, 1980, p. 2)

Less than .1% of American students learn a second

language prior to college. In fact many American students have a

sad revulsion to learning any foreign language. Renown linguist

Edward Sapir states: "What is needed above all is a language that

is as simple, as regular, as logical, as rich, and as creative as

possible; a language which starts with a minimum of demands on

the learning capacity of the normal individual and can

do the maximum amount of work; which is to serve as a sort of

logical touchstone to all national languages and as the standard

medium of translation. It must ideally, be as superior to any

accepted language as the mathematical method of expressing

quantities and relations between quantities is to the more

lumbering methods of expressing these quantities and relations in

verbal form. (Mandelbaum, 1968)

RATING LANGUAGES suitability screening

Sixty questions were asked such as: Does the language have a

writing system? Without a writing system it would not be

practical. Is it being used in several countries? Also if a language

is so inconspicuous that there is little written about it then it would

not be practical to use. Where would one obtain textbooks etc.?

Have non native speakers found it suitable for all uses? Is the

vocabulary adequate? Is it suitable for inter-language, machine

translation (required in near future)? Is it suitable to be taught in

elementary classrooms world wide? Will it end language

discrimination?

What makes one language easier than another?

Of course the closer another language is to your own the easier it is

to learn. Another factor is how many items have to be memorized.

This has been overlooked for years.

To find out really how much memorization work is needed

requires the asking of questions.

The purpose is to find how many items must be memorized

in each language.

Some languages require that one learn hundreds of non regular

inflections, tones, accents or spellings. This means that the

learner is burdened with much more memorization work than

with other languages.

Even the number of words that must be learned

varies between languages.

The following questions were asked in order to rate the

difficulty of each language:

What is the estimated number of word roots that must be

memorized for 90-100% comprehension?

What is the number of genders that must be memorized? If

genders are required by the language that adds more memory work

which must be added in.

What is the estimated number of words for which

genders must be memorized?

What is the total number of genders

that must be memorized?

What is the number of noun inflections

that must be memorized?

What is the estimated number of nouns

for which inflections must be memorized?

What is the total

number of noun inflections that must be memorized?

What is the

number of verb inflections that must be memorized per verb?

What is the estimated number of verbs? What is the total

number of verb inflections that must be memorized?

What is the number of adjective inflections that must be

memorized?

What is the estimated number of adjectives? What is the

total number of adjective inflections that must be memorized?

What is the number of pronoun inflections that must be

memorized based on the individual count for that particular

language?

What is the estimated number of pronouns in the most

common 5000 words of the language?

What is the total number of pronoun inflections must be

memorized?

What is the number of article declensions?

What is the total number of articles in the language?

What is the total number of article declensions?

What is the number of excessive characters to be learned in

the alphabet.

What is the number of complex characters in that particular

language by actual count? A complex character is defined as any

letter that takes more than 6 strokes?

How many sounds must be learned?

How many characters have more than one sound per

character?

What is the number of words with irregular accentuation?

What is the total number of words not spelled phonetically

and regularly?

Does the language have a universal opposite affix or word

which creates the opposite meaning and works with most words in

the language and which thereby reduces memorization of opposite

words?

What is the number of opposites in a language?

What is the estimated savings in memorization?

How many grammar rules must be learned?

What is the number of exceptions to rules of grammar

that must be memorized?

What is the total number of additional memorizations

needed for tones?

What is the estimated number of

idioms? Most languages have thousands of idioms. An idiom is

an expression that is unique to a particular language. Idioms are an

important factor. To the learner of a language just knowing the

meaning of each word does not suffice. Some examples: "on the

lamb, out of date, on pins and needles, on duty, on one's own, take

a gander, take a hand, take a licking, take a powder, take a hike,

take the day off, take up room, go to pot, kick the bucket, up the

creek". Richard Spears Ph D. Professor of Linguistics at NW

University lists over 8,000 contemporary American English

idioms in his National Text Book Company's American Idioms

Dictionary. (1987) He lists 1,500 common idioms in his Essential

American Idioms. Frederic Wood lists about 1,200 verbal idioms

alone. (1964) Adam Makkai Ph D. Professor of Linguistics at the

University of Illinois lists 5000 idioms in his Dictionary and lists

2,500 "commonly used idioms" in his idiom handbook. 1984,

1987)

Tan Huay Peng states that there are a few thousand Idioms

in Chinese and that most school children learn about 250. (1986)

Some Spanish idiom books show 2000-3,600 Spanish idioms.

What is the number of variations of the language's standardized

form?

What is the estimated number of duplicate words that must

be learned?

What is the total number of other facts that must be

memorized?

In English for example there are a couple hundred "troublesome

words" that require extra attention of the learner. Even native

English speakers often misuse these. Also there are over 130

irregular plurals. There are also contractions, abbreviations and

special grammar oddities. Classifier words fall into this category

also.

What is the GRAND TOTAL NUMBER OF FACTS THAT

MUST BE MEMORIZED?

All of the above items are factors that determine how difficult a

language is.

Why is that important? The reason most people do not

learn more languages is that either they see no need or they find

that it is too difficult and that it takes too much time and work for

them. Humans need to be able to understand each other now

and in the future more than ever before. To do that we need to

find which languages are easiest and best suited for a common

language for the world.

Results of the research into the suitability and difficulty of

languages were astounding.

It should be noted that one language scored so much above

all of the others that it stood out scientifically and empirically as

the easiest and best.

No other language not even English is even close to it.

The questions above provide an empirically verifiable level of

difficulty showing how difficult a language is to learn. The

absolute easiest to learn and use language was Basic International

Language also known as Basic Esperanto which tested out at only

1224 memorization units.

The full International Language (also known as Esperanto)

tested out at 12,000 memorization units for average adult

understanding.

The next closest candidates were Malay with 40,000;

Burmese with 64,000; and English with 122,520.

The Average difficulty of languages evaluated was 201,000

memorization units.

That means that the average language was about 200 times as

difficult as the easiest.

The most difficult languages had over 1000 times more

memorizations than the most efficient. The figure in the middle is

the number of memorization units needed for 90-100 percent

understanding.

Name suitability score Difficulty Number of Countries

higher is better) (Lower is better) with pen pals

Intl. Language 92 1,224 116

Esperanto 92 12,000 116

English 32 122,520 50

A-Z

Albanian 7 947,000 1

Arabic 16 338,000 16

Basque 8 778,000 2

Bengali 10 231,000 4

Bohemian Czech 12 1,558,000 1

Bulgarian 7 588,000 5

Burmese 9 66,000 1

Byelorussian 8 796,000 2

Cantonese 24 605,000 2

Chinese 24 605,000 5

Czech 12 1,558,000 1

Danish 8 260,000 3

Dutch 9 490,000 3

Estonian 11 299,000 3

Finnish 13 951,000 2

French 17 1,243,000 40

German 24 573,000 12

Gouyu 24 605,000 1

Greek 11 1,830,000 4

Hindi 12 142,000 6

Hindustani 12 142,000 6

Hungarian 8 734,000 3

Icelandic 10 1,249,000 1

Irish 8 924,000 1

Italian 11 451,000 8

Japanese 9 1,557,000 3

Korean 11 4,042,000 5

Latin 12 1,139,000 0

Lithuanian 6 1,133,000 3

Luxemburgian 16 573,000 1

Malay 15 40,000 6

Mandarin 24 605,000 5

Old Bulgarian 7 1,847,000 5

Persian 9 582,000 2

Polish 11 647,000 3

Portuguese 12 464,000 3

Rumanian 6 1,472,000 3

Russian 18 902,000 15

Serbian 6 880,000 4

Siamese 2 62,000 1

Slavonic 6 1,883,000 1

Slovak 6 550,000 5

Slovene 7 526,000 2

Sorbian 7 1,462,000 1

Spanish 20 897,000 20

Swedish 8 157,000 3

Ukrainian 7 736,000 3

Urdu 12 142,000 3

Welsh 5 854,000 1

Wu 24 605,000 1

Languages not shown had a suitability score of four or less

or information was unavailable about them.

The most complex languages are probably Chippewa with

6,000 verb forms, Tabassaran with 48 noun cases, Inuit 63 forms of

present tense and simple nouns have as many as 252 inflections.

The most complex character is a Chinese character with 64 strokes.

The longest alphabet is Cambodian with 72 letters the shortest is

Rotokas with just 11 letters. (McFarian, 1990 p 144)

THE PROBLEM WITH TRANSLATIONS!

Ask former presidents and world leaders who in spite of

having the best interpreters had some of their remarks

mistranslated causing near crises. Ask an actor who lost an Oscar

because Time Magazine made a translation error. It is too late to

ask hundreds of people who died because of misunderstood aircraft

communications.

Those that have tried human translators know that things go

much better when both people can understand each other directly.

And those little pocket translators -- just too slow.

Why is a common second language needed?

Because people the world over need to understand each

other. Not just the millions who travel and visit other countries

and those who visit us but also to insure international trust,

understanding and Peace. In today's world international

communication, trust and understanding are essential for personal

safety as well as world peace, security and world trade. The world

is fast becoming a global village with millions traveling and

international television and radio broadcasts.

We need a common language to face common problems.

We need to understand One another.

Possible solutions to the world language problem. Learn

everyone else's language? Impossible not even a genius could

learn 2000 languages. Learn the over 200 languages with over one

million speakers? Again impossible. Learn a selected few

languages? Very few people could be convinced to learn more

than one and most wouldn't ever become fluent in another national

language because all national languages are extremely difficult to

learn. And then there is the problem of which ones. Most people

will refuse to learn more than one. But even if one learned 9

languages one could not understand most other humans on

Earth.

How about learning Chinese the largest language read by

over 1 billion. Notice I did not say spoken. There are many

dialects. The writing system is extremely hard to learn and

the writing system has over 40,000 characters. Would you

dedicate ten years of your life to learning Chinese?

How about learning Russian? It is a difficult language to learn

plus it has a difficult system of inflection. It is spoken by fewer

people than English and not widely used outside of the U.S.S.R.

How about learning French a language that is in decline? Who

are you going to speak to outside of France, Quebec and a few

little spots that were under its domination?

How about learning German? Again once having learned it who

can you speak to outside of parts of Europe?

How about Spanish? Knowing Spanish gives you Spain and parts

of South America.

Why not make English the international language?

After all isn't it spoken everywhere? No. In fact English is the

native language of only about 5% of the world's population, is

spoken by only a few percent more, and that percentage is now

declining. English has become the most widely dispersed language

seconded now by Esperanto. Many people at airports, hotels and

tourist traps speak English. But about 92% of all people do not

understand or speak English fluently. English has been promoted

for many years, is taught in many countries but yet most people

find English too difficult to master even after years of school.

Many high school and college graduates have difficulty writing a

papers in English. Even though having been declared an official

language in several countries most people still prefer to use their

own native languages because English has so many irregularities

exceptions and ambiguities. In fact it holds the record for having

the most irregular verbs and the worst spelling. Another sad fact is

that for political reasons English is not popular in many places and

countries. English is losing ground in Europe, Philippines,

Nigeria, and in other places. Tanzania has switched from English

to Swahili. In some areas of the world there is even a hatred for

English speakers.

The idea of forcing people to learn English is as

unpopular in many places as is the idea of forcing people to learn

Chinese or Russian is here.

And why learn English when there is another language which

has no exceptions or irregularities is many times easier to learn, is

more like English than any other language and can provide a

regular framework that helps people learn English faster. It is

called International Vocabulary (IntlVocab).

Here are the facts on it.

We were amazed when we saw the data on this language.

Not believing the data we had everything triple checked. This

language required only 1224 memorization units. English requires

100 times more memorization work as this. More research was

done on this language and it was discovered that 288 basic words

give around 80% understanding of most common human

communication. Also that an additional 500 optional words

provide 90% understanding of most common communication.

What that means is that if a person learned the 288 basic

words and two pages of instructions that they could understand

80% of most

letters, conversations etc. A pocket dictionary provides virtually

100% understanding without years of memorization. This was

verified on word frequency studies done on 100,000 words and

cross checking with corpus of 8 million words. Also the results

correspond with other research studies done by other researchers in

other countries.

The complete language can be learned in 1/10 the time of

any other language. But learning the 288 words takes much less

time than that perhaps 1/100 the time of any other language.

WHERE FOUND Now in 116 countries

VOCABULARY: The vocabulary is based on international

words 50% of the vocabulary is already known to English

speakers.

This language gives students a framework for learning

other languages that actually helps students learn other languages

faster after learning this. Work by several researchers has proved

this.

One researcher was the famous Edward Thorndike. It also

helps students better learn English structure and vocabulary.

All verbs are regular with no exceptions.

There are only 16 basic grammar rules with no exceptions (this

compares with 1400 with hundreds of exceptions with English)

More facts about International Vocabulary (IntlVocab).

SPELLING: All words are spelled as they sound and all words

are pronounced as they are spelled. There are no exceptions.

PLURALS: All plurals are completely regular.

WORDS: most are short and based in international words.

ALPHABET: same as English except there is no q w x y and

there is an additional ^ on a few letters. This allows for every

letter to have

only one sound. (as soft g and hard g)

SOUNDS: there are no difficult sounds.

All vowels are pure and clear.

All vowels are widely distinct so as to provide

clarity.

(unparalleled in any other language)

INFLECTIONS: there are no inflections to memorize.

IDIOMS: few if any (English has over 8,000)

The entire present, past, and future tense of all verbs in the

language can be learned in 3 minutes.

(unparalleled in any other language)

People can begin international correspondence in this

language at the end of the first month of study.

(unparalleled in any other language)

Pen pals are available free from nearly 100 countries.

(unparalleled in any other language)

Speakers of this language may use a world wide network of

thousands of contacts and helpers.

(unparalleled in any other language)

International Vocabulary (IntlVocab) continued.

All nouns end in O. example: helpo help

All adjectives end in A. helpa helping

All adverbs end in E. helpe helpfully

All verbs, adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs are absolutely regular.

No exceptions.

PRESENT TENSE adds "as" to the root. Mi havas I have

Vi telefonas. You telephone. Shi korespondas. She corresponds.

Ken helpas Lisa. Ken helps Lisa.

To form the PAST TENSE just add "is". Mi havis. I had Vi

telefonis. You telephoned. Shi korespondis. She corresponded.

Ken helpis Ken helped. Shi estis. She was.

To form the FUTURE TENSE add, "os". Mi havos I shall have

Vi telefonos You will telephone. Shi korespondos. She will

correspond. Ken helpos Ken will help. Shi estos. She will be.

With International Vocabulary (IntlVocab) everyone wins.

Everyone can still speak and promote their own native language

while being able to communicate using international words.

It is not meant to replace anyone's language rather it is the

most time efficient, easiest path to international

communication between speakers of over 1000 languages. This is

because all native languages are very difficult to learn as a second

language and require thousands of unnecessary memorizations.

Teachers report that it turns many students on to languages.

Many become motivated to go on to learn other languages.

It is more like English than any other language in the

world. The vocabulary is well developed and concise.

Research shows that the first 200 IntlVocab words

replace over 4000 verbs.

Research also shows that the vocabulary and grammar do

the work of over 20,000 words. This is possible because of the

large number of synonyms in languages and because many words

represent a kind of word-shorthand in which one word takes the

place of two or more other words. Examples of word-shorthand

are: enter for go in, exit = go out, disembark = go off the ship,

capsize = overturn, carnal = of the body, glee = great pleasure,

inflection = change in form, patron = one who uses, perpetual =

always, proverb = wise saying. Over 30 common affixes can be

used alone or will work with most words to form thousands of

additional meanings without having to learn any new words. The

affix mal for example forms the opposite meaning to any root

word. Learning this one word permits the creation of thousands of

words without having to learn thousands of words.

Learning any national language (such as English) requires

learning at least some of the customs and culture of the home

country. Many people resent being forced to learn someone else's

national language. There is much resentment against English in

several countries. This is also true of other national languages.

The native speakers of the language have superior

knowledge of the national language and can and do take

advantage of non native

speakers. The non native speaker may make embarrassing mistakes

and be made fun of causing more resentment. IntlVocab

successfully ends language discrimination by putting all speakers

on a neutral and equal footing. Speakers are not forced to learn

someone else's national language. There is something almost

magical about it as people seem to almost get along better, be

friendlier. Perhaps it is the lack of the above resentment, or may

be the feeling of brotherhood. It is impressive to see people from

about 80 countries fully understanding each other without the need

for interpreters.

Most other languages are even harder to learn. Learners of

French, Spanish, & German have to learn hundreds of needless

genders, endings, inflections, irregular verb forms, irregularities

and exceptions.

IntlVocab’s vocabulary is based on research and designed to

provide maximum understanding in a minimum of time. It does

this by eliminating thousands of needless memorizations required

by all other languages. IntlVocab eliminates the memorization of:

thousands of genders, irregular endings, irregular verbs, thousands

of inflections, hundreds of duplicate words, hundreds of irregular

grammar rules, thousands of irregular pronunciations, thousands of

irregular spellings, thousands of irregular accents, thousands of

idioms, and thousands of exceptions and other irregularities.

About half of the vocabulary is known to speakers of

English, Spanish, French, German and many other languages.

That means that much of the memorization work is

already done. Asian people find it much easier to learn than any

other language. Ease and rapid progress is such an important

motivator that many learners who have been turned off to language

learning can be motivated. Many more people who otherwise

would not even try can learn a second language and become

"International Persons".

