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Minaveha Orthography

by

Larry Lee Lovell

Summer Institute of Linguistics Papua New Guinea Branch

January 1995 Revised April 2009

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE i

ABBREVIATIONS v

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 The Original SIL Program Plan 1

1.2 The Resulting Program 2

2 ORTHOGRAPHY 4

2.1 The Minaveha Orthography Prior to 1986 4

2.2 The First Proposed Solution: Two New Digraphs 5

2.3 The Final Solution: No New Digraphs; One New Grapheme 5

3 MORPHOPHONEMIC PROCESSES 7

3.1 Simplification of Geminate Clusters 7

3.2 Epenthesis 9 3.2.1 Vowel Epenthesis 9 3.2.2 Consonant Epenthesis 10

3.3 Deletion 11

3.4 Mutation 12

4 WORD DIVISIONS 13

4.1 Noun Phrases 14 4.1.1 Possessive Constructions 14 4.1.2 Nominalizations 18 4.1.3 Comitative Constructions 19

4.2 Verbs and Verb Phrases 21

4.3 Modifiers 24 4.3.1 Generic Modifiers 24 4.3.2 Adverbs 25

4.4 Other Word Classes 26

Minaveha Orthgraphy: Table of Contents

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5 RESULTS OF TESTING 28

5.1 Observations of Adults 28 5.1.1 Where Do the Verbs End? 28 5.1.2 Where Do Intonation Contours Begin and End? 29

5.2 Observations of Children 30 5.2.1 Original Materials 31 5.2.2 Subsequent Materials 31

6 DIALECT VARIATION 32

7 CURRENT LITERACY SITUATION 34

7.1 Published Materials 34

7.2 Programs 48 7.2.1 Local Involvement 48 7.2.2 SIL Involvement 50 7.2.3 Provincial Involvement 50

BIBLIOGRAPHY 52

v

ABBREVIATIONS

1N first person, plural, iNclusive 1S first person, Singular 1X first person, plural, eXclusive 2C 2-chômeur marker (within the verb) 2P second person, Plural 2S second person, Singular 3I third person, Inanimate or Impersonal 3N third person, Non-definite object 3P third person, Plural 3S third person, Singular ag1 agreement suffix (indicating person and number) applied to words falling under its domain:

Class 1 nouns, adjectives, and postpositions ag2 agreement suffix (indicating person and number) applied to the possessive pronominal

stems to form possessive pronouns for Class 2 and Class 3 nouns (see po2 and po3 below) aj adjective AJP adjective phrase Aor aorist aspect as aspect (within the verb) av adverb AVC adverb clause AVP adverb phrase CAUS causative Chô chômeur, a term used in Relational Grammar indicating that a clausal argument no longer

bears the grammatical relation it once bore; i.e., it is “out of work;” also the ^ placed over a 1, 2, or 3 indicates 1-Chô, 2-Chô, or 3-Chô, respectively in SDs

cj conjunction CMT comitative marker, a prefix applied to nouns to form comitative word-phrases cp comitative word-phrase (with na-) dc deictic prefix, indicating distal, applied to adverbs and pronouns dc1 deictic suffix, monosyllabic, applied to nouns dc2 deictic suffix, disyllabic, applied to nouns DES desiderative mood dt determiner, normally a preposed modifier of nouns DUR durative, continuous, imperfect aspect EP epenthetic segment, either a vowel or a consonant, with ø gloss EXC marker, exclusive affix, indicating the dominance of a single quality and the exclusion of

its opposite ICO inchoative-inceptive ij interjection IMP imperative mood INDF indefinite article IRFX inanimate reflexive LDA locative-directional affix, indicating a postpositional phrase (i.e., a ‘postpositionalizer’) Lit literally, used in examples and glosses mk marker, various types indicated by this abbreviation, including TRN, LDA, EXC, etc. mn manner/instrumental modifier (within a verb or adjective), which may occur before the

root or after it mns means mo mood marker, subjunctive or imperative (within the verb) n noun root (a lexical entry); also an unpossessed noun in discourse N/A not applicable n0 noun unpossessed in discourse n1 Class 1 noun, inherent possession indicated by a suffix n2 Class 2 noun, contiguous possession indicated by a preceding possessive pronoun (po2)

