Grim Reaper

The idea of an Angel of Death was already firmly established in European religion and culture by the time of the Middle Ages. But the Black Death Plague outbreaks that began in the late 1300s, some of the deadliest outbreaks in human history, would forever change how the average person viewed, and responded to, death. At least 25 million people died in the initial outbreak of the plague, and millions more continued to die in outbreaks that flared up for centuries. Fear -- of dying, not knowing how the disease spread, and the pain associated with the late stages of the disease, when the skin on a victim turned black and gangrenous – was on the mind of everyone in Europe. A general mood of morbidity, sadness, and death, hung over all activities and influenced writers and painters of the time.

Not surprisingly, death began to appear as a skeleton in artwork from this era. He was often shown holding a scythe, a mowing tool composed of a long curving blade fastened at an angle to a long handle. Many paintings showed death swinging the scythe through a crowd of people, mowing down souls as if they were grain. A popular notion was that death could interact with the living and tempt them to the grave. The Grim Reaper was born from these post-plague visions of death.

Everything about the Grim Reaper is symbolic. The objects he carries, even the clothes he wears, tell us something about his nature and his intentions when he finally arrives.

Skulls and skeletons: As the plague swept through Europe and Asia, it wasn't uncommon to see stacks of rotting corpses. With death and dying such an integral part of daily life, it makes sense that artists and illustrators began to depict death as a corpse or a skeleton. The skeletal figure represents the decay of the earthly flesh, what's left after worms and maggots have done their work.

Black cloak: Black has long been associated with death and mourning. People wear black to funerals and transport the dead in black hearses. But black is also often the color of evil forces. The things we can't see frighten us as much as the things we can see, so the Reaper hides within the shadows of his cloak, playing off our fears of the unknown.

Scythe: In early renderings, the Reaper is shown holding arrows, darts, spears or crossbows. These are the weapons he uses to strike down his victim. Over time, a scythe came to replace these other instruments of death. A scythe was a tool used to reap, or cut, grain or grass. Bringing this imagery to death was a natural extension of an agrarian society in which harvesting, done in the fall, represented the death of another year. Just as we harvest our crops, so does death harvest souls for their journey into the after-life.

Hourglass: The classic hourglass has two glass bulbs containing sand that takes an hour to pour from the upper to the lower bulb. It's such a strong symbol for time and its passage that it has survived to the digital age, telling us to wait as our computer loads a Web page or performs a command. The Grim Reaper clutches an hourglass, too, letting us know that our days are numbered. When the sand runs out, our time is up. We can only hope that we have more than an hour left to live.

Medieval Heraldry

Heraldry is the art of making seals or symbols. In medieval times, heraldry was very important because it was used to identify people. Kings and knights would each have their own coat of arms and hold them up during battles so that everybody could identify who they were. Many of the symbols used in heraldry were animals, each of which symbolized different traits. Each kingdom has its own coat of arms as well. The coat of arms of England has three lions. This coat of arms was created by Richard the Lion-heart (King of England from 1189 to 1199. He was one of the leaders of the Crusades). The three golden lions on a black background represent bravery and strength. Most other coats of arms featured either animals or, less commonly, plants.

Other Coats of Arms:

Bavaria— Panther and lions

Scotland— Unicorns and lions

France— Fleur-de-lis (a flower)

Spain— Lion and a pomegranate

The Netherlands—Lions and a pair of wings

The Dragon

Dragons are the most well-known of all medieval creatures. Although tales of dragon like creatures can be traced as far back as 4000 B.C., the type of dragon many of us still picture today - a serpent type animal depicted with two legs, sharp teeth, small bat-like wings, and resembling a lizard which can breathe fire from its mouth - became popular during the Middle Ages. The word dragon entered the English language in the early 13th century from the Latin word draconem meaning "huge serpent”.

The dragons that lurk in European stories are powerful, wicked and dangerous. In Christian tradition, they can symbolize Satan or sin. They were often associated with evil supernatural forces and were usually considered the enemy of humanity. Some nested in caves and guarded marvelous treasure. When hungry, they snatched and devoured sheep or cattle that wandered too near. They would also eat humans – particularly enjoying snacking upon young girls. Epic poems from the Middle Ages tell of warriors and knights who battle cruel and voracious dragons. In some stories, the hero slays a dragon and wins fortune and honor. In others, he fails and is killed.