Communication using simple words is much preferable to

the failing efforts of people not knowing another's language.

This makes possible easy translation and sharing of the best works

from many cultures from hundreds of languages into a common

language accessible to all humans regardless of native language.

IntlVocab also known as Esperanto now has thousands of

international words and is very complete fully suitable for use by

professionals. It has thousands of books, hundreds of periodicals,

millions of speakers and is spoken in over 100 countries.

Each year thousands of people from 40-80 countries attend

meetings held around the world. For example 7,000 people went

to Poland met in meetings for several days all without need for

interpreters. Later they toured Europe.

IntlVocab makes inter-language communication easily

possible in a short time to all humans. More people can learn it

because it makes much less demand on time for memorization. It

is not meant to replace any language.

Studies show that once IntlVocab is learned it facilitates

learning other languages. proved 1 year of IntlVocab study

equaled 4 years of college French or German.

If the UN just used IntlVocab they would save hundreds of

millions of dollars. Each page translated into 6 languages costs

over $100. This could prevent blindness in many children or make

a 3rd world family self sufficient.

If IntlVocab were adopted millions of dollars would be

saved, and better inter-language communication and world

understand would result.

IntlVocab provides the most time-efficient potential way for

every human to be able to communicate with every other

human on this planet.

Better inter-language understanding is needed now world

wide where misunderstanding and lack of communication between

speakers of different languages are common, even in the USA.

No one is asking anyone to give up their own language or

the teaching of any other language. A common world language is

needed now rather than endless bickering about whose national

language should be used. If a few people in each community just

learned to use the most important 288 words, this would open up a

communication channel all around the world. Soon the over 1000

language barriers would no longer pose a major problem. Many

language related accidents, deaths, injuries and misunderstandings

could be prevented. Business, and tourism would also benefit.

A common world language would yield benefits such as savings of

human lives; better world trade, better standards of living world

wide, better world health, more international friendships and better

understanding world wide which would result in a safer world for

all of us

Here is your first sample of International Vocabulary.

Inteligentaj personoj lernas bazan internacian lingvon.

Esperanto estas la moderna, kultura lingvo por la tuta mondo.

Simpla, fleksebla, ghi estas la praktika solvo de la problemo de

internacia interkompreno. Esperanto meritas vian konsideron.

(Intelligent persons learn Esperanto. It is the modern, cultural

language for the whole world. Simple, flexible, it is the practical

solution of the problem of international mutual understanding.

IntlVocab merits your consideration.)

ESPERANTO

Note it is not Spanish rather it is a scientifically planned language

now composed of mainly international words.

Esperanto is more like English than any other language but

eliminates the irregularities found in English. It is around 50%

English.

Speakers of French, Spanish, German, Dutch, Portuguese, and

Italian could recognize about fifty percent of Esperanto words.

Dr. Pei professor and master linguist at Columbia University

was fond of remarking that Esperanto is an artificial language

about the same way that an auto is an artificial horse. (Richardson,

1988, p. 18) "Students in high school & college generally learn

Esperanto in a remarkably shorter time" than they would have

spent studying a foreign national language. (Richardson, 1988, p.

29)

Esperanto is one of the most expressive languages in

world some people learn it in a few days. (Richardson, 1988)

Edward Thorndike of Columbia University who is a

noted educational researcher concluded, after a careful study

that one year of college Esperanto is equivalent to four years of a

national language. This is per Columbia University,

Institute of Educational Research, Language Learning

summary of a report to the International Auxiliary Language

Association.

Another scientific study shows its usefulness.

In Somero, Finland, pupils were taught one year of

Esperanto followed by two of German. A control group spent the

same three years studying German alone. At the end of the first

year, the test group knew enough Esperanto to be taught their

geography lessons in that language. After the third year, the

Esperanto learners had all but overtaken the control class in the

amount of German material covered, and they spoke and wrote

German with more confidence and enthusiasm than those who had

studied only German. (Markarian, 1964, p. 8)

Richardson quotes Pierre Janton, L'Esperanto, Que Sais-Je?

Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, [no date] "Recent

experiments in some English schools have shown that the

average student there can learn as much Esperanto in six

months as he can learn French in four years." He goes on "The

comparison seems to be even more striking for Asians, who have a

great deal of difficulty learning Western languages." (Richardson,

1988,)

The University of Illinois' Bruce Sherwood reported that Japanese

speakers claim to find Esperanto "five to ten times easier to

master than English." (Sherwood, 1981, p. 2) "French linguist

Pierre Janton tells of Japanese students who, after some eight

years' study of French, could speak it only with difficulty, whereas

they spoke fluent Esperanto after two to three years. (Richardson,

1988, p. 118)

In 1965 a petition was given to the United Nations asking it

to support the introduction of Esperanto in international affairs.

Close to a million individuals signed it and organizations with

combined membership of 73 million people endorsed it. (Lapenna,

1974, p. 778)

In the elementary grades, pupils soon find themselves

putting the language to practical use. Doris Valoon, reporting on

4th 5th and 6th grade classes in some California schools, noted that

some of the brighter children were writing Haiku and Cinquain

poems in Esperanto after only five weeks, and performing puppet

shows and skits. Ms. Valloon's 4th grade class. "learned enough

Esperanto in one and a half school years to correspond with classes

in ten countries." (This could have potentially been 100 countries

Vallon, 1968, 8013) Vallon goes on to state: They wrote one

another about family, school, hobbies, music. They learned to read

folk tales in Esperanto from many countries...They developed

poise (talking with) Esperanto speaking visitors from many lands.

We were overwhelmed by the natural understanding they showed

of pupils in other lands. The fact that they and their friends abroad

had each came half way toward understanding by learning a

common tongue seemed to remove the insidious distinction

between 'native' and 'foreign' that might have arisen if either group

had been using the language of the other. The children took a new,

heightened, personal interest in geography, a subject that

previously meant little to them. (Vallon, 1968)

"That language is best which is easiest for the majority"

(Pei, 1958, p. 185)

"Controlled experiments show that because of its logical

structure, phonemic spelling, and regular grammar Esperanto

can be learned to a given criterion of performance in from 1/20

to 1/5 the time needed for the learning of a typical national

language." (Hoffman, 1992 p.601)

Dr. Mario Pei Professor of Romance Philology at Columbia

University, respected linguist and author of many books states:

Esperanto has been tested in the schools as an introduction to the

study of foreign languages, and the experiment has successfully

demonstrated that Esperanto-trained youngsters did better in

the languages they took up later than did the ones who had not

had the training....

A Gallup poll conducted in small European

countries like the Netherlands and Norway showed that Esperanto

was second only to English as the people's choice for an

international language. (Pei, 1958, p. 201)

Alfred Petrov has been teaching English for three years to

under-graduate and graduate students at a university in Nagoya,

Japan. Many of his students have studied English for up to 10

years; yet, they can't write a scientific paper in English. Nagoya, a

city of 300,000 population, has 1000 members in its Esperanto

Club. (Richardson, 1988)

By learning Esperanto (International Vocabulary) people

also learn considerable English, French and Spanish words.

By using it everyone can still keep and use their own native

language with all of its richness or communication within their

native groups.

And International Language provides efficient learning and

communication between any speakers of any language without any

discrimination.

In Interlinguistics Andre Martinet states I came to the

conclusion that, in international contacts, linguistic communication

is much easier and more profitable it is carried out in a language

which is not the native one of either interlocutor. If this is true, a

simple quickly-learned medium is preferable by far than an

exciting national language whose native speakers are more inclined

to make fun of the foreigner's slips than to concentrate on the

message. My conclusion is that the problem of a language for

international communication presents itself as the conflict between

a planned language, Esperanto, which is known to function to the

satisfaction of its users, and a hegemonic national language, which,

as we all know, is, today, English. . . . [even the worst enemy of

Esperanto stated] . . . 'Esperanto, it works!'"

(Schubert, 1989, p. 5)

ENGLISH

English is about 100 times as difficult as the easiest language

listed above. English has over one million words in its vocabulary.

English suffers some major problems: It holds the record for the

most words that are not spelled as spoken. (estimated to be over

500,000) Over half of its words are not spelled as pronounced. It

has the worst spelling in the world.

It holds the record for the most irregular verbs.

English has over 8,000 idioms.

It has hundreds of words that present continuing problems even to

native speakers.

It has the most ambiguous vocabulary of all languages.

The word set for example has 58 noun used and 126 verb uses.

The English word 'inebriated' with 2,241 synonyms. The English

word 'isosceles' has 259 spellings and 'cushion' has about 400

spellings. (McFarian, 1990 p 144)

It has some words that are too long for common use such as the

English word praetertranssubstantiationalistically (37 letters).

English has the most duplicate words.

There are hundreds of exceptions to the over 1,400 grammar

rules. (Houghton-Mifflin)

The Barron's Educational Series on languages lists well over 1001

extra facts that need to be memorized in English.

Charles Berlitz states that the average speaker uses about

2,800 different English words daily. The Sunday newspaper has

about 25,000 words. He states that well read speakers can

recognize 25,000-50,000 words. (Berlitz, 1982, p. 137) Charles

Berlitz also states that English has a vocabulary more than twice

the size of any other language and the next in size is German.

(1982, p. 311) Mario Pei states that every (national) language is

"laden with idioms." (1949, p. 144) Charles Berlitz states that one

of the big disadvantages of English is its "nonphonetic spelling.

One splendid example is the phrase 'though a rough cough and

hiccough plough me through'--in which -ough is pronounced six

different ways." (1982, p. 314)

Mario Pei states that the Roman alphabet is the most widely

spread "as well as the one providing the greatest possibility of

simplicity." (1949, p. 92) The entire of nation of Turkey switched

from Arabic to Roman writing because the Roman offered a more

efficient system and also that the Roman alphabetic system is

among the best for recording sounds. (1949, p. 92) Even Chinese

is being put into the Roman alphabet. It seems to be easier for

computer use. More languages now use the Roman alphabet than

ever before. Many other alphabets mostly record consonants. Pei

states that no (national) language has absolute script for sound

correspondence. (1949, p. 93) English has many difficulties and

often takes average people over 10 years to master the

speaking and writing. Many students of English even after many

years of study still make many grammatical errors in speaking and

cannot write a business letter.

[For English current apparent suitability score 4 To be explained

later,] 1 0, 2 0, 3 0, 4 0, 5 0, 6 0, 7

0, 8 0, 9 0, 10 1, 11 0, 12 0, 13 0, 14 0, 15 0, 16 0, 17 0, 18 0, 19

0, 20 0, 21 0, 22 0, 23 0, 24 0, 25 0, 26 0, 27 0, 28 0, 29 0, 30 0,

31 0, 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 0, 39 1, 40 1, 41 0, 42 43 44 0,

45 0, 46 47 48 0, 49 0, 50 1, 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 0, 59

60 61 5000, 62 63 3000, 64 65 66 3000, 67 68 69

2000, 70 71 72 1400, 73 74 75 200, 7677 78 79

80 81 200, 82 83 under 120 84 0 85 0 86 under 60 87 88 5000

89 90 0, 91 1500 92 0 93 0 94 0 95 over 100, 96 over 100, 97 0

98 0 99 0 100 over 100, 101 102 100 103 104 .

Information compiled on the world’s languages follows.

ABE (Ivory Coast) 20 K

ABELAM (New Guinea) 30 K

ABKHAZ, ABKHAZIAN(Abkhaz ASSR) 90 K HAS LEAST

VOWEL SOUNDS 2 accentuation, 12 M uses Roman alphabet

Books in Print shows 30 publications.

Aceh Indonesia 3

ACEH (Indonesia)

ACHINESE (N Sumaira, Indonesia) 3 M

ACHOLI, AKOLI (Uganda, Sudan) 70 K Books in Print lists 1

publication.

ADHOLA 0 (Uganda, Kenya) 153 K

ADYGHE, ADYGEI 60 (USSR Adygei AR) 100 K

ADYUKRU(IVORY COAST) 20 K

AFAR, DANAKIL 60 ETHOPIA, DJIBOUTI 600 K

Afrikaans South Africa 6

AFRIKAANS (So. Africa) N 1; V 4?; Adjective; 1; ART 0 10 M

uses Roman alphabet Books in Print lists 11 publications.

AFUSARE (NIGERIA) 30 K

AGAR 60 (SUDAN, ETHIOPIA) 16 K

AGUACATEC(GUATEMALA) 9 K

AINU 60 (Japan islands of Yezo, Karafuto) 16 K

AKAN or Twi-Fante 0 (Ghana) 7 M alph Roman plus 7, uses

Roman alphabet Books in Print lists 1 publication and that is only

a vocabulary.

AKOLI SEE ACHOLI

AKYE 60 (IVORY COAST) 50 K

ALABA SEE KAMBATA

ALBANIAN TOSK, GHEG (Albania; Yugoslavia) See next page

Albanian, Gheg Serbia & Montenegro 2 m

Albanian, Tosk Albania 3 M

Alemannisch Switzerland 6 M

ALEUT 0 (Alutian Is.) 1 K uses Cyrilic and Roman alphabets

ALGONQUIAN polysynthetic structure: words seldom have

individual status, separate word parts have no separate meaning,

entire sentences formed by one word. Also classifies all nouns as

animate or inanimate. Has no plurals.

ALTAI 0 (USSR ALTAI REGION) 50 K

ALUR 60 (UGANDA, ZAIRE, SUDAN) 400 K

AMBA 60 (NEC AFRICA) 48 K

AMBO, OVAMBO, AVAMBA 0 (NIGER-CONGO) 500 K

AMERICAN INDIAN100S OF LANGUAGES enormous

variations in structure many polysynthetic; words seldom have

individual status, separate word parts have no separate meaning,

entire sentences formed by one word. Usually have no plurals.

AMHARIC (Ethiopia) word-root usually had 3 consonants with

shifting vowels to carry meanings 17 M uses Ethiopic alphabet.

Books in Print lists 7 publications.

AMUESHA (PERU) 7 K

AMUZGO(MEXICO) 10 K

ANDONI(NIGERIA) 50 K

ANGAMI(BURMA) 36 K

ANGAS(NIGERIA) 100 K

ANGLOSAXEN

ANKWE(NIGERIA) 14 K

ANNAMESE (SE Asia)

ANUAK(SUDAN) 56 K

ANUNOO (Philippine Is.) 6K

ANYI(GHANA, IVORY COAST) 450 K

AO(Burma) 20 K

APACHE(S.W. U.S.A.)

ARABIC See next page UN language 197 M Notes: Nouns,

Pronouns, adjectives and verbs are all genderized. GNDRS 2, N3

DEC,#DECLINED, ADJ2, VBS28 Alphabet 68 total + 130

legatures family Hamito-Semitic word-root usually had 3

consonants with shifting vowels to carry meanings, 3 numbers

singular plural and dual; verbs have only two tenses perfect,

imperfect 14 conjugations may be formed = 28, two articles

definite & indefinite. CONJ times 2 TENSES, two declensions of

nouns in singular 39 characters, has most guttural sounds of any

language, has several dialects Books in Print lists 450

publications.

Arabic, Algerian, spoken Algeria 22 M

Arabic, Egyptian, spoken Egypt 46 M

Arabic, Gulf, spoken Iraq 2 M

Arabic, Hijazi spoken Saudi Arabia 6 M

Arabic, Libyan, spoken Libya 4 M

Arabic, Mesop., spoken Iraq 13 M

Arabic, Moroccan, spoken Morocco 19 M

Arabic, N. Levantine, spoken Syria 15 M

Arabic, N. Mesopotamian, spoken Iraq 6 M

Arabic, Najdi, spoken Saudi Arabia 9 M

Arabic, S. Levantine, spoken Jordan 6 M

Arabic, Saidi, spoken Egypt 18 M

Arabic, Sanaani, spoken Yemen 7 M

Arabic, Sudanese, spoken Sudan 16-19 M

Arabic, Taizzi-Adeni, spoken Yemen 6 M

Arabic, Tunisian, spoken Tunisia 9 M

Arakanese Myanmar 2 M

ARAMAIC (Iran, Iraq, USSR) 90 K becoming extinct

ARAPAHOE No plural. polysynthetic structure: words seldom

have individual status, separate word parts have no separate

meaning, entire sentences formed by one word.

ARAPESH (New Guinea) 18 K

ARAUCANIAN ARAUKAN, MAPUCHE (Chile, Argentina) 250

K

ARAWAK(South America) polysynthetic structure: words seldom

have individual status, separate word parts have no separate

meaning, entire sentences formed by one word.

ARI(Ethiopia) 32 K

ARMENIAN (USSR Armenia ) 6 M 10WS+ 39CHRS=72 38

letters per Pei letters 41 Sounds 8 Vowels Books in Print lists 30

publications.

ART 27, G3, N8 +IRR, ADJ20, V80 characters=114 many dialects

characters=72 indefinite article declined sex 5 M uses Roman

alphabet

ARUMANIAN, see ROMANIAN

ASHANTI see AKAN

ASMAT 0 (New Guinea) 34 K

ASO(Burma) 95 K

ASSAMESE'(Assam, India; Bangladesh) 15-22 M alphabet similar

to Bengali Books in Print lists 3 publications.