Minaveha Orthography: Abbreviations

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n3 Class 3 noun, extraneous possession indicated by a preceding possessive pronoun (po3) neg negation, a preposed modifier of members of many word classes, phrases, and clauses ni noun root, incorporated into a member of another word class, usually a verb nmz nominalizer, applied to verbal infinitives (vi, see below) to form nouns, which, if possessed,

are of either Class 2 or Class 3 NP noun phrase num numeral, a postposed modifier of nouns (irregular forms) nx nominal expression, such as an idiom ob object marker (within the verb) OBT oblique object advancement marker; also OBlique Transitivizer p postposition pe proper noun PERF perfective or completive aspect PL plural pn pronoun, either personal, emphatic, relative or demonstrative pn2 possessive pronominal stem, Class 2 pn3 possessive pronominal stem, Class 3 PNA person-number agreement marker [this abbreviation was used in the Minaveha Phonology

Essentials; it has been replaced in the Minaveha Grammar and here by either ag1 or ag2] po2 possessive pronoun, Class 2, consists of pn2+ag2 po3 possessive pronoun, Class 3, consists of pn3+ag2 pp postpositional word-phrase PP postpositional phrase qt quantifier, preposed modifier of AJP, NP, PP, VP, or CL; also a postposed modifier of AJP

and NP qu question word SB subjunctive mood (in glosses) smo. someone smt. something smw. somewhere su subject marker (within the verb) SUB the entry does not occur in isolation, hence does not qualify as a member of any of the

word-class sets; includes particles, clitics, etc. SwT possible switch of Topic or Discourse Focus (?) UN unspecified constituent v verb root (a lexical entry) v0 verb, intransitive construction, which takes no suffix v1 verb, semi-transitive construction, which takes only -na suffix v2 verb, transitive construction, which takes the full range of object markers directly on the

verb stem v2a verb, transitive construction which agrees only with a third person object or goal through

the marker (-a) for stems ending in /i/ (and for some speakers /u/ and /e/ [rare], as well) v2i verb, transitive construction, which takes only -i object marker directly indicating an

impersonal object or goal v3 verb, transitive construction, which takes OBT and the full range of object markers vi verbal infinitive, created from either a transitive or an intransitive verb by stripping away

subject and object markers so that it shows no agreement with any arguments, employed in nominalizations with nmz.

VP verb phrase vx verbal expression, such as an idiom

1

1 INTRODUCTION

Minaveha is an Austronesian language spoken by approximately 2,500 people living on the Kukuia Peninsula, a thumb-shaped projection of southwestern Fergusson Island, the central and largest island of the D’Entrecasteaux Group in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. Ross [1988: 191] classified Minaveha (referred to in earlier literature as Kukuya) as follows:

Nuclear Papuan Tip network Proto North Mainland / D’Entrecasteaux branch Are-Taupota chain Taupota chain

Classification of Minaveha (After Ross [1988]) Ross’s classification was based largely upon the work of Lithgow [1976], a quickly

conducted survey of the region. Lithgow based his classification of Minaveha (Kukuya, as he refers to it) as a member of the Taupota chain upon three pieces of syntactic evidence, two of which did not accurately represent the situation as it was when we arrived or as it is today. According to extensive amounts of data we have collected during our 23 years there, all we can surmise is that perhaps Lithgow’s informants gave atypical responses.

Lexical similarities measured through cognate counts are 15% higher with the members of the Bwaidoka network than with the members of the Taupota chain. This affinity with the Bwaidoka network could be the result of lexical borrowings over time. Still, there are problems with both the Taupota classification and with the Bwaidoka classification regarding the basic phonological inventory. These matters have been discussed in some detail in Lovell [2009]. In my opinion, the exact classification of Minaveha within the Proto North Mainland / D’Entrecasteaux branch remains to be worked out accurately.

1.1 The Original SIL Program Plan

My wife, Connie, and I began working among Minaveha speakers in 1986, and have continued working with them (with the exception of furlough times) until the present. The original literacy plan for the Minaveha program, which we developed in cooperation with village leaders, seemed to us a sound one, and we were making good progress in implementing it until vernacular literacy policies enacted by the national government brought a great deal of pressure upon all of us involved in the program to change our approach. It was with a goodly amount of regret that we complied with the pressure to produce vernacular materials, train local teachers, set up vernacular pre-schools, and make decisions affecting word divisions well ahead of the schedule we had set for ourselves.