In legends and folktales, dragons are magical – yet many Medieval “scientists” often treated these creatures as part of the natural world. Biologists in Europe once wrote accounts of the behavior and habitat of dragons, along with lizards and snakes. Chinese scholars have classified the dragon as one of the 369 animal species with scales. Long before the development of paleontology (scientists who study bones), people unearthed fossilized bones in Asia and Europe – and believed they had found the remains of dragons from an earlier age.

Did You Know: Although often shown spitting fire from its mouth, some cultures believed that dragons spit ice or poison instead of fire.

Did You Know: Dragon’s blood was once prized as medicine in Europe and the Middle East.

Did You Know: Some believe that early “dragon bones” were actually dinosaur bones.

The Basilisk

The basilisk, one of the fiercest beasts of the Middle Ages, was known as king of all the serpents. Its name, which came from the Greek word basiliscus, means “little king”. Basilisk legends can be found as far back as early Roman times when the basilisk was described as a snake-like animal with markings on its head resembling a crown, but by the Middle Ages it had morphed into a gruesome serpent with the head of a rooster and the wings of a dragon. According to legend, the basilisk’s odor could kill other snakes, fire coming from the basilisk’s mouth could kill birds, and if a man looked at it, he would die instantly. Its hiss can also kill other animals. It was said to be hatched from a chicken egg, which had been incubated by a toad.

Would-be basilisk hunters in the Middle Ages carried mirrors in the hope that the creature would meet its own gaze and drop dead from its own death stare. They also would bring weasels on their basilisks hunts, since the only enemy of the basilisk was the weasel, which could kill it with its stench.

The basilisk supposedly originated in North Africa, but tales of European encounters are found throughout the Middle Ages. Many Middle Ages tales blamed the basilisk for plague outbreaks and murders. One particularly dubious account from 1587 in Poland describes how a man covered in a mirror-covered leather suit hunted and captured a basilisk after it killed two small girls and a nursemaid.

*An Interesting Facts:

In 1474 in Basel, Switzerland, a rooster was caught trying to lay an egg, and was convicted and executed for his (or most likely, her) unnatural act in fear it was a basilisk

One account of a Basilisk retrieved from a basement surfaced as recently as the 16th century. The only person in town willing to venture into that basement was a death-row prisoner, willing to risk it to win a pardon.

Although much more serpent like in the movie, this is indeed the same mythical beast from Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets!

The Phoenix

Although there are many myths and legends about the phoenix, two in particular are famous throughout the world. The first gives an account of a mystical species of bird that lived in India. Once the phoenix reached the age of 500 years, it would cover itself in frankincense (a fragrant sap like substance gathered from certain types of trees), fly to an altar, and be consumed in flames. When the flames would burn out, a worm would come out of the ashes and turn into a phoenix three days later. The other legend gives an account of a purple and red bird born in Arabia. Unlike the other legend, this one claims that it was only possible for there to be one phoenix on the earth at a time. When the phoenix grew old, it would climb onto a pile of wood and spices and become ignited by the sun. When it was done burning, a new phoenix would appear from the ashes.

The phoenix became a symbol of Christianity in early and medieval literature. The story of the phoenix fit perfectly with the story of Christ. The phoenix's resurrection (return) from death as new and pure can be viewed as a metaphor for Christ's resurrection (in which Jesus also returned from the dead), which is central to Christian beliefs. The phoenix is referenced several times throughout Medieval Christian literature

The phoenix does not appear as a heraldic figure (image on a country or family’s flag or crest/shield/coat of arms) as often as other mythical creatures. However, it has appeared on family crests and shields throughout time, usually depicted as an eagle surrounded, but not hurt, by flames. Queen Elizabeth I of England used the image of the phoenix as a royal badge, while some cities in Europe use the phoenix in their city’s emblem to show the one-time destruction and consequent rebuilding of their city after plague outbreaks, fire, or other disasters, connecting the idea of resurrection (coming back from death) which was symbolic in the phoenix.

The Centaur

The centaur was a mythical creature with the lower body of a horse and the upper body of a man. The Greek love for horses led to the creation of the centaur in myth and legend during the height of Greek civilization. However Centaurs remained popular up to and through the Medieval period often appearing in medieval art, stories and literature, and teaching. The Centaur, which was known for his wisdom and healing abilities during the Greek period, changed during the Middle Ages. The half horse, half man, whose human appearance from the front concealed a beastly nature from behind became representative of the sin of hypocrisy – being a hypocrite (someone claiming to have good moral standards or beliefs but their actions and behavior show them to be the opposite) in the Christian church. During the Medieval period centaurs often were shown as a demonic (demon-type) creature in artwork due to symbolizing sin. This version of the Centaur has changed during modern times and in modern literature; centaurs now often being perceived as bow and arrow toting creatures with a love for astrology and future-seeing.