ASU(ED Africa) 100K

ATAYAL(Taiwan) 36 K

ATJEHNESE see ACHINESE

ATJEHNESE see ACHINESE

AUSHI 0 (EC Africa) 29 K

AVAMBA see AMBO

AVAR 60 (USSR Daghestan, Azerbaijan SSR) 350 K

Awadhi India 20 M

AYMARA(Bolivia; Peru) 2 M uses Roman alphabet Books in Print

lists 0 publications.

Aymara, Central Bolivia 2

AZANDE see ZANDE

AZERBAIJANI (Iran; Azer, SSR) 14 M Books in Print lists 0

publications.

Azerbaijani, North Azerbaijan 7 M

Azerbaijani, South Iran 24 M

AZTEC see NAHUA

BAAKPE (NWC Africa) 16K

BACHAMA (Nigeria) 12K

BADAGA (S India, Tamil Nadu) 70K

BADE (Nigeria) 32K

BAFANG (Cameroon)68K

BAFOU (Cameroon) 41K

BAGIRMI (Chad) 35K

BAGOBO (Philippine Is. ) 21K

Bagri India 2 M

BAHASA IND see INDONESIAN

BAHNAR (S Vietnam) 85K

BAI see PAI

BAKUE (Liberia, Ivory Coast) 16K

BALANTA (Guinea-Bissau, Senegal) 167K

BALANTAK (S Sulawesi, Celebes)125K

Bali Indonesia 3 M

BALI (NEC Africa) 38K

BALINESE (Indonesia) 3M Books in Print lists 0 publications.

BALKAR see KARACHAY

Balochi, Southern Pakistan 3 M

BALUCHI (Bakuchistan, Pakistan) 4M Books in Print lists 2

publications.

Bamanankan Mali 2 M

BAMBRA (Mali, Senegal, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast) 2M Books

in Print lists 0 publications.

BAMILEKE (Cameroon) 2M Books in Print lists 0 publications.

BAMOUN (Cameroon) 75K

BANDA (WC Africa ) 350K

BANEN (NWC Africa) 27K

BANGANTE (Cameron) 67K

BANGBA (WC Africa) 700K

BANGGAI (S Sulawesi Celebes) 200K

Banjar Indonesia 3 M

BANNA (Ethiopia) 23K

BANONI (Soloon Is.) 12K

BANTU (Africa) several languages most have 17 classes of nouns

BANYUN (Guinea-Bissau, Senegal) 18K

Baoule Côte d'Ivoire 2 M

BARAMBU (Sudan,Congo) 46K

BARE'E (C Sulawesi Celebes) 350K

BARGU (Benin, Togo, Nigeria) 240K

BARI (Sudan, Uganda, Zaire) 400K

BASA (NWC Africa) 160K

BASARI (Guinea, Senegal, Gabia) 12K

BASHERAWA (Nigeria) 20K

BASHKIR (Bashkir ASSR, USSR) 1M alphabet is Cyrilic + 9

BASIC SPANISH Same note as basic French SPELLING GM,

PORT,SPAN, ITAL DIVERGENCE IS LITLE but Eng, Fr & Irish

bad It is impossible to reduce E spelling to any system. But Fr can

be.

BASQUE, LABOURDIV, LOWNAVARESE, GUIPUZCOAN,

Batak Toba Indonesia 2 M

BATAK TODA (including Anakola) Indonesia (see Karo-Diri) 4M

uses Roman alphabet and Batak Script 16L + modifications. Books

in Print lists 0 publications.

BATS (Georgian SSR) 23 noun cases 2K

BATTA (Cameroon) 23K

BAULE (Coted'lvoire) 2M

BEACH-LA-MAR see BISLAMA

BEBELE (NWC Africa) 24K

BEJA (Kassaia, Sudan; Ethiopia) 1M

Belarusan Belarus 10

BELORUSSIAN (Belorussian SSR) 9M

Bemba Zambia 2 M

BEMBA (Zambia) 2M uses Roman alphabet

BENA (EC Africa) 158K

Bengali 207 M

Bengali Bangladesh 207 M

BENGALI 184M (Ganges delta area of India, Pakistan 135M) Nx4

minimal x#=8total, Vx13 several types, ADJ=0, PNS #, vowel=11

consents=35 Indo-European De Vanagari alphabet Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

BERBA (Benin) 44K

BERBER see KABYLE, RIFF, SHULH, TAMASHEK

BERMESE 10WRTSYS +, 39CHRCTRS 57, MONO SYLLABIC

+AGG each syllable may have many meanings Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

BERTA (Ethiopia, Sudan) 28K

Betawi Indonesia 2 M

BETE (Ivory Coast) 900K

BETI (Cameroon; Gabon; Eq. Guinea) 2M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

BHIL Part of the Dravidian family gender is not by sex but by

caste of superior and inferior beings with women often classified

as inferior the same as objects; moderately agglutinative with

nounªroot +pl+case ending which is the same for the plural as for

singular.

BHILI (India) 3M Books in Print shows 0 publications.

Bhojpuri India 26

BHOJPURI (India) 10 M Books in Print shows 0 publications.

BHOTIA see DZONGKHA

BHUTANI see DZONGKHA

BHUTIA (India, Nepal) 30K

BIAFADA (Guinea-Bissau) 12K

Bicolano, Central Philippines 2

BIDYO (Chad) 14K

BIHARI (India, Nepal) 50 M = Bhojpuri, Maithill, Magahi

BIHARI, Bhojpuri, Maithili, Magahi (India, Nepal) 50 M Books

in Print shows 0 publications.

BIISA (EC Africa) 42K

BIKOL (SE Luzon, Philippines) 4 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

BILAAN (Philippine Is.) 3M Books in Print shows 0 publications.

BILIN (Ethiopia) 32K

BINI, EDO (Nigeria) 1M Books in Print shows 1 publication.

BINJI (WC Africa) 64K

BIRA (NEC Africa) 32K

BIRIFO (Ghana, Burkina Faso) 90K

BISA (Ghana, Burkina Faso) 127K

BISAYA see SEBUANO

BISCAYAN (SW France, NW Spain) G0 N+45sufxs, ADJ0, V90

600K no connection with any other language uses Roman

alphabet, extremely difficult structure and vocabulary Books in

Print lists 0 publications.

BISLAMA (BEACH-LA-MAR) (Vanuatu, Solomon Is) 100K

BITARE (Nigeria) 50K

BLACKFOOT (Alberta, Saskatchewan, USA, Montana)

polysynthetic structure: words seldom have individual status,

separate word parts have no separate meaning, entire sentences

formed by one word. 6K uses Roman alphabet

BOBO (Mali, Burkina Faso) 390K

BODO (NE India) 200K

BOHEMIAN CZECK CHRS80 GNDERS 2 N 9S +9PL=18, V

6PER CASE =18 MANY FORMS many formed with prefixes,

ADJ gender + # + case

BOIKEN (New Guinea) 17K

BOLEWA (Nigeia) 100K

BOMOUGOUN-BAMENJOU (Niger-Congo) 25K

BONDEI (EC Africa) 28K

BONTOK (Philippine Is.) 30K

Bouyei China 2 M

Brahui Pakistan 2 M

BRAHUI (Pakistan; Afghan; Iran) Part of the Dravidian family

gender is not by sex but by caste of superior and inferior beings

with women often classified as inferior the same as objects;

moderately agglutinative with noun-root +pl+case ending which is

the same for the plural as for singular. 1 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

BRETON (France Brittany) G2, N2, Verbs many intricate rules of

pronunciation, archaic orthography (spelling not phonetic)

adjective after noun 800K

BRU (N,S Vietnam, Laos) 40K

BUDU (NEC Africa) 83K

BUDUMA (Chad) 45K

BUGINESE (S Sulawesi Celebes) 3M uses Buginese script Books

in Print shows 0 publications.

Bugis Indonesia 3 M

BUGIS (Indonesia, Malaysia) 4M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

BUGOMBE (NEC Africa) 12K

BUJA (NWC Africa) 100K

BUKIDNON (Philippine Is.) 41K

BULGARIAN (Bulgaria) 9M CHAR=64 G3, N15, ADJ11,V36

PERSONS EXPRESSED BY ENDINGS, simplified declensions

OLD BULGARIAN 39CHAR=32*2=64 uses Cyrillic Books in

Print shows 15 publications.

BULU (NWC Africa) 170K uses Roman alphabet + 2

BUNAK (Timor Is.) 50K

BUNGKU (C Sulawesi Celebes)180K

BUNUN (Taiwan) 21K

BUOL (N Sulawesi, Indonesia) 150K

BURJI (Ethiopia) 15K

BURMESE (Burma, Myanmar) 32 M, G0, N0, ADJ0, V0, 5tones,

uses classifiers; structure is monosyllabic invariable, do not add

affixes, grammatical relations generally indicated by position of

the word in the sentence, TONE used to distinguish among

different meanings of the same word uses rounded script 42 L

Books in Print shows 8 publications.

BURRA (Nigeria, Cameroon) 400K

BURUN (Sudan) 18K

BURUNGI (Tanzania) 11K

BURUSHASKI (India NW Kashmir, Pakistan) 25K _no written

form

BURYAT (USSR Buryat ASSR) 290K uses Cyrillic +3

BUSA (Benin, Nigeria) 30K

BUSHMAN see SAN

BUSOONG (NWC Africa) 30K

BUTE (Cameroon) 16K

BUTUNG (SE Sulawesi Celebes) 200K

BUYI (S. Guizhou, S China) 2 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

BVIRI (WC Africa) 16K

BWAKA (WC Africa) 17K

BYELORUSSIAN (Byelorussian SSR, USSR) G3, N26 +IRR,

ADJ28, V30 +IRR 7GROUPS, PNS+6 has palatalisation 10 M

Books in Print shows 0 publications.

CAGA (NEC Africa) 237K

CAKCHIQUEL (Guatemala) 400K

CAMBODIAN see KHMER Has most 72 letters in alphabet

CAMPA (Peru) 30K

CANARESE Part of the Dravidian family gender is not by sex but

by caste of superior and inferior beings with women often

classified as inferior the same as objects; moderately agglutinative

with nounªroot +pl+case ending which is the same for the plural as

for singular.

CANTONESE, Yue (China; Hong-kong) 63 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

CARIB (Brazil, Suriname, Gyana, Fr Guinea) 5 K Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

CATALAN (NE Spain; S France; Andorra) 9M uses Roman

alphabet Books in Print shows 24 publications.

Catalan-Valencian-Balear Spain 6

CATALONIAN 39CHRS=64, ARTICLES=10

CAUCASIAN (group of languages from Caucasus region of

USSR) becoming extinct heavy in consonant sounds and

grammatical genders, strange structure

CAYAPO (NW Brazil) 10K

CEBUANO, SEBUANO (Bohol Sea area, Philippines) 15 M

Books in Print shows 0 publications.

CHAGGA (Kilimanjaro area, Tanzania) 1 M Books in Print shows

0 publications.

CHAM (Vietnam, Kampuchea) 150K

CHAMBA (Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad) 700K

CHAMORRO (Guam) 51K

CHARAU (S Vietnam) 15K

CHATINO (Mexico) 19K

CHATTIS-GARHI (India) 5 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

CHECHEN (Georgian, Kazakh SSR) about 23 noun cases 700K

CHEREMIS see MARI

CHEROKEE (USA, N Carolina, Oklahoma) polysynthetic

structure: words seldom have individual status, separate word parts

have no separate meaning, entire sentences formed by one word.

40K uses Roman alphabet + cher = 86 char

CHEWA see NYANJA

CHEYENNE (USA Montana, Oklahoma) polysynthetic structure:

words seldom have individual status, separate word parts have no

separate meaning, entire sentences formed by one word. 4K

Chhattisgarhi India 11 M

CHIBCHA (South America) polysynthetic structure: words seldom

have individual status, separate word parts have no separate

meaning, entire sentences formed by one word.

CHICKASAW (Oklahoma) 2.5 K uses Roman alphabet

CHIGA (Ankole, Uganda) 1 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

CHIMBU (New Guinea) 119K

CHINANTEC (Mexico) 27K

CHINESE (China, Taiwan, SE Asia, USA) G0, N0, ADJ0, V0

BUT: LIMITED TO 420 SOUND COMBINATIONS 4 TONES

ARE US ED UNPHONETICALLY WRITEN as many as 26

characters all written differently with different meanings have the

same Romanized spelling; Other Berlitz states some syllables have

50 different meanings, 6,000 minimum but 20-50,000 to

understand average paper; structure is monosyllabic invariable, do

not add affixes, grammatical relations and meaning generally

indicated by position of the word in the sentence and TONE (used

to distinguish among different meanings of the same word)

OFTEN UP TO 4 WORDS NEEDED TO FORM ONE IDEA, 2

word compounds very common, classifier words often used;

PROBLEMS the writing system requiring a minimum of 6000

characters, the tonal system for delimiting meanings these are very

difficult for the average person to master in most languages the

rising and falling inflections of the voice is used to express

emphasis and different feelings; the large number of dialects many

of which are incomprehensible and should be considered separate

languages, "verbs only roots, *poor in time distinctions"{Pei SOL}

UN language, Chung-wen Ta Tzutien dictionary lists 49,905

characters, the fourth tone of "i" has 84 meanings, varying as

widely as 'dress', 'hiccough' and 'licentious', the written language

provides 92 different characters of 'i4'. The most complex written

character xie consists of 64 strokes, nang has 36. NOTES may be

oldest language grammar simple, direct, concise, no endings and

cases and declensions and conjugations. words single syllable,

capable of infinite expansion by process of composition. can say in

five words what it will take a western language five sentences.

sounds and tones are remote and unfamiliar to most other peoples,

isolated lang. In Chinese the tone is as essential to the word a the

sound itself and is not fixed four tones even upper, even lower,

rising and falling meaning also is determined by position of word

in the sentence if phonetized #of speakers will shrink, 1 B Books

in Print shows 110 publications.

Chinese, Gan China 20 M

Chinese, Hakka China 33 M

Chinese, Jinyu China 45 M

Chinese, Mandarin China 874 M

Chinese, Min Bei China 10 M

Chinese, Min Nan China 45 M

Chinese, Wu 77 M

Chinese, Wu China 77 M

Chinese, Xiang China 36 M

Chinese, Yue 71 M

Chinese, Yue China 71 M

CHINGPAW (Burma, S China) 180K

CHIPEWYAN, Chippewa (USA Alaska, NW Canada) 6K uses

Roman alphabet +3 + marks, has the most verb forms of any

language 6,000.

Chittagonian Bangladesh 14 M

CHNG-CHIA see PUYI

CHOCTAW (USA Oklahoma) 12K

CHOKWE see CIOKWE

CHOL (Mexico) 31K

CHONTAL (Mexico) 19K

CHORTI (Guatemala Honduas) 33K

CHUANG, Kwangsi (S.E. CHINA) uses Roman alphabet 32 L 19

c 8 vw 5 Tones 8 M

CHUAVE (New Guinea) 21K

CHUJ (Guatemala) 14K

CHUKCHI (USSR Chukchi Peninsula) 14K Cyrillic +2 WORDS

PRONUNCED DIFFERENTLY BY MALES AND FEMALES

CHUVASH (Chuvash ASSR, USSR) 2M Cyrillic + 4 Books in

Print shows 1 publication.

CIGA (NEC Africa) 272K

CINGA (NWC Africa) 13K

CIOKWE, CHOKWE (SWC Africa) 700K

CIRCASSIAN see KABARDIAN

COCAMA see KOKAMA

COORG see KODAGU

COPTIC (Egypt) word-root usually has 3 consonants with shifting

vowels to carry meanings 32 L * 2

CORNISH (Great Britain)

CREE (CANADA, USA, Montana) polysynthetic structure: words

seldom have individual status, separate word parts have no

separate meaning, entire sentences formed by one word. 50K uses

Cree Script

CREEK (Oklahoma) 7K uses Roman alphabet + 5

CROATIAN see SERBO-CROATIAN uses Roman alphabet

CROW (Montana) 3.5K uses Roman alphabet

CUA (S Vietnam) 12K

CUICATEC (Mexico) 10K

CUNA (Panama, Columbia) 20K

CYRLIC ALPHABET 48u+48L

CZECH (Czechoslovakia) 12 M, GNDRS 3, N21 SVRL TYPES

+OTHR DIFF, V81 SEVERAL TYPES, ADJ24 orX17X2X3=102,

pn-adj declined30 pns+10, no articles 100s of irregularities

NUMERALS DECL MFN*13, CZECH GNDRS 3, NX14 SVRL

TYPES +OTHR DIFF, VX18 SEVERAL TYPES, ADJ

X17X2X3=102 NUMERALS DECL MFN*13, per Pei has initial

DABA (Cameroon) 13K

DAGARA (Ghana, Burkina Faso) 75K

DAGARI (Ghana, Burkina Faso) 200K

DAGBANI (Ghana, Togo) 409K

DAGHUR, DAGUR (NW Manchuria) 75K

DAJU (Chad) 60K

DAKA (Nigeria, Cameroon) 53K

DAKOTA, SIOUX (USA, N,S Dakota, Montana) 15K uses Roman

alphabet

DAN (Liberia, Ivory Coast) 100K

DANAKIL see AFAR

DANGALEAT (Chad) 16K

DANISH (Denmark) 5 M, GNDRS 3; N 3; V 16 Adjective 6; PNS

46; ARTCLS #8 CRTRS 58; SNDS 18vwls N three cases many

forms; VERBS 7 CLASSES w-s, 6 main diff forms also modal

verbs signal nuances, ADJ GNZ + show definiteness + pl, must

agree; some adverbs become vague when unstressed (from bc)

[1+,2-,3-,4-,5-,6-,7-,8-,9-,10+,11+, 265k, 27gndrs3 has 9 basic

vowels which can be long or short 39CHRS=58 Only case is

possessives, NOUNS most pl n end in -r, genderized m,f,n, three

cases many forms VERBS 7 CLASSES weak, strong, 6 main

forms have great variation in the verbs of each class, also have

modal verbs signal nuances of meaning when used as aux verbs,

lack markers for person or number but some change (another

source*16) ADJ GENDERIZED and show definiteness ans

plurality as are articles, & have extra articles must agree

comparison is shown in 4 ways ADV some are marked +2

PRONOUNS 14 + 32 lang is SVO Certain adverbs rave regular

meanings when stressed become vague when unstressed SP5M

uses Roman alphabet Books in Print shows 40 publications.