Our original plan, which included producing three lengthy translated books, either three gospels, or two gospels and the book of Acts, included a thorough trial of three orthographic conventions for handling word divisions. Because Minaveha is an agglutinating language, some words, especially verbs, get quite lengthy. However, most of the lengthy verbs are

2 Minaveha Orthography: Introduction

transitive verbs with morphological indicators (prefixes and suffixes) which clearly show both their initial and final boundaries. In 1987 I presented three logical options to the translation committee for their consideration:

1. Write lengthy words as one word. 2. Write lengthy words using spaces to separate certain affixes from the stems. 3. Write lengthy words using hyphens to separate certain affixes from the stems. We on the translation committee agreed that it would be good to let the communities

have a year or so with each option to see which one they preferred. Connie and I hoped that as the general reading ability of the community improved over time, they might find it unnecessary to break long words at all (having foreseen the difficulties of breaking words due to internal morphophonemic changes). Inserting either spaces or hyphens between morphemes would require an elaborate set of rules, which we were hesitant to introduce. We had strong reservations about whether local teachers could implement such rules themselves, much less succeed in teaching children to apply them consistently. As it turned out, our reservations were justified.

The translation committee agreed to implement option 1 for publishing the gospel of Mark, option 2 for publishing the second gospel (which turned out to be John), and option 3 for publishing the third long work. We published Mark in 1992 as planned.

Connie and I had hoped to delay the production of vernacular materials until these options ran their predetermined courses. That way all the adults who could read (and there were a fair number) would have ample opportunity to test the options thoroughly, and then decide how they wanted their language to be written. At the conclusion of the test we could begin training local teachers and producing vernacular literacy materials, primers, etc., using an orthography which had community consensus. The nightmares we were trying to avoid initially were (a) having several mutations of prep-school materials (and the confused children resulting from them) and (b) having vernacular teachers who needed an updated training course every time community opinion changed about how to divide words.

1.2 The Resulting Program

After the publication of Mark, the rest of our original plan was abandoned when pressure came from the government to begin setting up tok ples prep-schools (TPPS). Other language groups within the region, some of them having completed New Testaments as a result of SIL programs (Iamalele, Dobu, Iduna), other teams in fledgling SIL programs at the time (Tola’ai-Molima) were beginning to publish prep-school materials, train teachers, and start prep-schools. The headmaster of the local community school at Mapamoiwa began strongly urging us to initiate a TPPS program, too. Quite understandably, he wished to combine the teachers from the Minaveha language group with those from the Tola’ai-Molima language group in government sponsored teacher training workshops for West Fergusson Island.

Some local clan leaders had heard that it would be a good opportunity for their grade 10 leavers to get training and to teach in the schools, thus earning a good wage. Many of those clan leaders had not been involved in translation committee meetings, and did not understand the rationale behind thorough testing of the orthography with adults prior to

Minaveha Orthography: Introduction 3

primer construction, teacher training, and beginning the pre-schools. So, there was some pressure from within the Minaveha community, as well, to begin TPPS as soon as possible.

I put together a primer series in 1993 based almost entirely on native authored stories. The first village-printed copies (14) of this series employed option 2: spaces between morphemes in lengthy words. Although the teachers were fairly satisfied with it, some influential members of the translation committee began to see the weakness of this option right away: it was difficult to determine where to apply final word stress in lengthy words, since there was no difference between a morpheme break (a space) and a word break (also a space). Even good readers were backtracking and pronouncing long words twice, the first time to determine where the word really ended, and a second time to apply final word stress on the proper syllable.

Because we did not want to train and re-train teachers, or print and re-print materials, the decision of how to divide words came to the fore in 1994. On 7 July, community leaders, pre-school teachers, translation committee members and local community school headmasters (from Mapamoiwa and Igwaheta) met at Ibwananiu Village to decide the issue. There were 50 people who were given a vote on the issue. The voting was done in two steps. The first vote was between option 1 and options (2) and (3) taken together, i.e., should we write long words connected or divide them. The vote was 35 in favor of dividing long words, 15 in favor of writing them connected. The second vote was on the question of how to divide them, and was essentially: do we employ option 2 or option 3. The voting on this question was much closer. The final vote was 27 in favor of using hyphens, 22 in favor of using spaces, with 1 abstention.

Option 3, though not nearly so easy to teach as option 1, at least has the advantage of using a hyphen for morpheme breaks, and a space for word breaks. Nevertheless, meetings and discussions continued for several weeks in an effort to determine which affixes to link to the stems using hyphens, and which to write connected to the roots to form stems.