Fast Fact!

The centaur can be seen in many children’s’ movies including several of the Harry Potter movies and the Narnia series

The Mandrake

The mandrake, a common plant used in magic and religious rituals, was thought to have roots that resembled a human body. It is said that when a mandrake is pulled from the earth, it shrieks so loudly that everyone around it will either die or go insane. To avoid hearing the mandrake’s scream, people trying to obtain the plant would tie a dog to it and lure the dog forward, pulling the plant out of the ground with it.

Medieval doctors believed the plant had several uses in medicine. There are several medical uses for the Mandrake Root described in medieval medical literature (all of which did very little, or did not work at all, and in some cases actually would hurt patients). Here are a few:

1. For head-ache which prevents sleep: Use the juice squeezed from the roots and apply to the forehead with a cloth.

2. For pain in the ears: The juice from the roots must be mixed with hot oil of nard and the mixture poured into the ears.

3. For severe attack of gout (which makes it painful to move joints throughout the body): You must take the right hand and the right foot of the mandrake root and grind it to powder, and administer in wine for seven days.

4. For epileptics, (a person that has seizures): One piece from stomach portion of the roots of the plant is ground up and given to the patient in hot water.

5. For cramped muscles: Make a powder, very fine, from the entire body of the plant and mix it with sweet oil, and smear it upon the person

6. For a head cold: Place a Mandrake plant inside the house of the person infected, and the mandrake will drive away all infections from the house.

7. Mandrakes were also the most popular anesthetic of the Middle Ages!

Did you know?

The mandrake appears in various movies, plays, and books including Harry Potter and The Chamber of Secrets, Machiavelli’s play Mandragola, and The Bible.

The Unicorn

The unicorn, one of the most famous mythical creatures of all time, plays a very different role in medieval mythology than most other myths. The unicorn resembled a small goat or horse with a grooved horn sticking out of its forehead. Supposedly, the unicorn was a fierce beast that could only be caught by a young girl. The unicorn would fall asleep in the girls lap and could then be captured. The unicorn has come to be a symbol of purity and beauty, and is one of the few mythical creatures not associated with violence, danger, and fear. Most people believed that the horn of a unicorn was extremely valuable and that it could be used to detect poisonous substances. In medieval and Renaissance times, the horn of the narwhal (a whale with a horn/tusks on its head) was sometimes sold as unicorn horn. The King of Denmark’s throne chair is made of "unicorn horns" – almost certainly narwhal-tusks. The same material was used for several medieval ceremonial drinking cups in government and religious ceremonies because the unicorn's horn continued to be believed to neutralize/stop poison and spread purity and goodness. Medieval physicians would use ground up “unicorn horns” as treatment for a variety of illnesses.

Did you know...

That the unicorn has several metaphorical meanings? In some medieval myths the unicorn symbolizes Christ. Its wildness signifies the inability of Hell to hold him, while the horn symbolizes his unity with God.

Robin Hood

Robin Hood, one of the most famous outlaws of all times, was also one of the most famous myths of the medieval times. Hood, whose exact origin is unknown, supposedly lived in the Sherwood Forest in England with his “band of merry men”. Robin and his men were known throughout the land as outlaws who robbed from the rich and gave to the poor. He is traditionally depicted as being dressed in green, and was a highly skilled archer and swordsman. Robin Hood’s arch enemy was the Sheriff of Nottingham, who vowed to imprison Robin forever. The legend of Robin Hood is first seen in ballads (songs) and poems throughout the Middle Ages. Although there is not much solid evidence, many modern day academic sources say that the story of Robin Hood was based on a real person, or possibly a mix of several real people and events.

In today’s popular culture, Robin Hood is typically seen as a supporter of the late-12th-century king of England, Richard the Lionheart, - Robin being driven to outlawry to help the peasant class during the horrible misrule of Richard's brother “Bad King” John who was left in charge of England and taxed the people very heavily while Richard was away at the Third Crusade. This view first gained popularity in the 16th century but it is not supported by the earliest ballads and poems about Robin Hood.