DARGWA, KHJURKILI (C Daghestan SSR) 200K

DASENECH (Ethiopia) 18K

Deccan India 10 M

DELAWARE polysynthetic structure: words seldom have

individual status, separate word parts have no separate meaning,

entire sentences formed by one word. uses Roman alphabet + 8

DERASA (Ethiopia) 250K

DEVANAGAI ALPHABET USED BY SANSKIRT, HINDI,

HINDUSTANI, MARAKHI, GUAJARATI AND MANY INDIAN

LANG WORDS SPELLED EXACTLY AS SOUND 428

characters.

Digo (NEC Africa) 32K

DIMLI (EC Turkey) 1M

DINKA (Sudan, Ethiopia) 500K

DIOLA (Guinea-Bissau, Gambia) 200K

DOGON (Mali, Burkina Faso) 150K

DOGRI Kangri (Jammu-Kashmir, C and E India) 2 M Books in

Print shows 0 publications.

DONG (Guizhou, Hunan, Guangxi China) 2 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

DUALA (NWC Africa) 19K

DUKAWA (Nigeria) 19K

DUNA (New Guinea) 14K

DURU (Cameroon) 32K

DUTCH-FLEMISH (Netherlands; Belgium) 20 M, Books in Print

shows 100 publications. 27gndrs3, 35artls 28; 29N N=4; 31V=9;

33adj=40; 35PN*8 39crtrs 54; 15 CASES, adjective 4x10=40 n x8

many irregular, pronouns x8 some have 29forms; n+s in dative, +e

dative, 3per +t in w, plural irregular v7 forms +2 past; but many

irr+-,d,t,en; tvs differently than int, future uses aux zullen; past part

adds ge-; count only as endings but count irregular verbs times 9

although some v have 11 forms, vx12; many dialects; less inflect

Gm LANGUAGE IS NOT PRECISE! de deur is gesloten means

either the door has been closed by somebody or the door is shut;

PER PRONS 32 forms; ADJS genderizd 2; NEW words

assimilated with some difficulty because of grammar and severe

restrictions on affixation. has a system of diminutives, very

difficult to learn (k), 1 sound per letter chars 54, genders 3,artls

declensions 4x5=20 adjective 4x10=40 n x8 many irregular,

pronouns x8, vx12 has many dialects spoken in Netherlands,

Belgium has less inflectional endings than Gm, uses Roman

alphabet NOUNS in some areas genderized but in some only

singular and pl 3rd person adds t in weak VERBS basically past

and non-past 7 forms +2 past, but many irregular verbs add

nothing or d or t or en, transitive verbs act differently than in-t in

perfect tenses, future uses aux zullen, past part adds geª, count only

as endings but count irregular verbs times 9, SP21M Per Katzner

“Exceedingly difficult to learn.”

DYE (Togo) 17K

DYERMA (SW Nigeria) 2 M Books in Print shows 0 publications.

DYIMINI see TAGBANA-DYIMINI

DYULA (Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Ghana) 1.5 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

DZINDZA (NEC Africa) 67K

DZONGKHA, BHUTANI, BHOTIA (Bhutan) 800K

EDO (Bendel, S Nigeria; WCam.)see BINI 1 M Books in Print

shows 1 publication.

EFIK incl. Lbibio (SE Nigeria; W. Cam) 6 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

EKOI (Cameroon, Nigeria) 90K

EMBO (EC Africa) 200K

Emiliano-Romagnolo Italy 3 M

ENGA (New Guinea) 120K

ENGENNI (Nigeria) 12K

ENGLISH 341 native, 443 M total speakers UN language,

unphonetically written {rebuttal the language is extremely

confusing, not merely spelling but pronunciation and grammar, no

standard form, refuse to have any, sounds are among the most

confusing in world, with vowels and diphthongs that have

bewildering glides when they are stressed and are completely

unclear when unstressed. consonant clusters are harsh and

unpleasant to the ear, stress is unpredictable, spelling is ghastly, if

phoetized half of word-stock will be unrecognizable in written

form, the grammatical simplicity is a snare and a delusion, tricky

auxiliary verbs like do and have {'Do you have a book?';'Have you

got a book?'} are the despair of grammarians, the system of

functional change, whereby the same word may be used as any of

four parts os speech confusing, much too given to slang and

jargon, and is changing too fast}; per Pei no characters except '

,accentuation stress usually on initial syllable but numerous

exceptions, is half French-Latin and half GermanicªAnglo-Saxon

so that thousands of English words are recognizable in Spanish,

Italian, Portuguese, Dutch-Flemish, Afrikaans, Scandinavian and

above languages; Per Berlitz English vocabulary is more than

twice the size of any other language the next biggest is German. Is

40-45% French. p 296 NL; HAS MOST IRREGULAR VERBS

283, also has largest vocabulary over a million words. has words

over 30 letters in length Books in Print shows 130 publications.

BASIC ENGLISH too limited "The basic process of paraphrase

and of breaking down acquired concepts into elementary

definitions is difficult for both foreigners and native speakers, but

particularly hard on the latter, whose English-speaking habits are

firmly established. It is not everyone who can remember that he

must substitute 'without thought of others' for 'selfish.' NOTES is a

distortion of a living language. the only improvement is limitation

which is no improvement because the language of the future needs

an abundant word-stock capable of taking care of all needs, 850

not adequate, allow special sets of words, bewildering to English

speakers, translation problems very frustrating, combinations of

nouns and adverbs, nouns and prepositions, are highly idiomatic

and highly tricky, as well as logically inaccurate. Nothing is done

to simplify the problems of English pronunciation or of English

grammar, or to offer standardization. "set" has 58 noun and 126

verbal uses; "inebriated' has 2,241 synonyms EPERA (Columbia,

Panama) 20K

EPIE (Nigeria) 26K

ESKIMO INUIT, Inupik, Yupik, INUPIAC, INUKTITUT,

ESPERANTO (in over 100 countries) N=1, ADJ0, V0, CHARS

28*2 GRAMATICALNOTIONS ARE EXPRESSED BY

ENDINGS, 6 PARTICIPALS, WORD ORDER FREE OSV, SVO

2M sounds represented by a single symbol, accent on

penult,"coupled with a simple syllabic arrangement, makes

Esperanto harmonious tongue, easy to speak, read, and spell." the

article la is invariable like the English "the,""the vocabulary is a

near-perfect blend" well suited for translation of literary works as

well as for the production of native literature. Endorsed by the

Assn for Adv of Science over all langs. Was criticized for too many

Ger roots but has a sys that adopts roots from different sources.

(Pei olfw) Books in Print shows 16 publications But there are over

3000 listed in the international catalog. The "very simple

grammar, which presents so few complications that anyone can

learn it in half an hour." (Pei M OLFW p185) (NOTES system of

suffixes and word-formation lends itself to infinite expansion of

vocabulary and full-fledged literary use, sounds are easy for all to

pronounce, has taken only those sounds which most civilized

languages hold in common. syllabic arrangement is open and clear

so that it vies with Italian in harmony and euphony, grammar so

simple a child can learn it, vocabulary represents a blend of the

two most numerous groups of the Indo-European stock, the Latin-

Romance and Germanic, but also some Greek, Slavic, Oriental

words. System of spelling and accentuation is such that no one

need ever be in doubt as to how any one word is pronounced when

seen in writing or spelled when heard. Smaller nations favor

Esperanto as it puts their citizens on a pane of absolute linguistic

equality with those of the larger and more powerful world states.

When most people hear the term international language they think

of Esperanto. criticism of characters ESPERANTO sounds

represented by a single symbol, accent on penult,"coupled with a

simple syllabic arrangement, makes E a harmonious tongue, easy

to speak, read, and spell." the article la is invariable like the

English "the," "the vocabulary is a near-perfect blend" well suited

for translation of literary works as well as for the production of

native literature. Endorsed by the Assn for Advancement of

Science over all other langs. Was criticized for too many German

roots but has a system that adopts roots from different sources. (Pei

olfw)

ESTONIAN (Estonian SSR, USSR) art0, G0, N5, ADJ5, V21+IRR

1 M Books in Print shows 6 publications. ETHIOPIAN (Ethiopia)

word-root usually has 3 consonants with shifting vowels to carry

meanings Books in Print shows 7 publications.

ETON (NWC Africa ) 112K

EUSKARA see Basque

EVEN see LAMUT

EVENKI (SIBERIA, NE China) 20K Cyrillic +1 L

EWE (SE Ghana; S Togo) 3 M uses Roman alphabet + 4L Books

in Print shows 1 publication.

EWONDO (NWC Africa ) 93K

FAEROESE, FAROESE (Faeroe Is.) 40K

FALI (Cameroon) 50K

FANG-BULU (Dialects of Beti, .v.) 400K uses Roman alphabet +

2

FANTE see AKAN

FAROESE see FAEROESE (N. Scotland) Like old Norse,

Icelandic uses Roman alphabet

FARSI see PERSIAN

Farsi, Western Iran 24

FARSU (Iranian form of Persian q.v.)

FIBA (EC Africa ) 78K

FIJIAN (Fiji Is) 250K uses Roman alphabet + accent mark

FINNISH (Finland; Sweden) 6 M, G=0, N15, ADJ8, V13 & USE

SUFFIXES, 85 DECLENSIONS, 45 CONJ no imperialistic

tendencies, simple sounds, writing phonetic, logical grammar but

complex, 15 cases and endings, vocabulary exceedingly difficult to

learn, uninternational, uses Roman alphabet, 1 sound per letter

Books in Print shows 40 publications.

FLEMISH (see Dutch see Netherlandic) uses Roman alphabet

FON (SC Benin; S Togo) 1 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

FOX (Oklahoma, Iowa) 1.5 K = Sac, Sauk uses Roman alphabet +

FRAFRA (Ghana) 138k

FRENCH 121M, G2, N25, ADJ25, V100 UN language,

UNPHONETICALLY WRITTEN VERBS four conjugation types

of verbs + sub types so 6 verb sys must be memorized; six types

shown; each has 6 conjugations in present THIS = 36 then add the

following which are for ALL VERBS add 6 for imperfect, 6 for

pres subjunctive, + 6 for future. Books in Print shows 400

publications. 6 for conditional and 6 for past part; PAST SIMPLE

is different for regular and irregular verbs= 6 forms for each type;

TOTAL IS 6*7=42 + FOR 6 TYPES =252 POSSIBLE NOUNS 3

gender(was*five declension*5 case); ADJ SAME AS NOUNS

vary in number, gender; PRONOUNS appear to be 19 just in 3rd

person alone, many sets of pronouns; conjunctive p, is junctive p,

3rd per reflex, + unmarked sub p, +gentive which lacks a human

form (NOTES The sound scheme is difficult, lends itself to

confusion and misunderstanding, grammatical structure complex,

especially verbs, spelling is antiquated and misleading, if

phonetized few of your words and forms will be recognized, not

suitable for masses) uses Roman alphabet, rapidity 350 syllable per

min most rapid of all lang some people have trouble understanding

it, per Pei accentuation irregular. FRENCH BASIC FRENCH

was doomed to failure by reason of '"greater complexity of the

Romance languages, particularly for what regards verb forms, and

the fact that they do not lend themselves as easily as does English

to the process of paraphrase" uses Roman alphabet

FRISIAN (Netherlands) 300K is a low German Dialect, closer to

English than any other, uses Roman alphabet

FRIULIAN (N Italy) 350K D Romansch, D Ladin dialect

FULA, PEULH (Cameroon; Nigeria) 13 M Books in Print shows

2 publications.

FULAKUNDA (Senegambia; Guinea Bissau) 2 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

FULANI, FUL (W Africa ) 15M =Fula, Fulbe, "rich &

sophisticated"

Fulfulde, Nigerian Nigeria 7 M

FULIRO (NWC Africa ) 56K

FUR (Sudan, Chad) 300K

FUTA JALON (NW Guinea; Sierra Leone 3 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

Fuuta Jalon Guinea 2 M

GA (Ghana, Togo, Benin) 300K

GADBA (EC India) 9K

GADDANG (Philippine Is.) 20K

GAELIC, GALA, see ORMO (Scotland) uses Gaelic Script 75K

GAGAUZ (USSR, Moldavian) 150K

GAHUKU (New Guinea) 23K

GALICIAN (Galicia, NW Spain) 4M dialect of Portuguese

GALLA see OROMO

GAMBAI (Chad, Central Africa Rep.) 235K

GAN (Burkina Faso) 51K

GANDA, LUGANDA, BAGANDA (NEC Africa S Uganda) 3 M

Books in Print shows 0 publications.

GARHWALI (India) 2 M Books in Print shows 0 publications.

GARO (NE India) 350K

GAYO (N Sumatra) 120K

GBARI (Nigeria) 155K

GBAYA (WC Africa ) 300K

GEORGIAN, GRUZINIAN (Georgian SSR, USSR) has 23 noun

cases, has most consonants per Pei 4M

GERMAN 100+ M Genders 3; N 8; V 31; Adjective 8 ; PRN *8;

ARTL 29; CRTRS 54; N 10 endings shown 4 cases sing=4 4

cases pl=4 one set added for der die das= 4mas, 4frm, 4nu, 4

plural total 14; six forms der, den, des, dem, das, die) ADJ

INFLECTIONS 4 cases sing=4 4 cases pl=4 total =8; BUT there

is a separate set each for weak, strong and mixed nouns; so add

8+8 to the 8=24 PN 4 cases singular 1st=4 2nd=4 3rd=4 m=4 f=4

n=4; 4 cases plural 1st=4 2nd=4 3rd=4 polite=4 grand total=36;

have to memorized 4 cases and what they mean; prepositions

different prepositions assign acc case, dative case or genitive case.

case alternation carries a difference in meaning; DIFFERENT

adjectives assign case; V many take prepositional phrases; must

memorized whether verb is weak or strong=1 thirty 30 variations

in endings for each total=31 they are: infin, pres participial, past

part, imperative 2nd sg, imper 2nd pl, present 1, pr2, pr3, pr pl1,

prpl2, prpl3,prSie2nd +repat all pr for subjunctive, PAST same 6

forms as pr indicative+ 6 forms for subjunctive total verbs 31 per

verb articulation distinct, sounds harsh, extensive vocabulary,

consonat clusters, grammatical structure and word arrangement is

unnatural illogical, hard to pronounce Knechtschaft or

unmanageable compounds Kriegsgefangenenentschadigungsgesetz

law to provide compensation for war prisoners. uses Roman

alphabet Per John A Hawking(FROM BC) spoken in many c

mostly in Europe nouns all genderized m f n and to pl 10 endings

shown but most show {word=1 genders=1 4 cases sing=4 4 cases

pl=4 total 14 the one set added for der die das= 4mas, 4frm, 4nu, 4

plural (total of six forms der, den, des, dem, das, die) ADJ

INFLECTIONS 4 cases sing=4 4 cases pl=4 total =8 BUT there is

a separate set each for weak, strong and mixed nouns so add 8+8 to

the 8 = total of 24 (but still only 8 needed) so ADD 1 TO NOUNS

MUST KNOW WHICH TYPE IT IS per pronouns 4 cases singular

1st=4 2nd=4 3rd=4 m=4 f=4 n=4 4 cases plural 1st=4 2nd=4

3rd=4 polite=4 grand total=36 have to memorized 4 cases and

what they mean prepositions different prepositions assign acc case,

dative case or genitive case. case alternation carries a difference in

meaning DIFFERENT adjectives assign case, VERBS many take

prepositional phrases must memorized whether verb is weak or

strong=1thirty 30 variations in endings for each total=31they are:

infinitive, pres participial, past part, imperative 2nd sg, imper 2nd

pl, present 1, pr2, pr3, pr pl1, prpl2, prpl3,prSie2nd +repat all pr

for subjunctive, PAST same 6 forms as pr indicative+ 6 forms for

subjunctive total verbs 31 per verb [END BC] (NOTES

articulation distinct, sounds harsh, extensive vocabulary, consonat

clusters, grammatical structure and word arrangement is unnatural

and illogical, hard to pronounce Knechtschaft or unmanageable

compounds like Kriegsgefangenenentschadigungsgesetz law to

provide compensation for war prisoners. Books in Print shows

1000 publications. 118

GIDDER (Cameroon, Chad) 38K

Gikuyu Kenya 5 M

GILAKI (Gilan, NW Iran) 3 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

GILBERTESE, KIRIBATI (Kiribati) 50K

GILYAK (E USSR) 3K

GIMI (New Guinea) 17K

GIPSY see ROMANY

GISIGA (Cameroon) 18K

GOAJIRO (Columbia, Venezuela) 40K

GOGO (EC Africa ) 270 K Books in Print shows 0 publications.