The details of these problems and the rationale for the system now in use are the substance of the body of this paper.

4 Minaveha Orthography: Orthography

2 ORTHOGRAPHY

This chapter contains a description of the literacy situation when we arrived in 1986, our evaluation of the changes needed to regularize spelling and to divide words predictably, and the currently employed orthography. In the discussion which follows, the following conventions are employed in the text proper (though not normally in tables or charts):

phones are enclosed within square brackets [X]; phonemes are enclosed within slashes /X/; graphemes are enclosed within curly braces {X}.

2.1 The Minaveha Orthography Prior to 1986

Connie and I arrived in Ibwananiu Village on 27 March, 1986, to begin the village-living phase of our Pacific Orientation Course. We collected about 800 words in the five weeks which followed and found the following phonemic inventory:

Vowels Consonants

ɑ b m e bw mw i d n o ɡ p u ɡw pw ɣ s k t kw v ɾ w ð ̪

NB: the sound [ɾ] occurs only in borrowed words.

Table of Minaveha Phonemes

We also discovered two problems Minaveha speakers had been struggling with for years. They had been trying to use an English orthography for their language; and, that worked fine except for two sounds for which they had no English graphemes: their voiced velar fricative /ɣ/ and their voiced dental fricative /ð ̪/.

As can be seen in the table above, Minaveha also has a voiced velar stop; and, both the voiced velar stop and the voiced velar fricative were being written with {g}. There are many voiced velar minimal pairs in the language. This problem was entirely one of orthoepy and could be corrected by choosing a proper grapheme for /ɣ/.

The solution for the voiced dental fricative problem, however, was more complicated. Though the phone [j] occurs in the language, all its occurrences are predictable: [j] only occurs when a front vowel is followed by a vowel which is either lower, e.g., [ie], or further

Minaveha Orthography: Orthography 5

back, e.g., [ia], [iu], [io], [ea], [eu], [eo]. With the exception of Yaubada ‘God’, a word borrowed from the Suau language, there are no words in the language which begin with [j]. Neither are there any words in which [j] occurs in a non-transitional environment, i.e., there are no sequences of [aji], [uji], [oji], [aje], [uje], [oje], [aju], [ajo] etc. From this evidence we concluded that [j] is only a phone, and that there is no /j/ in the Minaveha inventory.

However, in 1986 the phone [j] was written by some with {y}, while other writers omitted it altogether, writing only the vowel sequences. What created confusion was that the sound [ð ̪] was also written with {y}. The solution to this voiced dental fricative problem involved two steps: (1) finding a suitable grapheme to distinguish it from [j]; and (2) deciding whether or not [j] needed to be written at all.

2.2 The First Proposed Solution: Two New Digraphs

Since the Minaveha dental fricative is very similar to the English interdental fricative, in mid-1986 we began writing it as {th}. A similar digraph solution appeared to work for the voiced velar fricative, which we began writing as {gh}. As we wrestled with the matter of whether to write [j], it appeared to us that since all occurrences of it were predictable, we should not write it. That decision left the grapheme {y} free for signifying the dental fricative unambiguously. This decision meant that we now needed to introduce only one new digraph {gh} into the orthography.

When we arrived Minaveha writers were already employing the logical digraphs {bw}, {gw}, {kw}, {mw}, and {pw} for the labialized consonants, so it was not necessary for us to introduce them.

2.3 The Final Solution: No New Digraphs; One New Grapheme

In early 1987, a consultation with our colleague Ramona Lucht proved very helpful. Her suggestion was that unless it was unavoidable, we should not consider using a lone digraph (such as {gh}) in an orthography. Rather than {gh}, she suggested that we use just {h} to represent the voiced velar fricative. This solution had several decided strengths:

(a) Since the velar stop and the velar fricative are very similar, writing one with a descender on the right, the other with an ascender on the left gives maximal visual contrast for readers. Because {h} has a riser it was a better choice than any of the other unused consonants {c}, {x}, or {z}. (The remaining possibilities (aside from using special characters) were {f}, {j}, and {q}. Since {q} closely resembles {g} in many literacy fonts, we ruled it out; and, Minaveha people themselves supported our decision to reject both {f} and {j} as a grapheme for the voiced velar fricative.)

(b) Words beginning with {h}, rather than with {gh}, would naturally sort together in their own section of the lexicon, rather than in the middle of the {g} section.