Did you know…

The story of Robin Hood was turned into the animated Disney hit, Robin Hood in 1973.

The Canterbury Tales

The Canterbury Tales are a group of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer (one of the most famous authors from the Middle Ages) in the 1300s during the Hundred Years War. They were written in a very old form of English known as Middle English. Each of Chaucer’s tales is told by a person by about his or her life. There is a knight’s tale, a miller’s tale, a cook’s tale, and a wife’s tale, among others. The stories were very important to the mythology of the Middle Ages because they were so widely read and discussed. They represent the beliefs of people during the Middle Ages. He uses the tales and the descriptions of its characters to paint a picture of English society at the time, and particularly of the Church. A look at Middle English It is very clear that the English of Chaucer is very different from modern English. Here are some lines from the beginning of the Canterbury Tales:

When Zephyrus eke with his swoote breath

Inspired hath in every holt and heath

The tender croppes and the younge sun

Hath in the Ram his halfe course y-run

King Arthur

King Arthur is a legendary English king of Camelot. Much of the mythology of the Middle Ages focuses on the adventures of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table (Knights such as Lancelot, Galahad, and Bedivere who helped King Arthur). King Arthur and his knights often fight dragons and other beasts while defending their kingdom. One of the most important stories about King Arthur is the story of Excalibur, Arthur’s sword. Arthur is said to have pulled the sword with his immense strength from a stone in which it was stuck. (Have you ever heard of the story The Sword In the Stone – that’s about him!) In another version of the story, the Lady of the Lake gives him the sword. All of the Arthurian legends are told in many different ways. This is because they were told orally, meaning through word of mouth, before they were written down. Because of this, each person had a different idea of the stories and so there were many forms of them.

The legend of King Arthur exploded in popularity throughout Europe due to the imaginative 12th- century book, The History of the Kings of Britain, by Geoffrey Monmouth, who had gathered together several of the oral tales that had been told about the king. In the tales and poems told orally dating back from before Geoffrey’s book, Arthur appears either as a great warrior defending Britain from human and supernatural enemies or as a magical figure of folklore. Geoffrey's version depicted Arthur as a king of Britain who defeated the Saxons and established an empire over Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Norway and Gaul. Many elements and incidents that are now an integral part of the Arthurian story appear in Geoffrey's book, including Arthur's father Uther Pendragon, the wizard Merlin, Arthur's wife Guinevere, the sword Excalibur.

Tales about Arthur thrived during the Middle Ages but lost popularity in the centuries that followed until it experienced a major resurgence in the 19th century. In the 21st century, the legend lives on, not only in literature but also in adaptations for theatre, film, television, comics and other media.

Was King Arthur real? - It is plausible (possible) that King Arthur was a real historical figure. No one knows for sure, many historians believe it is possible that he was a real historical figure, however many other historians disagree. If he is not a real figure, his stories may also have been loosely based on a real man.

Merlin

Merlin was the most important wizard in the Arthurian (King Arthur) Legends. He first appears in tales about King Arthur in the book, The History of the Kings of Britain, by Geoffrey Monmouth in 1136. Monmouth took pieces of previous historical and legendary figures surrounding the oral versions of the stories about Arthur and combined them into one person; his new character Merlin. Merlin is said to have used magic to make the birth of Arthur happen. He was considered a very wise and gentle man. It is believed that his father was not a man, but rather an Incubus, which is a demon-like spirit which roams the world and whom he gets his supernatural powers (magic) and abilities from. The legend of King Arthur says that Merlin was Arthur’s adviser and accompanied him on many travels and adventures. Some later authors added the plot line that the Lady of the Lake threw Merlin in jail, ending his role in legend.

A Demon? - The French Poet Robert de Boron wrote a poem about Merlin, describing him as demon-like. However is more commonly depicted as a wise and kind old man.

The Banshee

The Irish Banshee is a female fairy or spirit in Irish mythology, usually seen as an omen (a sign) of death. Banshees will scream when a member of a family the Banshee is connected to is about to die, and long after the death in mourning (sadness). Accounts of banshees go back as far as 1380 with the publication of the book, Triumphs of Torlough by Sean Mac Craith. From this legend we have the phrase "scream like a banshee." Alleged sightings of banshees have been reported as recently as 1948.