GOGO (Riff Valley; Tanzania) 1M

GOLA (Liberia, Sierra Leone)150K

GOND Part of the Dravidian family gender is not by sex but by

caste of superior and inferior beings with women often classified

as inferior the same as objects; moderately agglutinative with

nounªroot +pl+case ending which is the same for the plural as for

singular.

GONDI (India) 2 M Books in Print shows 0 publications.

GORONTALO (N Sulawesi, Indonesia) 900K

GREBO (Liberia, Ivory Coast) 50K

GREEK (Greece) 12 M, G3, ART17, CHRS96, N82, ADJ12,

VOVER100, variant forms of some letters have no fixed rule for

use diphthongs 11, accents inflectional endings are used to indicate

cases of which there are 5 non, gender, dat, acc, voc ;;three genders

inflected inflections for singular and plural numbers. Greek also

has a dual number. nouns have 3 classes or declensions each o

which have several subdivisions depending on case ending. chart

shows 3 times 8 for nouns; adjective chart shows 6 x 8; pronouns

decline like nouns or adjectives chart shows3 for each pronoun;

adverbs add 1; verbs inflect as to person, number, tense, voice,

mood and participles as to case number and gender.11 x 10 and 47

x 2; the definite article is declined 4 x6; indefinite article 4 x 3;

alphabet has 24 letters; 7v a, e, long e, i, o, u, long o,17 con;

(Ancient Indo-European grammatical structure is largely out of

vogue today. Few people would want to cope with intricate

systems of noun declensions and verb conjugations. Some Greek

words are widespread most of the vocabulary is unknown.) uses

Greek Script, vocabulary 80,000 words lacks modern terms Books

in Print shows 400 publications.

GREENLANDIC (Greenland) most difficult, complicated,

inflected, USES 63 NOUN FORMS OF PRESENT CASE AND

SIMPLE NOUNS HAVE AS MANY AS 252 INFLECTIONS 80K

uses Roman alphabet and Cyrillic 40K

GREENLANDIC see ESKIMO

GRISHUN see ROMANSCH

GRUZINIAN see GEORGIAN

GUAHIBO (Columbia, Venezuela) 40K

GUAN (G) (Ghana) 53K

GUARANI see TUPI (Paraguay) 4 M uses Roman alphabet Books

in Print shows 0 publications.

Guarani, Paraguayan Paraguay 5

GUAYMI (Panama) 10K

GUINEAN

GUJARATI 46 M (W and C India; S Pakistan) 38M similar to

Hindi Books in Print shows 0 publications.

GUMUZ (Ethiopia, Sudan) 53K

GUOYU (standardized Northern Chinese or Beifanghua) claimed

709 M

GURAGE (Ethiopia) 700K

GURKHALI see NEPALI

GURMA (Togo, Burkina Faso) 990K

GUSII (kisii District, Nyana, Kenya) 2

GUTOB (India) 50K

GWANDARA (Nigeria, Niger)15K

GWERE (NEC Africa ) 162K

GYPSY see Romany

HA (NEC Africa) 286K

HADIYA, HADIYYA (Ethiopia) 600K

HAIDA (N. AMERICA) N. American Indian language has the

most prefixes of any national language with 70.

HAITIAN (CREOLE) (Haiti) 7 M Books in Print shows 1

publication.

HAKA (Burma) 85K

HAKKA (or Kejia) (SE China) 32M

HALANG (S Vietnam) 10K

HANGAZA (NEC Africa) 54K

HANI (S China) 1M

Haryanvi India 13 M

Hassaniyya Mauritania 2 M

HAUSA (N Nigeria; Niger; Cameron) 34M uses Roman alphabet

Books in Print shows 10 publications.

HAVU (NEC Africa) 50K

HAVUNESE (Sawu Is. Raidjua Is. 40K

HAWAIIAN (Hawaiian Is.) 7 K uses Roman alphabet, all syllable

end in a vowel, becoming extinct

HAYA (Kagera, NW Tanzania) 1M

HEBREW (Israel) word-root usually has 3 consonants with

shifting vowels to carry meanings 5 M 27 L Books in Print shows

200 publications.

HEHE (EC Africa) 192

HERERO (SWC Africa) 25K

HIGI (Cameroon) 15K

Hiligaynon Philippines 7 M

HILIPINO see TAGALOG

HINDUSTANI (combination of HINDI and URDU) G2, N SFXS,

ADJ0, V12; foremost of the 845 languages of India SPOKEN BY

10%; PAKISTAN 7.5% Books in Print shows 50 publications.

HINDI (INDIA SPOKEN BY 25%) 367M genders MF, N X6

SEVERAL TYPES, V 64 MF MF included verbs in a series &

compound verbs, PNS 18, 10vwls c41 Sanskrit script, written in

devanagari sanskritic script Books in Print shows 36 publications.

URDU (INDIA SPOKEN BY 4%, Pakistan, Bangladesh 60M)

CRS35 much like Hindi, uses Pero-Arabic Script, language of

Koran Islam Books in Print shows 0 publications. Books in Print

shows 30 publications.

HLOTA (India) 20K

HMONG see MIAO

HO (Bihar and Orissa States, India) 1M

HOPI (NE Arizona) 5 K Books in Print shows 2 publications.

HOTTENTOT-BUSHMAN 50 K a click language = Nama, also

grunts, uses Roman alphabet + 5

HRE (S Vietnam) 80K

HUASTEC (Mexico)50K

HUAVE (Mexico) 7K

HUELA (Ivory Coast) 50K

HUKU (NEC Africa) 13K

HULI (New Guinea) 54K

HUNDE (NEC Africa) 34K

HUNGARIAN (or Magyar) Hungary) 14 M, G=0, N USES

SUFXS MOST LEARN 20, +12, ADJ 2, V60 SOME SUFXS

considered a difficult language to learn, Asian vocabulary, uses

Roman alphabet Books in Print shows 100 publications.

HUNGU (WC Africa) 66K

HUPA (N. California)

HURON polysynthetic structure: words seldom have individual

status, separate word parts have no separate meaning, entire

sentences formed by one word.

HYPERBOREAN (many languages in NE Siberia) becoming

extinct with only a few speakers

IBAN (Kalimantan, Indonesia; Malaysia) 1 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

IBANAG (Philippine Is.) 200K

IBIBIO see Efik

IBO see IGBO

ICELANDIC (Iceland) 10WRTSYS+; 15FOD-; 20WRT=PHNCS-

; GNDRS3; N26; V36; ADJ 24; PRN*24; ARTL 22; CRTRS 70;

WRT=PHNCS- spelling fairly regular SP230K, is like old Norse

Vikings, lacks modern terminology, uses Roman alphabet

IDOMA (Nigeria) 118K

IFUGAO (Philippine Is.) 75K

IGALA (Nigeria, Benin) 100K

IGBIRRA (Nigeria) 150K

Igbo Nigeria 18 M

IGBU, IGBO, IBO (Nigeria) 8M pronounced eebu, uses Roman

alphabet, tone dictates verb form, alphabet 26+6, many sounds

close not always clear, accepts new words easily, vocabulary does

not include most modern terms, very idiomatic, no gender, spelling

phonetic.

IJAW (Niger River delta, Nigeria) 2 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

IJO, IJAW (Nigeria) 1 M Books in Print shows 0 publications.

ILA (EC Africa) 130 K Books in Print shows 1 publication.

ILOCANO, ILOKO (Philippine Is.) 8 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

ILONGGO (Philippine Is.) 2 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

INDONESIAN (Indonesia) 30 M equals Malay but has different

spelling see Malay

INGUSH (Kazakh SSR) 125K

INTERGLOSSA lang for scientists, from Greek roots, syntax of

Chinese, permits economy of words with max understanding,

neutral. Not well received. Books in Print shows 0 publications.

INTERLINGUA NO KNOWN SPEAKERS, Creators tried to

construct a language using scientific method of carefully

comparing both vocabulary and grammatical forms offered by

English, Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, German and

Russian, and isolating and adopting those features and forms which

the majority of these languages held in common. It was meant

primarily for use in written form at scientific congresses. IT IS A

CONGLOMERATION OF WESTERN TONGUES

PARTICULARLY OF LATIN AND GREEK ROOTS. It was

suggested that Interlingua use Esperanto structure but use words

from several langs. This language is meant for scientists only.

(however a language should allay prejudices this one excludes

anything not western. Rules of pronunciation and accentuation are

vague, not fixed, too much Pan-Romance, not so easily understood

by a German, Slavic or Chinese. Who under- stands interlingua

could just as easily understand English, French, Spanish or Italian

since they hold same scientific vocabulary in common. When the

control tongues fail to show a majority word Latin is chosen,

synonyms are haphazard instead of utilizing them to establish

needed distinctions of meaning. There is no true speaking

population only a read which is such that it could read half a dozen

natural languages as easily as Interlingua. IS DISCRIMINATORY

Books in Print shows 0 publications.

INUIT, INUPIAC, INUKTITUT see ESKIMO

IRAQW (Tanzania) 111K

IRAYA (Philippine Is.) 8K

IRISH, GAELIC (Ireland) VAGUE, WIDESPREAD OF

MEANING, SPELLING NOT PHONETIC, G2, ART17,

N26+FORMS, ADJ25, V70 +MANY IRR, MANY

PERIPHRASIC FORMS, PREP*7 ODD LANG intricate rules of

pronunciation, archaic orthography; adjective after noun 75K

IROQUOIS polysynthetic structure: words seldom have individual

status, separate word parts have no separate meaning, entire

sentences formed by one word.

ISHAN (Nigeria) 90K

ISLAND CARIB (Honduras, Belize) polysynthetic structure:

words seldom have individual status, separate word parts have no

separate meaning, entire sentences formed by one word. 30K

ISOKO see URHOBO

ITALIAN 62 M, G2, N2; adjective 4 forms; V42 inflections on

chart just for regular verbs over 200 irregular verbs; many suffixes

NOTES sound scheme so perfect became language of song, very

sonorous, carry better than any other language, vowels that are

clear-cut and distinct, consonants fully articulated and audible,

many dialects that are among the most divergent and complicated

in the world, grammar has greater complexities than other

Romance lang, syntax is so elastic as to be baffling, are pompous

and verbose, wordy, vocabulary not very international) ITALIAN

NOUNS m,f,pl,adj 4 forms, VERBS 42 inflections on chart just for

regular verbs over 200 irregular verbs, many suffixes NOTES

sound scheme so perfect became language of song, very sonorous,

carry better than any other language, vowels that are clear-cut and

distinct, consonants fully articulated and audible, many dialects

that are among the most divergent and complicated in the world,

grammar has greater complexities than other Romance lang, syntax

is so elastic as to be baffling, are pompous and verbose, wordy,

vocabulary not very international, uses Roman alphabet, Books in

Print shows 250 publications. has 11 variants for "the"

IXIL (Guatemala) 20K

IYALA (Nigeria) 23K

JACALTEC (Guatemala) 12K

JAPANESE 125 M, G0, N5, V152, ADJ21, Vs have negative

forms; The Verb system is exceedingly intricate; has no person or

number only tense and mood, and politeness ; no prepositions

instead uses postpositions; expressions instead of personal

pronouns; is divided by dialectal differences among speakers IS

UNRELATED TO ANY OTHER LANGUAGE, no distinction of

gender or number; "impersonal" verb, different terms being used in

the same meaning to convey shades of respect, & humility

UNPHONETICALLY WRITTEN 110M over 10,000 ideographs,

very many homonyms so phonetic impractical as each stands for a

syllable adjectives are conj like verbs. Subject or doer of action is

often left out most of the time in this language which is confusing.

Ka has 214 meanings each with a separate character. rapidity very

fast 310 second to French, has incorporated about 10 k English

words into the language. Books in Print shows 250 publications.

JARAI (Vietnam, Kampuchea) 150K

JAVANESE (Java, Malaysia) 75 M, uses Javanese Script and uses

Roman alphabet

JEH (S Vietnam) 10K

JITA (NEC Africa) 97K

JIVARO (Ecuador, Peru) 20K

JONGOR (Chad) 15K

JUANG (India) 15K

JUDAEO-GERMAN see YIDDISH

JUI see PUYI

JUKUN (Nigeria, Cameroon) 35K

Jula Burkina Faso 2 M

KABA (Chad, C African Rep.) 29K

KABRE (Togo, Benin) 157K

KABYLE (Algeria) 3 M, word-root usually has 3 consonants with

shifting vowels to carry meanings 2 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

KADARA (Nigeria) 18K

KAFA (Ethiopia, Kenya) 170K

KAGULU (EC Africa) 60K

KAJE (Nigeria) 25K

KAKO (NWC Africa) 37K

Kalenjin Kenya 2 M

KALIKO (Sudan, Zaire) 18K

KALINGA (Philippine Is.) 40K

KALMYK, KALMUK (USSR Kalmyk) 140K

KAM (SE China) 700K

KAMANO (New Guinea) 34K

KAMBA, KIKAMBA (NEC Africa) 2 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

KAMBARI (Nigeria) 67K

KAMBATA, ALBA (Ethiopia) 300K

KANAKURU (Nigeria) 11K

KANARESE see KANNADA

Kanauji India 6 M

KANJOBAL (Guatemala) 30K

KANKANAY (Philippine Is.) 91K

Kannada India 35 M

KANNADA, KANARESE (India) 20K has writing system like

Telugu

KANURI (Nigeria, Niger) 3 M Books in Print shows 1

publication.

KAONDE (WC Africa) 38K

KARABORO (Burkina Faso) 25K

KARACHAY, BALKAR (USSR, NW Caucasus) 130K

KARAKALPAK (Karakalpak ASSR) 250K

KARAMOJONG (Uganda, Kenya) 100K

KARBARDIAN, CIRCASSIAN (USSR, Kabardino-Balkar) 300K

KARELIAN (Karelskaya ASSR) 100K

KAREN (see Pho and Sgaw)

Karen, Sgaw Myanmar 2 M

KARI (Chad, Cameroon) 40K

KARO-DAIRI (N Sumatra, Indonesia) 2 M Books in Print shows

0 publications.

KASEM (Ghana, Burkina Faso) 74K

KASHMIRI (India, Kashmir, Pakistan) 4M written in both

Devanagairi & Arabic Script Books in Print shows 1 publication.

KASIMBAR (N Sulawesi Celebes) 100K

KATAB (Nigeria) 23K

KATU (S Vietnam, Laos) 25K

KAZAKH, KAZAK (Kazakh SSR, China) 8 M Books in Print

shows 1 publication.

KEBU (Togo) 17 K

KEIGANA (New Guinea) 27K

KEKCHI, QUEKCHI (Guatemala) 300K

KELA (NWC Africa) 90K

KELE (NWC Africa) 26K

KENGA (Chad) 20K

KENUZI-DONGOLA (S Egypt; Sudan) 1 M Books in Print shows

0 publications.

KERA (Cameroon) 15K

KEREBE (NEC Africa) 31K

KERINTJI (W Sumatra) 170K

KET (USSR Yenisey River) 1k

KEWA (New Guinea) 47K

KHAKAS (Khakas ASSR) 56k

KHALKA, MONGOL (Mongolian PR) 700K

KHANDESHI (India, Maharashtra) 700K

KHANTY, OSTYAK (Khanti-Mansi USSR) 14K

KHARIA (India, Bihar) 170K

KHASI (India, Assam) 400K

KHASONKE (Mali) 60K

KHJURKILI see DARGWA

KHMER, CAMBODIAN (Kampuchea, Vietnam) 7 M Khmer

Script Books in Print shows 12 publications.

KHMU (Laos, Thailand) 100K

KIBET (Sudan, Chad) 20K

KIKAMBA see KAMBA

KIKUYU (NEC Africa, Kenya) 3M uses Roman alphabet

KILBA (Nigeria) 23K

KINGA (EC Africa) 57K

KIRGHIZ, KIRGIZ Kyrgyzstan () 2 M uses Cyrillic al + 3

Books in Print shows 0 publications.

KIRIBATI see GILBERTESE

KISI (Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea) 250K

KISII see GUSII

KITUBA (Bas-Zaire,Bandondu, Zaire Rep. of Congo) 4 M Books

in Print shows 0 publications. see ongo

KODAGU, COORG (SW India Mysore) 80K

KOHO (S Vietnam) 100K

KOKAMA, COCAMA (Peru, Columbia) 10K

KOLAMI (India) 50K

KOMI, ZYRYAN_ PERMYAK(Komi ASSR) 380K, Cyrillic + 2

KONDA (India) 13K

KONDE see MAKONDE

KONGO, KIKONGO (WC Africa Rep. of Congo) 6M uses

Roman alphabet Books in Print shows 4 publications.

KONKANI (India GOA Goanese) 4 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

KONKOMBA (Ghana, Togo) 130K

KONO (Liberia, Mali, Sierra) 112K

KONSO (Ehiopia) 60K

KONYAGI (Guinea) 85K

KONZO (NEC Africa) 162K

KORCIN (China) 900K

KOREAN (N,S Korea) 78M no distinction of gender or number;

"impersonal" verb, different terms being used in the same meaning

to convey shades of respect, & humility, 25 L in alphabet, written

in clusters not words, uses Korean script, vague meanings, verbs

can have over 500 forms, nv 7 styles 13*4 forms and honorifics,

verbs at end also change for different people spoken to minimum

of 7 * 12 for each, also has classifier words Books in Print shows

60 publications.