(c) Words would be shorter without the digraphs: for instance, instead of thoghothoghona we could write yohoyohona.

6 Minaveha Orthography: Orthography

The final orthography we settled on in 1988 is given in the table below. No changes have been necessary in this inventory for the past 13 years for writing the Minaveha language per se (however, see below for changes made to the orthography for other purposes).

Vowels Consonants Grapheme Phoneme

Represented Grapheme Phoneme

Represented Grapheme Phoneme

Represented

a ɑ b b m m e e bw bw mw mw i i d d n n o o g ɡ p p u u gw ɡw pw pw h ɣ s s k k t t kw kw v v l ɾ w w y ð ̪

Table of Minaveha Graphemes and Corresponding Phonemes (1988) As mentioned earlier, prior to 1986 some Minaveha writers had been using the grapheme

{y} to represent both /ð ̪/ and intervocalic [j]. The dental fricative /ð̪/ is, in fact, a phoneme in the language, whereas no evidence exists to suggest that [j] is a phoneme in Minaveha. A new rule necessary for the language was:

Whenever {y} is written it stands only for the phoneme /ð ̪/ and never for the phone [j].

One problem that eventually arose had to do with borrowed words, specifically names of people and places in translation work. Since [ɾ] is a borrowed sound, the grapheme {l} was chosen initially to transliterate both English {l} and English {r} (since {l} has a riser and is easier to distinguish in a string of vowels than is {r}). Because proper nouns in Greek and Hebrew employ both {l} and {r}, and because both graphemes are used in English, it was suggested that we use both {l} and {r} in translated materials. This had the advantage of making names more similar to entries found in English concordances and references, as well as discriminating between ambiguous strings. This idea had real merit, and helped us avoid ambiguities not only in proper nouns, but in transliterated English words like ‘ram’ (Minaveha = {ram}) and ‘lamb’ (Minaveha = {lam}). Use of a single grapheme for [ɾ] would have resulted in ambiguities difficult to resolve. It did mean that the orthography would contain two graphemes representing what many people perceive as one sound, and that sound is not even found in their language! This consideration has little bearing on the publication of native authored vernacular materials unless they make reference to English or words from other neighboring languages.

Minaveha Orthography: Morphophonemic Processes 7

3 MORPHOPHONEMIC PROCESSES

In this chapter I catalogue and illustrate the morphophonemic processes which were considered when formulating rules for hyphenating (or not hyphenating) words in Minaveha. Although these processes do affect certain types of nominal constructions, they are most often encountered in the verbs. All these processes have been discussed in great detail in Lovell [1993], Chapter 2, Morphology. In this paper they are merely catalogued with respect to the orthographic problems created by dividing phonological units into smaller orthographical units.

From this point on, orthographic representations of Minaveha words will be enclosed in curly braces {} and written in italics. When attention is drawn to morphemes and the boundaries between them (underlying forms), the Minaveha will be written in italics, and morpheme boundaries will be written with a pound sign (#). Hyphens will be reserved for those instances where currently employed orthographic rules call for their insertion.

3.1 Simplification of Geminate Clusters

The only geminate consonant cluster which occurs in Minaveha is mm, and this occurs only where there is a morpheme boundary between the two, /m#m/, as in

(1) {am-mwaei } ammwaei ø#am#mwaei 3S.su#IRFX.mn#slip.down ‘it slipped down of its own accord’

which contrasts with

(2) {am-waei } amwaei ø#am#waei 3S.su#IRFX.mn#open ‘it opened of its own accord’ (said of a door blown open by the wind)

All other geminate clusters involve vowels generated at morpheme junctions; these geminate clusters are all simplified in normal usage.

(3) {an'-awaeha } anawaeha a#na#awaeha 1S.su#DES.mo#agree ‘I intend to agree’

8 Minaveha Orthography: Morphophonemic Processes

(4) {av'-imta } avimta a#vi#imta 1S.su#2C.mn#comb ‘I comb (my hair)’

Simplification of vowel clusters quite often occurs at reduplication boundaries in stems which begin and end with the same vowel. Reduplication of a verb stem indicates durative aspect.