Traditionally, when a person died a woman would sing a lament (a wailing/weeping sounding sad song) at the funeral. These women are referred to as "keeners" and the best keeners would be in high demand. Legend has it that for the greatest most powerful Irish and Scottish families – the lament would be sung by a fairy woman (a Banshee); having foresight, she would sing it when a family member died, even if the person had died far away and news of their death had not yet come, so that the wailing of the banshee was the first warning the household had of the death.

In later versions, the banshee might appear before the death and warn the family by wailing. When several banshees appeared at once, it indicated the death of someone great or holy. The tales sometimes recounted that the woman, though called a fairy, was a ghost of a murdered woman, or a mother who died in childbirth.

Banshees are frequently described as dressed in white or grey, often having long, pale hair which they brush with a silver comb. Most often she appears as an ugly, frightening hag, but she can also appear as a stunningly beautiful woman of any age that suits her. The banshee may also appear in a variety of other forms, such as that of a crow, rabbit, and weasel– animals associated in Ireland with witchcraft.

One explanation for the origin of the banshee is in the screech of the barn owl. The nocturnal hunter is known for its chilling screech and has long been associated with agricultural activities in Ireland, attracted to the rodent activity around grain stores and barns.

Fairies

The Fae People – or fairies, were often considered a type of spirit-being connected to nature. Some believe they descended from elves. Many Celtic nations describe them as a race of people who had been driven into hiding by invading humans. Most agree however that there are hundreds of different kinds of fairies - most are beautiful creatures, others grotesque. They usually are very long-lived beings, with the ability to fly, possessing magical powers, and a mischievous nature.

The oldest fairies on record in England were first described by the historian Gervase of Tilbury in the 13th century. The earliest literature including fairies often described them much larger than the popular conception of them today, often being 4-5 feet tall. Fairies often appeared in medieval romances as one of the beings that a knight or hero might encounter. In medieval romances, fairies and their possessions are extraordinarily beautiful. To call a woman "as beautiful as a fairy" was a real compliment in the middle ages.

15th-century poet and monk John Lydgate wrote that King Arthur was crowned in "the land of the fairy" and his body taken at his death by four fairy queens, to Avalon, where he lies under a "fairy hill", until he is needed again.

Later some “fairy – tales” told of fairies that would come in the middle of the night and steal healthy human babies from their cribs, sometimes putting in their place a sick fairy child that looked like the human baby. In these cases fairies were often blamed for the disappearance of a baby or a sudden illness of a child that could not be explained. Did You Know? - Brownies (one type of fairy) are guardian fairies. They are known to do housework and odd jobs around the house for you.

Did You Know? - Scottish fairies are often hideous to look at, they have no separate toes or fingers and in the Scottish Lowlands they have a hole instead of a nose!

Did You Know? - Some cultures believe that Goblins, leprechauns, sprites, pixies, and mermaids are types of fairies.

Court Jesters

A jester was an entertainer either employed to entertain a ruler/king or other nobility in medieval times. Many noble families throughout medieval history employed entertainers and most had professional fools (jesters), sometimes called licensed fools. Jesters also performed and entertained common folk at fairs and markets. In medieval times jesters entertained with a wide variety of skills, which could include songs, music, storytelling, telling of riddles, acrobatics, juggling, and magic. Medieval Jesters played a minor role in court life but certainly brightened up the entertainments. Much of the entertainment was performed in a comic style and many jesters made contemporary jokes in word or song about people or events well known to their audiences.

Regarded as pets or mascots, they served not simply to amuse but to criticize their master or mistress and their guests. The Medieval Jester held privileges which were not afforded to many other persons at court. The court jester was one of the few characters in the court who could freely speak his mind without causing offence and somebody who could use humor to mock, jibe and joke about the lords, ladies and nobles of the court. Jesters came from a wide variety of backgrounds and many of them were well educated. Excessive behavior, however, could lead to a fool being whipped.

King James VI of Scotland employed a jester called Archibald Armstrong. During his lifetime Armstrong was given great honors at court. He was eventually thrown out of the King's employment when he over-reached himself and insulted too many influential people. Even after his disgrace, books telling of his jests were sold in London streets.