KORIA (NEC Africa) 94K

KORYAK (NE USSR) 7K

KOSALI (India, Madhya, Uttar Pradesh) 20 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

KOTA (NWC Africa) 28K

KOTA (S India Kotagiri) 1 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

KOTOKO (Chad) 40K

KOYA (India Andhra) 170K

KPA (NWC Africa) 15K

KPELLE (Liberia, Guinea) 400K uses Roman alphabet

KPOSO (Togo) 17K

KRAHN (Liberia, Ivory Coast) 100K

KRIO (Sierra Leone) 250K

KRU-KRAWI, KRU (Liberia, Ivory Coast) 100K

KUA see MAKUA

KUCHITIC word-root usually has 3 consonants with shifting

vowels to carry meanings

KUI (India) 500K

KUKELE (Nigeria) 20K

KULANGO (Ivory Coast) 47K

KULELE (Ivory Coast) 15K

KUMAM (Uganda) 96K

KUMAUNI (India Uttar Pradesh) 2 M becoming extinct Books in

Print shows 0 publications.

KUMYK (Daghestan ASSR) 186K

KUNAMA (EC Africa) 73K

KUNDA (EC Africa) 73K

Kurdi Iraq 6 M

KURDISH (Turkey, Iraq) 8 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

KURI see LEZGHIAN

KURKU (India Madhya) 180K

Kurmanji Turkey 8 M

KURUKHI, ORAONI (NE India) 1 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

KURUMBA (Burkina Faso) 86K

Kurux India 2 M

KUSAL(E) (Ghana, Burkina Faso) 122K

KUSU (NWC Africa) 26K

KUTCHIN (Alaska) few thousand

KUTU (EC Africa) 15K

KUYU see KIKUYU

KWAA (Liberia) 25K

KWADI (Angila) 15K

KWANGSI ( S China)

KWANGWA (SWC Africa) 27K

KWENI (Ivory Coast) 210K

KYAMA (Ivory Coast) 12K

LADIN (Italy S Tyrol) 17K

LAHNDA (India, Pakistan Punjab) 20 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

LAK(K), LAKH (C Daghestan SSR) 70K

LAKI (SE Sulawesi Celebes) 125K

LALA (EC Africa) 75K

LALIA (NWC Africa) 30K

LAMBA (Bein) 29K

LAMBA (EC Africa) 75K

Lambadi India 2 M

LAMNSO (Cameroon) 22K

LAMPUNG (S Sumatra) 200K

LAMUT, EVEN (E Siberia) 10K

LANGI (NEC Africa) 95K

LANGO (Uganda) 700K

LANGUE NATURELLE of 1886 too difficult to memorize

LANGUE UNIVERSELLE ET ANALYTIQUE 1836 1,500 roots

100 derivational affixes, capable of forming 150,000 words proved

difficult to learn became extinct

LANGUEDOC see OCCITAN

LAO, LAOTIAN (Thailand, Laos) 9M rounded writing, tonal, 45

characters Books in Print shows 5 publications.

LAPPISH, LAPPIC (Norway, Sweden, Finland, USSR) 35 uses

Roman alphabet

LATIN 10WRTSYS+; 15FOD-; 20WRT=PHNCS+; GNDRS3;

N*10; V*72; ADJ*30; PRN*30 +100; ARTL 0; CRTRS 56 6v, 6dt,

12c; s/char 7, vocabulary is wider spread than Greek, simple

sonorous sounds, very difficult grammar, after ten years of study,

few students can either read easily or write accurately or speak

Latin. Uncertainty as to pronunciation as is spoken differently in

different countries 23noun *10, 24pn *30, 25genY, 26vb *72,

27adj *30, +100, 28 6v, 6dt, 12c, 29 26ch, 30s7, uses Roman

alphabet exceptions per K 100s, vocabulary 100 k words, lacks

modern terminology Books in Print shows 300 publications.

LATVIAN (Latvian SSR) G2, CHRS64, N30, ADJ20, V27, 1.5 M

Books in Print shows 3 publications.

LEFANA (Togo) 15K

LEGA (NEC Africa) 33K

LELE (NWC Africa) 26K

LENDU (Uganda, Zaire) 200K

LENJE (EC Africa) 33K

LETTISH (E Europe) G2, N24, ADJ 24, V62

LETZEBUERGESCH see LUXEMBURGISH

LEZGHIAN, LEZGI, KURI (Daghestan, Georgian) 300K

LI (China Hainan I.) 1M

LIBYCO-BERBER word-root usually has 3 consonants with

shifting vowels to carry meanings

LIGBI (Ivory Coast) 50K

LIKO (NEC Africa) 26K

LIMBA (Guinea, Siera Lene) 174K

LISU (China Yunnan, Sichuan) 250K

LITHUANIAN (Lithuanin SSR) 4 M, G2, N33, ADJ 24+,

V69,CHRS 64 Books in Print shows 9 publications.

LOBIRI (Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast) 211K

LOGO (Sudan, Zaire) 58K

LOINANG (C Sulawesi Celebes) 100K

LOKO (Sierra Leone, Guinea) 76K

LOMA (Liberia, Guinea) 260K

Lombard Italy 8 M

LOMBO (NWC Africa) 11K

Lomwe Mozambique 2 M

LORE (C Sulawesi Celebes) 130K

LOSENGO, LINGALA (NWC Africa, Zaiere) 1 M uses Roman

alphabet Books in Print shows 0 publications.

LOTUHO (Sudan) 66K

LOZI (SWC Africa) 70K

LUBA,-LULUA (WC Africa) 5 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

Luba-Kasai Dem. Rep. of Congo 6 M

LUBA-SHABA, CHILUBA uses Roman (Shaba, Zaire) 1 M

Books in Print shows 0 publications.

LUBU (E Sumatra) 1M

LUCAZI (SWC Africa) 60K

LUGANDA see GANDA

LUGBARA (Uganda, Zaire) 350K

LUHYA (NWC Africa) 2 M Books in Print shows 0 publications.

LUMBU (NWC Africa) 12K

LUNDA (WC Africa) 82K

LUNDU (NWC Africa) 24K

LUO (Kenya, Tanzania) 3 M Books in Print shows 0 publications.

LURI (SW Iran; Iraq) 4 M Books in Print shows 0 publications.

LUSATIAN see SORBIAN

LUWU (C Sulawesi Celebes) 500K

LUWUNDA (WC Africa) 20K

LUXEMBURGISH, LETZEBUERGESCH (Luxemburg) 400K is

a dialect of German, uses Roman alphabet

Luyia Kenya 3 M

LWALU (WC Africa) 21K

LWENA (SWC Africa) 90K

LWO (Uganda) 20K

LYELE (Burkina Faso) 61K

MA(A)SAI (Tanzania, Kenya) 400K

MABIHA (SE Africa) 70K

MABUYAG (Torres Strait Is.) 3K

MACEDONIAN (Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Albania) 2 M, GE3,

ART+11, N5, ADJ5, V30 uses Macedonian script, dialect of

Bulgarian Books in Print shows 0 publications.

MACHIGUENGA (Peru) 10K

MADA (Nigeria) 24K

MADI (Uganda, Sudan) 114K

Madura Indonesia 13 M

MADURESE (Madurs, NE Java) 10M uses Javanese script and

uses Roman alphabet

MAGAHI (India Bihar) 11 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

MAGINDANAON (Mor Gulf, S Philippines) 1 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

MAGYAR see HUNGARIAN

MAITHILI (India Bihar) 24 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

MAJI (Ethiopia) 18K

MAKA (NWC Africa) 52K

MAKASSAR (S Sulawesi, Indonesia) 2 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

Makhuwa Mozambique 2 M

MAKONDE, KONDE (SE Africa) 1 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

MAKUA, KUA (SE Africa) 5 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

MALAGASY, Malgache (Madagascar) 9M uses Roman alphabet

Books in Print shows 0 publications.

MALAY (Malaysia, Thailand, Sumatra, Borneo, Java) 160M

vowels do not change, has phonetic writing spelled as written, no

plurals must say twice, uses some prefixes and suffixes Books in

Print shows 10 publications.

MALAY, PATTANI (SE peninsular Thailand)3 M

MALAYALAM (India Kerala, Laccadive Is.) 35 M Part of the

Dravidian family gender is not by sex but by caste of superior and

inferior beings with women often classified as inferior the same as

objects; moderately agglutinative with noun-root +pl+case ending

which is the same for the plural as for singular. 25M alphabet

letters different called Grantha

MALAY-INDONESIAN, BAHASA, see MAYLAY language

family MALAYO-POLYNESIAN 142M

MALDIVIAN (Maldive Is.) 150K

MALE (Ethiopia) 12K

MALILA (EC Africa) 18 K

MALINKA, MALINKE, Mandingo (W Africa) 2M uses Roman

alphabet Books in Print shows 0 publications.

MALTESE (Malta) G2, N 30 PATTERNS, ADJ4, V38, CHAR60,

spelling not all phonetic, broken plurals, uses largely phonetic bks

has poet tx, rd newspapers 300K MALTO (India NE Bihar) 90K

MALVI (India Rajasthan) 1 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

MAM(E) (Guatemala) 300K

MAMBWE (EC Africa) 15K

MAMIntlVocabA (Cameroon, Nigeria) 16K

MAMUU-EFE (Uganda, Zaire) 60K

MAN see YAO

MANCHU (China Xinjiang) 20 K Books in Print shows 1

publication.

MANDARA (Cameroon) 40K

MANDARIN, dialects WU, CANTONESE 864M uses as many as

33 strokes per character, has 214 signific classes of words, ma =

mother, hemp, horse, to curse yi = one, clothes, doctor, cure yi =

aunt, doubt, suitable, shift yi = already, because of, by yi = easy,

srange, benefit, 100 million; is a tonal language 3 minimum tones

UNPHONETICALLY WRITTEN

MANDINGO

MANGBETU (Uganda, Zaire) 400K

MANGISA (NWC Africa) 14K

Maninka, Kankan Guinea 2 M

MANIPURI see MEITHEI

MANJAKU (Senegal, Portuguese Guinea) 84K

MANO (Liberia, Guinea) 100K

MANSI, VOGUL (USSR Khanti-Mansi) 4K

MANX (GB)

MAORI (New Zeeland) 100K

MAPUCHE see ARAUCANIAN

MARARIT (Sudan, Chad) 42K

Marathi India 68

MARATHI (Maharashtra, India)64 M Indo-European, uses Hindi

Script Books in Print shows 4 publications.

MARGI (Nigeria) 151K

MARI, CHEREMIS, Meadow, Nill (Mari ASSR) 550K uses

Cyrillic + 5

MARSHALLESE (Marshall Is.) 19K uses Roman alphabet 8

symbols

MARWARI see RAJASTHANI 12 M

MASA (Chad, Cameroon) 52

MASABA (NEC Africa) 487K

MASAI see MAASAI

MASALIT (Chad, Sudan) 100K

MASHASHA (WC Africa) 13K

MASONGO (Ethiopia, Sudan) 28K

MATACO (Bolivia, Argentina) 10K

MATAKAM (Cameroon) 60K

MATENGO (EC Africa) 58K

MATUMBI (SE Africa) 41K

MAYA, YUCATEC, Cakchiquel, Mam, Kekchi, Quiche, Tzo, Tzil,

Tzeltal, Chol, Chontal,Nuastec (Guatemala, Mexico) 400K

MAYAN (Central America) polysynthetic structure: words seldom

have individual status, separate word parts have no separate

meaning, entire sentences formed by one word. This is the only

native American Language with a fully developed writing system

Now uses Roman alphabet

MAYLAY-INDONESIAN ALSO CALLED BAHASA (Malay

Peninsula, Indo-China, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Flores,

Timor & many islands) words can be used many parts of speech

with affixes;G0, N0, ADJ0, V0 few irregularities, no conjugations

or declensions, not inflected, no number, tense, or person ; Plurals

shown by reduplicating, one of the easier languages mostly

dissyllabic but with affixes, monosyllables rare, uses Arabic

alphabet (poor guide to pronunciation) Part of the Malayo-

Polynesian family; two-syllable roots, no noun endings, no gender

and usually no number; vowels do not change, phonetic writing

spelled as written 100M

MAYOGO (Congo) 75K

MAZAHUA (Mexico) 90K

MAZANDARANI (S Mazandaran, N Iran) 2 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

Mazanderani Iran 3 M

MAZATEC(O) (Mexico) Has private male language for males only

85K

MBA (Congo) 16K

MBAAMA (NWC Africa) 12K

MBAI (Chad, C African Rep.) 73K

MBATI (NWC Africa) 15K

MBETE (NWC Africa) 30K

MBIMU (NWC Africa) 17K

MBO (NWC Africa) 23K

MBOLE (NEC Africa) 95K

MBUNDA (SWC Africa) 25K

MBUNDU (or Kimbundu) (Luanda, Angola) 3 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

MBUNDU (SWC Africa) 1.25 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

MBUNDU, UMBUNDU (WC Africa, Benguela, Loanda,

Angola) 3 M Books in Print shows 0 publications.

MBWERA (WC Africa) 36K

MDUNDULU (SWC Africa) 22K

MEDLPA (New Guinea) 91K

MEITHEI, MANIPURI (Assam, NE India; Bangladesh) 1 M

Books in Print shows 0 publications.

MEKAN (Ethiopia, Sudan) 38K

MENDE (Liberia, Siera Leone) 900K uses Roman alphabet + 2

MENDI (New Guinea) 25K

MEO see MIAO

MERO (NEC Africa) 350K

MERU (Eastern Province, C Tanzania) 1 M Books in Print shows

0 publications.

MEWARI see RAJASTHANI

MIAO, HMONG, MEO (S China, N Vietnam) 4 M uses Pollard

Script and Roman alphabet Books in Print shows 0 publications.

MICMAC (NE Canada) 4K

MIEN (China; Viet; Laos; Thialand) 2M

MIMI (Sudan) 15K

MINANGKABAU (W Sumatra) 6 M

MIN-CHIA see PAI MIN (SE China; Taiwan; Malaysia) 48M

MIXE (Mexico) 40K

MIXTEC(O) (Mexico) polysynthetic structure: words seldom have

individual status, separate word parts have no separate meaning,

entire sentences formed by one word. 300K

MNONG (S Vietnam) 50

MOBA (Ghana, Togo) 80K

MOBER (Nigeria, Niger) 45K

moderately agglutinative with noun-root +pl+case ending which is

the same for the plural as for singular. alphabet resembles

Kanarese 68 M Books in Print shows 13 publications.

MOGOL (Afghanistan) 55K

MOHAWK (New York, Canada) 5 K now uses Roman alphabet

but had no writing system of its own

MOLDAVIAN see ROMANIAN

MON,TALAING (Burma, Thailand) 600K

MONGOL see KHALKA

MONGOLIAN, Khalkha is a dialect = Buryat Kalmyk (Mongolia;

NE China Halh ) 5M uses Cyrillic + 2 Books in Print shows 7

publications.

MONGO-NKUN-DU (NWC Africa) 250K

MONGUOR (China Gansu) 55K

MONI (New Guinea) 20K

MONJAMBO (WC Africa) 13K

MON-KHMER (SE Asia)

Moore Burkina Faso 5 M

MORDVINIAN (Mordvin ASSR) 1 M uses letters same as

Russian alphabet Books in Print shows 0 publications.

MORE, (central part of Burkina Faso) 4 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

MORU (Sudan) 23K

MOSSI, MORE (Ghana, Burkina Faso) 4M becoming extinct uses

Roman alphabet + 3

MOVE (Panama) 15K

MPOTO (EC Africa) 58K

MUBI (Chad) 23K

MUMUYE (Cameroon) 103K

MUNDA (SE Asia)

MUNDANG (Chad, Cameroon) 45K

MUNDARI (India Madyha) 2 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

MUONG (N Vietnam) 390K

MURLE (Ethiopia) 40K

MURMI see BHUTIA

MUSEI (Chad, Cameroon) 48K

MUSGU (Chad, Cameroon) 25K

MUSKOGEE (USA Oklahoma, Alabama) 10K

MWANGA (EC Africa) 32K

MWERA (SE Africa) 126K

NABANDI (NW Congo) 137K

NAGA-MIKIR (Burma) 100K

NAHUATL, AZTEC (Mexico) 1 M now uses Roman alphabet

Books in Print shows 0 publications.

NAKHI (Schina) has pictographic writing_

NAMA (Namibia) 23K

NAMHI ( S. China) uses pictographic writing

NAMNAM (Ghana) 18K

NAMSHI (Cameroon, Nigeria) 11K

NANAI (Amur R, USSR) 10K

NANDI (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania) 470K

NANKANSE (Ghana, Burkina Faso) 55K

Napoletano-Calabrese Italy 7 M

NARA (Ethiopia) 25K

NATEMBA (Togo) 17K

Native Australian languages have no plurals.