(5) {ananai } ananai ø#ana#anai 3S.su#RDP.DUR.as#burn ‘it is/was burning’

Most of the problems encountered in formulating rules for dividing words in Minaveha are created by simplification of geminate vowel clusters. This is because when hyphens are used to separate morphemes from stems like the DES.mo morpheme in (3) or the 2C.mn morpheme in (4), irregularities in pronunciation are introduced if the full forms of both the morpheme and the stem ARE written out. Similarly, irregularities and nonsensical strings for morphemes and stems are introduced if either of the two identical vowels is NOT written.

One of the most difficult situations with regard to the orthography has been due to pressure caused by other languages in the area which have adopted the orthographic practice of separating subject markers from verb stems, either cleanly or with a hyphen. Having seen these languages written with subject markers cut off, some Minaveha speakers preferred to see their language written in the same way. However, the other languages (Dobu, Iamalele, Tola’ai-Molima) apparently have geminate vowel clusters anyway. Minaveha does not. So, cutting off the subject markers (a convention not practiced by native speakers in their own letter writing when we arrived in 1986) either creates them or presents the reader with nonsensical stems for verbs. In (6) the string is written as it customarily has been. In (7) it is written separated from the stem by a hyphen.

(6) {am } am a#am 1S.su#eat ‘I ate’

(7) *{a-am } am a#am 1S.su#eat ‘I ate’

The two most commonly occurring conjunctions in Minaveha are ka and e, both of which mean ‘and,’ with the former also used to indicate a mild adversative, and the latter used to


indicate sequential actions, akin to ‘then.’ In Minaveha these are also the shapes of the 1N and 2S subject marker prefixes, respectively. Cutting off subject markers cleanly from the verb stems (i.e., separating them by spaces) would create a situation where one could never tell whether a string ka VERBSTEM meant ‘we VERBED’ or ‘and he VERBED,’ since the 3S.su which would be attached to the VERBSTEM is nearly always ø. Similarly, one could not tell whether a string e VERBSTEM meant ‘you VERBED’ or ‘and/then he VERBED.’ To our knowledge other languages in the area do not share these homographic difficulties. For these reasons, we have, from the outset, strongly opposed separating subject markers from verb stems by a space.

As shown above in (7), separating subject markers from stems with hyphens can create unnatural geminate sequences which are difficult to pronounce. As a result, we strongly opposed separation of subject markers from verb stems in any fashion.

These specific problems and the solutions currently employed are discussed in the following chapter.

3.2 Epenthesis

Epenthesis is a common process in Minaveha and causes a number of problems for word division. Instances of both consonant epenthesis and vowel epenthesis occur in the language; and, epenthesis occurs at morpheme boundaries involving both prefixes and suffixes.

3.2.1 Vowel Epenthesis

Epenthetic vowels commonly occur at morpheme junctions where the resulting sequences would create ambiguity. This is often the case where a polysyllabic root (one which has more than two syllables) takes ø for a 3S subject marker. Since the 3P subject marker is normally i, whenever a verb root begins with i the forms for 3S and 3P would be identical after simplification of the geminate cluster i#i. Therefore, an epenthetic a is inserted between the i of the marker and the initial i of the root.

(8) {ikayo } {iaikayo } ikayo iaikayo ø#ikayo i#a#ikayo 3S.su#dig 3P.su#EP#dig ‘he dug’ ‘they dug’

Vowels are also inserted at morpheme boundaries in suffixes. One commonly occurring case involves the LDA, a, a locative-directional affix or clitic which can occur following common nouns or possessed nouns. Nouns of Class 1 take a possessive suffix, and when the LDA occurs on Class 1 nouns it follows the possessive suffix. Two of the suffixes end in a: the 3S -na, and the 1N -ka. When the LDA follows these two possessive suffixes a geminate cluster is created which, if simplified normally, would produce surface forms identical to those without the LDA. The 1N forms are disambiguated by the insertion of an epenthetic i:


(9) {wayahika } {wayahikaia } wayahika wayahikaia wayahi#ka wayahi#ka#i#a concerning#1N.ag1 concerning#1N.ag1#EP#LDA ‘concerning us’ ‘to us’ or ‘from us’ or ‘at us’

Quite inexplicably, this process does not rescue 3S forms with LDA: *wayahinaia is unacceptable. For 3S forms geminate cluster simplification does occur; so, the resulting form with the LDA is indistinguishable from the form without it. Some speakers employ abnormally long word stress to the syllable immediately before the /#na/ suffix when it is followed by the LDA.