Torture Devices

During the Medieval times inflicting pain and torture was an accepted form of punishment or interrogation. The definition of a torture device is as follows: Torture devices consist of any piece of equipment, especially a mechanical one, designed specifically for inflicting unbearable agony on a victim. The objectives of torture devices were to inflict pain and also intimidate victims. Just the sight of a torture device would frighten a prisoner into a confession. Torture devices were therefore used as a tool or a method for the extraction of information or confessions. The cruel torturers of the middle ages were allowed to inflict the horrors of torture or punishment, using a huge variety of torture devices, on the pitiful prisoners. Different types of torture or methods of punishment were inflicted, depending on the crime and the social status of the victim, using various methods and various types of devices or instruments.

Just some of the often used medieval torture devices included:

The Boot or Spanish boot– Boots made of spongy leather, placed on victims feet while victim was tied down on a table near a large fire, boiling water was poured onto the boots which soaked into the leather, eating the feet flesh (skin) inside, even dissolving to the bone of the victim at times.

Branding Irons - Red hot iron pokers were passed back and forth between eyes of victim until eyes were destroyed by scorching heat. Pokers were also applied to various parts of the body.

The Rack –A machine made from a wooden frame. The frame had a roller at each end. The victim’s feet were chained to one roller, and their wrists to the other roller. A handle and ratchet were attached to the top roller and were turned very gradually to increase the tension on the chains. The rollers on either end would turn, pulling the body in opposite directions causing limbs to dislocate and eventually tear away from their sockets completely, causing excruciating pain.

Thumbscrews – A simple device designed to crush whatever was inserted into it. Typically it was thumbs, but other fingers, or toes could also be placed into the device and be slowly crushed. This was achieved by tightening the devices screws to varying degrees which tightened the toothed iron bars on the device leading to crushing and breaking of bones.

The Wheel –Victim is placed on cart-wheel and his limbs stretched out along the spokes. The wheel was made to slowly revolve and the person’s bones broken with blows from an iron bar. Victims were sometimes strangled to death after the 3rd or 4th blow.

Water Torture –The victim was tied to a horizontal board. Using a funnel, water would slowly and continuously be poured into the mouth, while the victims nose was being pinched, forcing the victim to continuously swallow water, and leaving them unable to catch their breath or breathe.

The Scavenger’s Daughter –Device chaining together the victim’s hands, feet, and neck on a long iron bar. The bar being positioned such that it forced the victim into an elongated sitting position causing muscles to tear and compressing the body so tightly blood started to run from the nose and ears.

Ducking Stools – Specifically designed to be used on women, the device was a chair which was hung from the end of a free-moving arm. The woman was strapped into the chair which was situated by the side of a river. The device would then be swung over the river by the use of the free-moving arm. The woman would then be ducked into the freezing cold water. The length of immersion, often lasting hours, into the water was decided by the operator and the crime which the woman was accused.

All of these devices, and many more, were created to inflict the maximum amount of pain with a minimum amount of effort. Usually use of such methods was completely legal! Various devices often lead to one of more of the following: ripping out teeth/nails, boiling skin, roasting someone alive, flaying of the skin, whipping, beating, limb and/or finger removal, tongue removal, bone breaking, burning, bruising, choking, cutting, dislocating, drowning, and more.

Minstrels

A Minstrel can be described as a man who earned a living by the arts of poetry, storytelling, and music, and sang verses to the accompaniment of a lute (a guitar type instrument), harp or other instrument. A minstrel was a servant employed as either a travelling entertainer or as a castle or court musician or medieval bard. The name 'minstrel' means a "little servant".

Medieval minstrels often created their own ballads (songs) but they were also famous for memorizing long poems based on myths and legends or family histories. The themes of the songs sung by minstrels also dealt with chivalry and courtly love but they also told stories of faraway lands and historical events. Additionally, medieval minstrels also often sang about the legends surrounding King Arthur, Camelot and the Knights of the Round Table.

Medieval feasts, fairs and festivals were all common occurrences during the Middle Ages and were celebrated during specific times of the year (most of which were dictated by the Church and religious festivals.) The musical instruments played by wandering minstrels who performed at these events were light and easily carried. They included fiddles, the lute, recorders and small percussion instruments.

The most famous fictional English minstrel is Alan-a-Dale who was a wandering minstrel who became a member of the band of outlaws, the 'merry men', led by Robin Hood. The story of the minstrel Alan-a-Dale reflects the type of songs sung by real minstrels. The story tells of Robin encountering a broken-hearted Alan-a-Dale. Alan's true love Ellen was being forced to marry a cruel, old knight. Disguised as a minstrel, Robin interrupts the wedding and rescues Ellen. Alan-a-Dale and Ellen were married by Friar Tuck.