NAVAHO, NAVAJO (USA Arizona, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico)

140K now uses Roman alphabet + 4 marks

NAWDAM (Ghana, Burkina Faso) 27K

NDALI (EC Africa) 51K

NDAMBA (EC Africa) 19K

NDANDI (NEC Africa) 225K

NDEBELE (SE Africa) 90K

NDENGEREKO (SE Africa) 53K

NDO (UGANDA, Zaire) 13K

NDONDE (SE Africa) 12K

NE China) 5M uses Cyrillic + 2 Books in Print shows 7

publications.

NENETS, YURAK (USSR Nenets) 23K

NEO-MELANESIAN, TOK PISIN (Papua New Guinea) Part of

the Malayo-Polynesian family; two-syllable roots, no noun

endings, no gender and usually no number; 1M

Nepali Nepal 16

NEPALI, GURKHALI (Nepal, Sikkim) 8M uses same alphabet as

Hindi Books in Print shows 13 publications.

NETHERLANDIC (Netherlands, Belgium) 17 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

NEWARI (C Nepal) 500K

NGAJU (S BORNEO) 2 M Books in Print shows 0 publications.

NGALUM (New Guinea) 15K

NGAMO (Nigeria) 11K

NGANDO (NWC Africa) 121K

NGINDO (SE Africa) 85K

NGIZIM (Nigeria) 39K

NGOLA (WC Africa) 41K

NGOMBE(NWC Africa) 150K

NGONI (EC Africa) 103

NGULU (EC Africa) 66K

NGUNI, NGUNA (SE Africa) 6 M Books in Print shows 1

publication.

NGURIMI (NEC Africa) 12K

NIAS (Nias, Batu Is.) 50K

NICOBARESE (Nicobar Is.) 10K

NIKA (NEC Africa) 39K

NILAMBA (NEC Africa) 170K

NJEM-BAJUE (NWC Africa) 20K

NKOLE (Western Prov., Uganda) 1 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

NKOM (Cameroon) 16K

NKORE see NYANKOLE

NKOYA (WC Africa) 19K

NOGAI (USSR N Caucasus) 47K

NORWEGIAN (Denmark, Norway, Bokmaal ) 5 m, 18 vwlsnds

See Danish but has some n declentions (from bc) (wa Denmark

5M) has 9 basic vowels which can be long or short See Danish for

remarks same as Norwegian Have some noun declensions uses

Roman alphabet SWEDISH (from bc) (wa Denmark 5M) has 9

basic vowels which can be long or short see Danish

NORWEGIAN (Norway, USA) G2, N2, ADJ4, V8, 4M uses

Roman alphabet also dialects of RIKS, MAL,

BOKMAL,LANDSMAL,NYNORSK, SAMNORSK

NPONGO becoming extinct

NSENGA (EC Africa) 45K

NTOMBO-BOLIA (NWC Africa) 45K

NUBIAN (Sudan, Egypt) 1 M Books in Print shows 1 publication.

NUER (Sudan, Ethiopia) 40K

NUNG (Vietnam, S China) 180K

NUNUMA (Burkina Faso) 43K

NUPE (Nigeria) 325K

NYABUNGU (NEC Africa) 15K

NYAMWESI (NEC Africa) 900K

NYAMWEZI-SUKUMA (NW Tanzania) 4 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

NYANEKA (SWC Africa) 40K

Nyanja Malawi 5 M

NYANJA, CHEWA, CHINAYANJA (EC Africa) 4 M uses Roman

alphabet Books in Print shows 2 publications.

NYANKOLE, NKORE (NEC Africa) 1 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

NYIHA (EC Africa) 59K

NYIMANG (Sudan) 30K

NYLANGA (NEC Africa) 25K

NYOLE (NEC Africa) 134K

NYORO (NEC Africa) 592K

NYULE (NEC Africa) 57K

NZEBI (NWC Africa) 30K

OCCITAN, LANGUEDOC, PROVENCAL (S France) 10 M

Books in Print shows 24 publications.

OIRAT, OYRAT (Mongolian PR) 200K

OJIBWA, CHIPPEWA(C E Canada, NC USA) polysynthetic

structure: words seldom have individual status, separate word parts

have no separate meaning, entire sentences formed by one word.

40K NOW uses Roman alphabet + 3 marks

OLD BULGARIAN (Bulgaria) G3, N45, V93, ADJ90,

ORAON(I) see KURUKH(I) becoming extinct

ORDOS (China, Mongolian PR) 375K

ORIYA (India) 32 M, uses Oriya Script

OROKAIVA (New Guinea) 25K

OROMO, GALLA, (Ethiopia, Kenya) 9 M, word-root usually has

3 consonants with shifting vowels to carry meanings Books in

Print shows 0 publications.

OSAGE (Oklahoma) 0.5 K uses Roman alphabet + 4

OSSETIC (USSR Ossetic) 400K

OSTAYK see KHANTY

OSTYAK SAMOYED see SELKUP

OTOMI (Mexico) 400K

OVAMBO see AMBO

OYRAT see OIRAT

PACOH (S Vietnam, Laos)15K

PAEZ (Columbia, Panama) 20K

PAI, BAI, MINCHIA (S W China) 900K

PAIWAN (Taiwan) 37K

PAKHTO see PASHTO

PALAUAN (Palau Is.) 12K

PALAUNG (Burma) 150K

PALU (C Sulawesi Celebes) 300K

PAMPANGAN (NW of Manila, Philippines) 2 M Books in Print

shows 2 publications.

PANAY-HILIGAYNON (Philippines) 6 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

PANGASINAN (Philippine Is.) 2 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

PANGWA (EC Africa) 38K

PANINI (India)

PANJABI, PUNJABI (Punjab, India, Pakistan) 70 M Books in

Print shows 8 publications.

PAO-AN see SANTA

PAPAGO, Pima, O'odham (Arizona) 9 K now uses Roman

alphabet + 1 Books in Print shows 3 publications.

PAPEL (Guinea, Guinea-Bissau) 36K

PAPIAMENTU, PAPIAMENTO (Dutch Antilles) 200K has

Spanish base uses Roman alphabet

PAPUAN (Neu Guinea, Australia)

PARJI (India Madhya) 95K

PASHLU (Pakistan; Afghanistan; Iran) 21 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

PASHTO, PAKHTO, PUSHTO (Afghanistan, Pakistan) 17M V 65,

ADV 60, PN 20 Books in Print shows 2 publications.

PASSAMAQUODDY (NE Canada, NE USA, MAINE) 10K

PEDI (see Sotho, Northern)

PENDE (WC Africa) 27K

PERSIAN, FARSI (Iran; Afghanistan) WRTSYS +, SNDS 29, G0,

N PNS 5X6=30, V=21 10WRTSYS +,41SNDS 29, PNS 5X6=30,

V=21 32 M Books in Print shows 70 publications.

PERSONS EXPRESSED BY ENDINGS, simplified declensions

PETATS (Solomon Is.) 10K

PHO (Burma, Thailand) 400K

PIAROA (Venezuela) 12K

PIDGIN ENGLISH ( E. New Guinea) 1.5-400 K only has limited

vocabulary, uses Roman alphabet

Piedmontese Italy 3 M

PILA (Benin) 40K

PIMA-PAPAGO (USA Arizona) 15K

PIRO (Peru) 10K

PITU-ULUNNA-SALU (C Sulawesi Celebes) 175K

PN+10 5M uses Roman alphabet Books in Print shows 11

publications.

PNS46BULI (Ghana, Burkina Faso) 63K uses Cyrillic

POGOLO (EC Africa) 63K

POKE (NWC Africa) 46K

POKOMAN (Guatemala) 29K

POKOMO (NWC Africa) 17K

POKONCHI (Guatemala) 38K

POKOT (Kenya, Uganda) 90K

POLISH (Poland) 44 M, G3, N24 +IRR, ADJ25, V20, CHRS 76

NOUNS 14 declensions per type 4 types on chart; ADJ 24 dec

depending on m,f,n; VERBS 14 on chart but at leAst 4 types

NOUNS 14 declensions per type 4 types on chart ADJ 24 dec

depending on m,f,n; VERBS 14 on chart but at lest 4 types, some

words very hard to pronounce, uses Roman alphabet, accent on

penult Books in Print shows 70 publications.

POLYNESIAN (Samoa, New Zealand, Tahiti, Hawaii) Part of the

Malayo-Polynesian family; two-syllable roots, no noun endings, no

gender and usually no number;

PONAPEAN (Ponape Is.) 15K

POPOLOC(A) (Mexico) 12K

PORTUGESE PORTUGUESE 176 M, 10WRTSYS+; 15FOD-;

20WRT=PHNCS-; GNDRS 2; N1; V130; ADJ1; PRN36; ARTL4;

CRTRS 52; 173M + irregular verbs; PRNS strong, weak 36 total

forms; lang is VO l,v*50 Prep*20 Indo-European 135M FIFTH

MOST WIDELY SPOKEN LANGUAGEIN THE WORLD in

Portugal and Brazil VERBS 50 inflections per class of verb chart

shows 3 forms + irregular verbs NOUNS pl marked by s,

genderized m f,ADJ same as nouns PRNS strong, weak 36 total

forms lang is VO l, Indo-European 135M, uses Roman alphabet,

aso has nasal sounds tilde over a & o Books in Print shows 120

publications.

PROVENCAL see OCCITAN (S France) 4M many fragmented

dialects

Pulaar Senegal 2 M

PUNJABI, PANJABI India, Pakistan 60M (Punjab, Pakistan; NW

India) 84M number of speakers declining may be becoming extinct

Books in Print shows 8 publications.

PUNU (NWC Africa) 46K

PUOC (N Vietnam) 5K

PUSHTO, see Pashtu many spellings Books in Print shows 2

publications.

PUYI, BUYI, JUI,CHUNG-CHIA (SW China) 2 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

QUARA (Ethioia) 47K

QUECHUA, Kechua, Inca (PERU; Bol. Ec.; Arg.) 8 M

polysynthetic structure: words seldom have individual status,

separate word parts have no separate meaning, entire sentences

formed by one word. now uses Roman alphabet Books in Print

shows 7 publications.

Quechua, South Bolivian Bolivia 3 M

QUEKCHI see KEKCHI

QUICHE (Guatemala) 1 M Books in Print shows 1 publications.

RADE (Vietnam, Kampuchea) 80K

RAJASTHANI, Marwari, Mewari (India Rajasthan) 25 M number

of speakers declining Books in Print shows 0 publications.

Rajbangsi India 2 M

RAWANG (N Berma) 60K

REDJANG (S W Sumatra) 250K

REJANG (SW Sumatra, Indonesia) 1 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

REK (Sudan, Ethiopia) 40K

REMI (NEC Africa) 180K

RENGAO (S Vietnam) 12K

RHAETIAN see FRUIULIAN,LADIN,ROMANSCH

RIFF (N Morocco; Aigerian coast) 1 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

ROGALI (Vietnam) 50K

ROMANIAN, ARUMANIAN, MOLDAVIAN (Romania;

Moldavia, USSR) 26 M, G2, N22, ADJ11, PNS+30, V132 +IRR,

CHARS 93, ART11,nouns declined m,f,n sg,pl nam/acc,

gender/dat, vocative = 10 per n, ADJ same as nouns, pronouns 8,

VERBS 5 verb conj times 7 =8 lang SVO now uses Roman

alphabet Books in Print shows 27 publications.

ROMANSCH, GRISHUN, RUMATSCH (Switzerland) 45K

ROMANY, ROMANI, GYPSY (Viach only) (Europe; Amer.)

700K uses Roman alphabet

RON (Nigeria) 12K

RONGA (SE Africa) 1.5 M Books in Print shows 0 publications.

ROTOKAS in central Bougainville Island has least letters in

alphabet 11. And least consonants 6. a,b,e,g,i,k,o,p,r,t,u.

ROUMANIAN G2, N4, ADJ2, V13

RUANDA, KINYARWANDA (Rwanda; S Uganda; E Zaire) 8M

number of speakers declining, uses Roman alphabet Books in

Print shows 0 publications.

RUGURU (EC Africa) 179

RUIHI (SE Africa) 71

RUMANIAN, ROMANIAN nouns declined m,f,n sg,pl nam/acc,

gender/dat, vocative = 10 per n, ADJ same as nouns; pronouns 8;

VERBS 5 verb conj times 7 =8; lang SVO uses Roman alphabet

Books in Print shows 0 publications.

RUNDI, KIRUNDI, RUANDA (Burundi) 6 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

RUNGU (EC Africa) 24K

RUSSIAN 293M, G3, N34, ADJ15, V36+ UN language, NOTE

ONLY 60% OF POP UNDERSTANDS; NOUNS difficult

declension system depending on noun type 12 declensions; ADJ 22

declensions 2 m, 12n,6f Nouns and adjective change endings

according to place in sentence, VERBS 12 on chart but two

conjugations; alphabet 33 characters, 5 hard v, 5 soft v, Bulgarian

adds 5, Serbian 4; NOTES complex grammar, word formation

outdated, words excessively long, many endings, cases bewildering

to speakers, vocabulary is restricted, unstressed vowels are unclear,

consonant clusters bad when they occur, accentuation is capricious,

arbitrary and unpredictable; per Pei accentuation irregular

CHARS=72 + PREFIXES Books in Print shows 250 publications.

WHITE RUSIAN CHARS=68

RWANDA (NEC Africa) 12 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

SAAMIA (NEC Africa) 124K

SAFWA (EC Africa) 46K

SAGALA (EC Africa) 20K

SALAMPASU (WC Africa) 60K

SAMAR-LEYTE, SAMARITAN (Central E Philippines) 3 M

Books in Print shows 2 publications.

SAMO (Mali, Burkina Faso) 128K

SAMOAN (Samoa Is. New Zealand, USA) 180K uses Roman

alphabet BUT 14 L + some symbols, right corner and ' Books in

Print shows 2 publications.

SAMOYEDIC see Nenets

SAN, BUSMAN (Angola, SW Africa) 4K USES CLICK

CONSONANTS uses Roman alphabet +10

SAN, CAUCASIAN, ZAN

SANDAWE (Tanzania) 23K

SANGO (Central African Republic) 3M

SANGO (EC Africa) 23K

SANGU (NWC Africa) 18K

SANSKRT GNDRS 3, NX8many types, ADJ x8, pnsx16 or more,

numerals declined, V-72 Books in Print shows 230 publications.

SANTA, PAO-AN (China Gansu) 200K

SANTALI (E India; Nepal) 6 M Books in Print shows 1

publication.

SARA (Chad, C African Rep.) 45K

Saraiki Pakistan 30 M

SARDINIAN (Sardinia) 800K

SARKESE (GB)

Sasak Indonesia 2 M

SASAK (Lombok, Alas Strait, Indonesia) 1 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

Saxon, Upper Germany 2 M

SCOTS Scotland

SCOTTISH GAELIC (Scotland) 75K

SEBUANO, CEBUANO, BISAYA (Philippine Is.) Part of the

Malayo-Polynesian family; two-syllable roots, no noun endings, no

gender and usually no number; 10 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

SEDANG (C Vietnam) 40K has most distinguishable vowel

sounds 55.

SEEDIQ (Taiwan) 14K

SELKUP, OSTYAK, SAMOYED (Khanti-Mansi) 2k

SENA (EC Africa) 200K

SENARI (Ivory Coast) 350K

SENECA (New York) 4.4 K uses some of Roman alphabet 12 L +

symbols

SERBIAN, SERBO-CROATIAN 23 M, CHARS=66, genders 3,

N 14 many types, V 42 several conj x mfn,adj gx12, (Yugoslavia)

N25, ADJ33, V28, Uses modified Cyrillic also uses Roman

alphabet but different script Books in Print shows 50 publications.

SERER (Senegal, Gambia) 700K

SEVERAL TYPES, PNS45, ADJ45, V72, has palatalization of vws

100K uses Roman alphabet

SEX DIFFERENT SP IN JAP,THAI, CARIB, CHUKCI, YANA,

KOASATI

SGAW (SW W N of Rangoon, SW Burma) 1 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

SHAMBAA (EC Africa) 130K

SHAN (Shan E Burma Myanmar) 3 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

SHEKO (Ethiopia) 23K

SHILHA (W Algeria; S Morocco) word-root usually has 3

consonants with shifting vowels to carry meanings 3 M Books in

Print shows 1 publication.

SHILLUK (Sudan) 110K

SHLUH (Morocco, Mauritania) 1 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

SHONA, MASHONA_(Zimbabwe) 7M uses Roman alphabet

Books in Print shows 0 publications.

SHOR (USSR) 12K

SHOSHONE (WC USA) 5K

SIAMESE G0, N0, ADJ0, V0, 44c 32vwls 5tones, CLASSIFIERS

USED structure is monosyllabic invariable, do not add affixes,

grammatical relations generally indicated by position of the word

in the sentence, TONE used to distinguish among different

meanings of the same word EXAMPLE we boy three person future

go catch fish for-to give father eat.

SIANE (New Guinea) 15K

SIBO (N.W. China) 20 K uses vertical Sibo Script

Sicilian Italy 4 M

SIDAMO (Sidamo, S Ethiopia) 1 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

SIERRA POPOLOCA (Mexico) 11K

SIMI (Burma) 40K

SINDHI (SE Pakistan; W India) 19 M, uses Arabic Script

Sinhala Sri Lanka 13 M

SINHALESE, SINGHALESE (Sri Lanka, Cylon) 13M uses

rounded script Books in Print shows 0 publications.