(10) {wayahina } {wayahina } wayahi#na wayahi#na#a concerning#3S.ag1 concerning#3S.ag1#LDA ‘concerning him’ ‘to him’ or ‘from him’ or ‘at him’

3.2.2 Consonant Epenthesis

Consonants are also inserted at certain types of morpheme boundaries. Similar to the English rule which inserts an epenthetic ‘n’ after the indefinite article when it occurs before a noun beginning with a vowel (but lacking on-glides like those found in ‘unity’ or ‘uniform’), a Minaveha rule inserts n between 3S possessive pronouns (a and ya) and following nouns beginning with a.

(11) {ya manua } {yan' amane } yamanua yanamane ya#manua ya#n#amane 3S.po3#house 3S.po3#EP#thing ‘his house’ ‘his thing’

This kind of consonant epenthesis also creates problems for word division. With the exception of syllables ending in m, Minaveha has no closed syllables. Writing the possessive pronouns as separate words means that in most instances the following noun is easily recognized and easily comprehended. However, the string {yan amane } would contain a word with a closed syllable ending in n, thus violating the open syllable convention. The currently employed solution for such strings (discussed in the next chapter) is to write a trailing apostrophe, {yan' amane }.

A similar process inserts y between a stem-final e and the OBT morpheme e.

(12) {voneu } {dueyeu } voneu dueyeu ø#vona#e#u ø#due#y#e#u 3S.su#say#OBT#1S.ob 3S.su#look#EP#OBT#1S.ob ‘he said to me’ ‘he looked at me’


3.3 Deletion

In some instances vowels are deleted because of the application of rules which assign primary word stress. The verb stem {vihaihai } contains a reduplicated portion, which may, in fact, contain an unreduplicated root, though we have not been able to isolate hai as such in any other word. In the intransitive forms, which simply add a subject marker prefix to the stem, the final stress falls on the penult. The syllable receiving final word stress is indicated in the following examples by underlining.

(13) {avihaihai } avihaihai a#vihaihai 1S.su#refuse ‘I refused’

In transitive forms, the stress shifts to the syllable containing the OBT, and the final vowel of the first diphthong ai (shown in bold below) is deleted to reduce that syllable from two mora to one.

(14) {avihahaiei } avihahaiei a#vihaihai#e#i 1S.su#refuse#OBT#3S.ob ‘I refused him/it’

A similar process applies to adjectives when a suffix other than one of the normal person-number agreement markers (ag1 or ag2) is added to the stem. In the following example the penantipenult receives final word stress, an uncommon situation, but one which applies to some intransitive verbs, too.

(15) {ahiahina } ahiahina ahi#ahi#na RDP#good#3S.ag1 ‘it is good’ or ‘its goodness’

The EXC suffix ta means that something is ‘purely’ or ‘exclusively’ of one quality. When added to an adjective, the EXC suffix follows the ag1, and the final word stress shifts to the penult. Conspiring with this stress shift is the deletion of the first syllable of the root used to form the reduplicated stem (shown in bold below).

(16) {ahihinata } ahihinata ahi#ahi#na#ta RDP#good#3S.ag1#EXC ‘it is pure’ or ‘its purity’

Since portions of the root may actually be deleted, this phonological rule would cause difficulty writing words to which it has already applied if, say, reduplicated portions were


separated from the root with hyphens. Thus, in the string ahi-hinata *hina or *hinata appears to be the root or an unreduplicated stem; and, ahi appears to be a prefix. Such a situation would present readers with a complex task on a frequent basis; so, it was yet another factor which convinced us that hyphenation should be avoided at reduplication boundaries.

3.4 Mutation

Sometimes a phonological rule modifies a stem vowel. Often when transitive verb stems end in the vowel a, then the following 3S object marker, i, precipitates a change in the final stem vowel from a to e. This change of the final stem vowel then feeds the reduplication process, resulting in a change of the final vowel of the RDP morpheme, too. These phonological rules are described in detail in Lovell [2009].

(17) {epei } {epepei } ø#epa#i ø#epa#epa#i 3S.su#take#3S.ob 3S.su#RDP.DUR.as#take#3S.ob ‘he took it’ ‘he (is/was) taking it’

The important point here is that if the 3S.ob morpheme were to be separated from the stem, then the form of the stem itself must be changed. Similarly, if the RDP morpheme is to be separated from the root by a hyphen, one must carefully consider how the word is to be written. For the example above there are several possibilities. One possibility creates a foreign-looking closed syllable: ep-epei; another possibility creates a confusing root: epe-pei; a third possibility, epe-epei, creates either a long vowel or adds an additional syllable to the pronunciation of the word. All of these options create surface strings for which any straightforward pronunciation is difficult or incorrect.