SIOUX see DAKOTA now uses Roman alphabet Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

SIRA (NWC Africa) 17K

SISALA (Ghana, Burkina Faso) 62K

SLAVONIC (Bulgaria) G3, N45, V93, ADJ90, PNS46

SLOVAK (Czechoslovakia) 5 M, G3, N27, ADJ45, V20 4 TYPES

SLOVENE, SLOVENIAN (Slovenia, NW Yugoslavia) 2M, G3,

N13, ADJ27, V20 uses Roman alphabet Books in Print shows 15

publications.

SOGA (Busoga, Uganda) 1 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

SOLI (EC Africa) 13K

SOLRESOL based on musical notes, grammar complicated

remains on this list because it is of major historical interest and for

evaluation of its ideas

SOMALI (Somalia; Eth; Ken; Djibouti) 10 M, word-root usually

has 3 consonants with shifting vowels to carry meanings uses

Roman alphabet Books in Print shows 7 publications.

SOMBA (Benin, Togo) 70K

SOMRAI (Chad, C African Rep.) 50K

SONGE (WC Africa) 200K

SONGHAI (Nigeria, Burkina Faso) 2 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

SONGO (WC Africa) 15K

SONGOMENO (NWC Africa) 40K

SONGYE (Kasai Or., NW Shala, Zaire) 1 M Books in Print shows

0 publications.

SONINKE (Mali; countries to W S E0 1 M Books in Print shows

0 publications.

SORA (India Orussa) 300K

SORBIAN, LUSATIAN, WENDISH (E Germany) G3, N45,

SOTHO, PEDI Northern (S. E. Sotho, So. Africa) 3M, uses Roman

alphabet

SOTHO, Southern (So. Africa; Lesotho) 4 M Books in Print

shows 3 publications.

SPANISH 358 M, UN language, 10WRTSYS+; 15FOD-;

20WRT=PHNCS-; GNDRS 2 +pl; N*2; V132; ADJ*8 ; PRN*11;

ARTL6; CRTRS 58; plurals irregular; the most widely spoken

romance language. VERBS three main conjugations forms times

forty four times three; one class of 200 irregular verbs add an extra

consonant before non-frong vowels; the 2 verbs for to be are very

difficult for learners; AUX VBS are also frequent and highly

inflected; "Spanish has a fully eplicit concord system which marks

number and gender on all modifiers"; N + PL; LANG is a

consistent VO l; grammar simplified? writing simple and phonetic,

not standardized in usage or pronunciation, each Spanish speaking

country had its own special vocabulary and slang, and points of

usage, some dialects some sounds are too harsh, others too soft and

relaxed, grammar structure is simple in its early reaches but it

achieves great complexities of syntax and word arrangement,

encouraging your speakers to be verbose and redundant uses

Roman alphabet, sexist language Books in Print shows 1250

publications.

SRANAN (Suriname, Guianas) 100K

STIENG (S Vietnam) 50

SUBANUN (Philippine Is.) 73K

SUBI (NEC Africa) 74K

SUDANESE (Sudan) not same as other Sudanese

SUI (SE China) 140K

SUKU (WC Africa) 74K

SUKUMA (NEC Africa) 5 M

SUMA 1957 the 1000-Word Universal Language arbitrary roots

not linked to any known lang, phonetic structure with words that

are for the most art two-syllable, consonant-vowel-consonant-

vowel type is reminiscent of Malay or Japanese and assures ease of

pronunciation. Grammar very simple, no articles, no plurals, no

declension or conjugation no capital letters. see 150olfw -too

arbitrary difficult to learn Books in Print shows 0 publications.

SUNDANESE SUNDA (Sunda Strait, W Java, Indonesia) 27 M,

uses Roman alphabet and Jav Script Books in Print shows 0

publications.

SUNGOR (Sudan, Chad) 39K

SUPPIRE-MIANKA (Mali) 300K

SURA (Nigeria) 20K

SVAN (NW Georgian SSR) 20K

SWAHILI, Kiswahili (Kenya; Tanzania; Zaire; Uganda) 43M has a

dialect called Kingwana uses Roman alphabet - 3 + 3 Books in

Print shows 40 publications.

SWAKA (EC Africa) 13K

SWAZI, SWATI, Siswati (Swaziland; So Africa) 1M uses Roman

alphabet Books in Print shows 0 publications.

SW-Caribbean- Creole English Jamaica 2

SWEDISH (Sweden; Finland) 9 m, G2, N2, ADJ4, V8, accepts

English words, uses Roman alphabet Books in Print shows 60

publications.

Sylhetti Bangladesh 5 M

SYRIAK see ARAMAIC, ASSYRIAN

SYTHETTI (BANGLADESH) 5 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

TAABWA (E C Africa) 13K

TABASARAN (E Daghestan SSR) USES THE MOST NOUN

CASES 48 50K

Tachelhit Morocco 3 M

TADZHIK, TAJIK, (Tadzhik SSR) 5 M Uses Cyrillic + 6 Same as

Persian but uses Cyrillic, Books in Print shows 0 publications.

TAGAKAOLO (Philippine Is.) 21K

TAGALOG, PHLIPINO (Philippines) 37 M, Part of the Malayo-

Polynesian family; two-syllable roots, no noun endings, no gender

and usually no number; uses Roman alphabet Books in Print

shows 22 publications.

TAGBANA-DYIMINI (Ivory Coast) 85K

TAHITIAN (Tahiti Is., Society Is.) 70K uses Roman alphabet but

only 13 L

TAJIKI (Tajik Uzbek Kirghiz SSRs, USSR) 4 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

TAJK see TADZHIK

TALAING see MON

TALYSH (Iran, Azerbaijan SSR) 150K

TAMA (Sudan, Chad) 45K

TAMASHEK, TUAREG (Algeria, Libya, Mali) word-root usually

has 3 consonants with shifting vowels to carry meanings 800K

TAMAZIGHT (N Morocco; W Algeria) 3 M Books in Print shows

0 publications.

TAMIL (Tamil Nadu, India; Sri Lanka) 67 M,

DISCRIMINATORY LANGUAGE Part of the Dravidian family

gender is not by sex but by caste of superior and inferior beings

with women often classified as inferior the same as objects;

moderately agglutinative with nounªroot +pl+case ending which is

the same for the plural as for singular. Difficult script, 312

characters mainly consonants, has writing system Books in Print

shows 18 publications.

TAMPRUSI (Ghana) 100K

TANGOLE (Nigeria) 36K

TANGSA (NE India, Assam) 400L

TARA (C Sulawesi Celebes) 125K

TARAHUMAR(A) (Mexico) 60K

TARASCO, TARASCA(N) (Mexico) 50K

Tarifit Morocco 2 M

TASHON (Burma) 85K

TAT (Azerbaijan, Daghestan SSR) 100K

TATAR, TURKC, TA 7 M

TATOG(A) (Tanzania) 64K

TAUNGTHU (Burma, Thailand) 200K

TAUSUG (Philippines; Malaysia) 1 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

TEDA (Chad, Libya) 16K

TEKE (NWC Africa) 1 M Books in Print shows 0 publications.

TELUGU (Andhra Pradesh, SE India)69 M, Part of the Dravidian

family gender is not by sex but by caste of superior and inferior

beings with women often classified as inferior the same as objects;

TEM (Ghana, Benin, Togo) 130K

TEMNE, TEMEN (central Sierra Leone) 1 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

TERA (Nigeria) 20K

TESO (UGANDA) 500K

TETELA (NWC Africa) 30K

THAI (Thailand) 48 M, structure is monosyllabic invariable, do

not add affixes, grammatical relations generally indicated by

position of the word in the sentence, TONE used to distinguish

among different meanings of the same word 44c + 32 vw, 5 tones,

words not separated until idea changes, uses Thai Script Books in

Print shows 23 publications.

THO (N Vietnam; S China) 1 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

THONGA (Mozambique; So Africa) 3 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

TIBETAN (SW CHINA; N India; Nepal) G0, N0, ADJ0, V0, 5

tones, uses classifiers structure is monosyllabic invariable, do not

add affixes, grammatical relations generally indicated by position

of the word in the sentence, TONE used to distinguish among

different meanings of the same word, alphabet based on Sanskrit 5

M Books in Print shows 24 publications.

TIGRE (Ethiopia) word-root usually has 3 consonants with shifting

vowels to carry meanings 600 K Books in Print shows 1

publication.

Tigrigna Ethiopia 5 M

TIGRINYA (S Eritrea, Tigre, Ethiopia) 4 M Books in Print shows

0 publications.

TIINI (NWC Africa) 15K

TIKAR (Cameroon) 200K

T'IN (Laos, Thailand) 20K

TINGGIAN (Philippine Is.) 40K

TINOMBO (N Sulawesi Celebes) 125K

TIRURAY (Philippine Is.) 16K

TIV (SE Nigeria; Cameroon) 2 M Books in Print shows 2

publications.

TLAPANEC (Mexico) 20K

TLINGIT (USA Alaska) 2 K uses Roman alphabet + 5 marks

TOARIPI (Papua New Guinea) 16K

TOBA, BATAK (Sumatra) 3 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

TOBOTE (Ghana, Togo) 130K

TODA (S India Ootacamund) 900K

TOJOLABAL (Mexico) 12K

TOK PISI see NEO-MELANESIAN

TONG (see Dong)

TONGA (SW Zambia; NW Zimbabwe) 2 M Books in Print shows

1 publication.

TONGAN (Tonga Is.) 80K uses Roman alphabet

TOPOSO (Sudan) 34K

TORO (NEC Africa) 163K

TOTELA (SWC Africa) 14K

TOTONAC (Mexico) 130K

TRIC (Tatar SSR, USSR) 7 M Books in Print shows 3

publications.

TRIPURI (India Tripura) 400K

TRUKESE (Truk Is, Mortlock Is.) 26K

TSAIWA (SW China) 50K

TSONGA (SE Africa) 3 M Books in Print shows 0 publications.

TSWA (SE Africa) 500K

TSWANA, SETSWANA, WESTERN SOTHO (Botswana; So.

Africa) 4M uses Roman alphabet Books in Print shows 0

publications.

TUAREG see TAMASHEK

TUBURI (Chad, Cameroon) 100K

TUCUNA (W Brazil) 15K

TUDZA (N VIETNAM; S China) 1 M

TULA (Nigeria) 19K

TULU (S India) 2 M Books in Print shows 0 publications.

TUMBUKA (N Malawi; NE Zambia) 2 M Books in Print shows 0

publications.

TUPI,GUARANI (Paraguay, Brazil) polysynthetic structure: words

seldom have individual status, separate word parts have no

separate meaning, entire sentences formed by one word. 2 M

Books in Print shows 1 publication.

TUPURI (Chad, Cameroon) 85K

TURKANA (Sudan, Kenya) 200K

TURKISH (Turkey) 61M, complicated notions in verbal nouns,

G0, N+7 BUT RELATIONAL SUFFIXES,+PLSFX, ADJ0 but

complicated V34 Entire country shifted from Arabic letters to

Roman letters as they found that Roman letters easier to use, has

one irregular verb olmak, to be, characters 29*2 Books in Print

shows 55 publications.

TURKMEN (S USSR; NE Iran; Turkmenistan, Afghanistan) 6 M

TURKOMAN becoming extinct

TURUKA (Burkina Faso) 25K

TUVINIAN, TUVA (USSR Tuva) 150K

TWI see AKAN (Ghana) uses Roman alphabet + 7 4 M Books in

Print shows 3 publications.

TWI-FANTE see Akan

TZELTAL (Mexico) 80K

TZOTZIL (Mexico) 120K

TZUTUHIL (Guatemala) 25K

UBYKHS in Caucasus has most distinct consonantal sounds 80

UDMURT, VOTYAK (Udmurt ASSR) uses Cyrillic + 5 600K

UIGHUR, UIGUR (Xinjiang, NW China; SC USSR) uses Roman,

Cyrillic and Vigor characters 7M UKRAINIAN (Ukraine, USSR;

POLAND) G3, N21 +IRR, ADJ21, V36=RUSSIAN, MANY

RIVAL SPELLINGS 45M CHARS=68 UMBONDU becoming

extinct UNPHONETICALLY WRITEN LANGUAGES ENGLISH

1, FRENCH 2, CHINESE, JAPANESE URDU (PAKISTAN;

India) 92 M Books in Print shows 32 publications.

Ukrainian Ukraine 47 M

Umbundu Angola 4 M

UOIAUAI (Para State Brazil) name has 7 vowels

Urdu Pakistan 60 M

URHOBO, ISOKO (Nigeria) 135K

USAHI (Burma) 70K

UTO-AZTEC polysynthetic structure: words seldom have

individual status, separate word parts have no separate meaning,

entire sentences formed by one word.

Uyghur China 7 M

UZBEK (Uzbekistan SSR, USSR) 18 M, uses Cyrillic + 4 Books

in Print shows 1 publication.

VAI (Liberia, Sierra Leone) 96K

VENDA (S Africa, Zimbabwe) 700K

Venetian Italy 2 M

VEPS VEPSIAN (USSR S OF Ladoga) 8K

VERE (Cameroon, Nigeria) 11K

VIDUNDA (EC Africa) 10K

VIETNAMESE (Vietnam) 68 M,tonal, uses Vietnamese Script,

complex marks 57 M Books in Print shows 28 publications.

VISAYAN, CEBUANO, HILIGAYNON, SMARAN (Pacific

Phillippine Archipelago Is. middle) uses Roman alphabet

VOGUL see MANSI

VOLAPUK by Johann Martin Schleyer 1879 system based on

Grimm's principals has cumbersome grammar, lengthy word

compounds such as (klonalit-akipafabludacifalopasekretan), based

on English vocabulary, uses 4 Gm cases, verbs complicated as

Latin, endless system of tenses, moods and voices, a verb can take

505,400 forms. Lang now extinct per Pei 154olfw

VOLKERVERKEHRSSPRACHE of 1902 logical, homogeneous

but too difficult to learn

VOTYAK see UDMURT

WAICA (Venezuela, Brazil) 25K

WALAMO (Ethiopia) 900K

WANJI (EC Africa) 18K

Waray-Waray Philippines 2 M

WARJAWA (Chad) 30K

WARLPIRI (Australia N Territory) 3K

WELSH (GB) G2, N2, ADJ4, V92, CHARS 44, VOWEL

CHANGES 27, +MOUN MUTATIONS, F Ns MUTATE AFTER

ARTICLE, PLUS MANY PERIPHRASTIC FORMS AND

TENSES AND COMPOUNDS intricate rules of pronunciation,

archaic orthography (spelling not phonetic) adjective after noun

uses Roman alphabet Books in Print shows 60 publications. has

poetry

WENDISH see SORBIAN

WESTERN DESERT (AUSTRALIA W N) 7K

WOLAYTTA (SW Ethiopia) 2M

WOLOF (Senegal) 6 M, uses Roman alphabet 6 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

WU (Shanghai and nearby province., China)62 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

WYANDOT, (Michigan) polysynthetic structure: words seldom

have individual status, separate word parts have no separate

meaning, entire sentences formed by one word. uses CLICK

SOUNDS, now uses Roman alphabet

XHOSA (SW Cape Province, So. Africa) 7 M, now uses Roman

alphabet 7 M Books in Print shows 0 publications.

YAKURR (Nigeria) 20K

YAKUT (USSR Yakut) uses Cyrillic + 5 300K

YAMBASA (NWC Africa) 27K

YAO (Malawi; Tanzania; Mozabique) 1M

YAO, MAN, MIEN (S China, N Vietnam, Laos, Thailand) 1 M

Books in Print shows 1 publication.

YAQUI (Mexico) 12K

YASING (Cameroon) 25kK

YELA (NWC Africa) 33K

YERGHAM (Nigeria) 30K

YI, LOLO (S and SW China) uses Roman alphabet and Yi Script

6M

YIDDISH (C E Europe USA, Israel) 3 M, EXCEPTIONALLY

IDIOMATIC many words and expressions are virtually

untranslatable {Katzner p 109} uses Hebrew Script Books in Print

shows 60 publications.

YORUBA (SW Nigeria; Zou, Benin) 20 M, uses Roman alphabet

+ 3, uses tones 18 M Books in Print shows 8 publications.

YUCATEC see MAYA

YUKAGHIR (USSR NE Siberia) 1K

YUNGER (Nigeria) 30K

YUPIK (USA Alaska) 19K

YURAK see Nenets

ZAGHAWA (Chad, Sudan) 60K

ZAN, SAN (Georgian, Abkhaz SSR, Turkey) 400K

ZANAKI (NEC Africa) 23K

ZANDE, AZANDE (NE Zaire; SW Sudan) 1 M Books in Print

shows 0 publications.

ZAPOTEC (Mexico) polysynthetic structure: words seldom have

individual status, separate word parts have no separate meaning,

entire sentences formed by one word. 400K

ZARAMO (EC Africa) 180K

Zarma Niger 2 M

ZAYSE (Ethiopia) 21K

ZHUANG (S China) 14 M Nigeria) Books in Print shows 0

publications.

ZIBA (NEC Africa) 264

ZIGULA (EC Africa) 112K

ZIMBA (NEC Africa) 50K

ZOQUE (Mexico) 20K

ZULU (N Natal, So. Africa; Lesotho) 9 M, uses Roman alphabet,

very complicated, inflected, very difficult 7 M Books in Print

shows 6 publications.

ZUMPER (Nigeria) 15K

ZUNI (New Mexico) 3K

ZYRYAN see KOMI

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