Minaveha Orthography: Word Divisions 13

4 WORD DIVISIONS

In the last chapter were catalogued the kinds of problems we faced in formulating rules for dividing words with hyphens. Most of the problems we faced were due to morphophonemic processes in the language. However, other factors also affected the decisions about what to hyphenate and what not to hyphenate. In this chapter I discuss the solutions we adopted for these problems of word division; but first, I present the reasoning upon which a major decision was made regarding word breaks.

Minaveha is an agglutinating language. This is especially obvious where its verbs are concerned. There are at least 11 different slots within the Minaveha verb (described below). Nevertheless, prefixes and proclitics occur associated with nouns, too. To make matters worse, many of the most common verbal prefixes are enhomographic with noun prefixes:

(18) a-VERB a-NOUN a a#ø 1S/1N.su po2#3S.ag2 (short form for polysyllabic nouns) ‘I/we VERBED’ ‘his NOUN’

(19) ana-VERB ana-NOUN a#na a#na 1S.su#DES.mo po2#3S.ag2 (long form for mono- and disyllabic nouns) ‘I intend to VERB’ ‘his NOUN’

(20) am-VERB am-NOUN ø#am a#m 3S.su#IRFX.mn po2#2S.ag2 ‘it VERBED itself’ ‘your NOUN’

(21) avi-Xaj.ROOT, n.ROOT avi-NOUN a#vi avi 1S.su#2C.mn which ‘I got/became X-ed’ ‘which NOUN’

For that reason, we have long believed that adopting a strategy which makes a basic structural difference between the verbs (and their prefixes) on the one hand and nouns (and their prefixes) on the other would be wise. Because Minaveha verbs tend to contain more morphemes in a string than noun phrases, they are generally longer than noun phrases. This means that, of the two categories, there would be more pressure within the community to divide verbs into smaller units than there would be to divide noun phrases. Therefore, as early as 1987 we adopted the strategy of not hyphenating noun phrases whenever possible. This meant writing frequently occurring nominal prefixes as separate pronouns (possessive pronouns, interrogative pronouns, etc.). In this paper, as in all the technical documents for Minaveha, the term pronoun implies a separate word, not a pronominal prefix or a clitic.

14 Minaveha Orthography: Word Divisions

Writing the nominal prefixes as pronouns leaves the noun stems free and easily identifiable, as in similar English expressions:

(22) {avi manua } {am kode } {ya manua } avi manua am kode ya manua ‘which house’ ‘your basket’ ‘his house’

The enhomographic verbal prefixes could then be written either connected directly to the verb stem, or separated by hyphens, giving the reader a clear orthoepical pattern for discriminating noun phrases from verb phrases without even knowing the content of the stems. Thus, a phrase written avi X must to be a noun phrase meaning ‘which X.’ Whereas, if the reader encounters either aviX or avi-X, then it must a verbal construction meaning ‘I got/became X-ed’. It is this strategy that we have employed to distinguish all the homographs in the two columns in (18) through (21), plus all other similar ones not presented in this paper.

When in July 1994, the Minaveha people made their decision to hyphenate long words, that decision, with few exceptions, affected only the verbs and nominalizations of hyphenated verbs. Our basic strategy of maintaining a structural difference between these two prominent word classes has remained unchanged; and, it is that strategy which forms the background for the following sections of this chapter.

4.1 Noun Phrases

Three complicated types of noun phrases exist in Minaveha: possessive constructions involving Class 2 and Class 3 nouns; nominalizations; and, comitative constructions. Each of these is discussed in a separate section below.

4.1.1 Possessive Constructions

There are three classes of possessed noun phrases in Minaveha. Class 1 nouns are inherently possessed; and, the class included such things as body parts and kinship terms. Class 2 nouns are those connected to their possessors by imminent desire or immediate physical contact, such as food about to be consumed, personal jewelry, and clothing; we refer to them as things or relationships which are possessed contiguously. Class 3 nouns are generally things which are extraneously possessed, such as canoes, gardens, and houses.

4.1.1.1 Class 1 Nouns

All Class 1 nouns take an obligatory monosyllabic suffix that shows the person and number of the possessor. We have decided not to separate these suffixes in any way, but to write them connected to the noun root. This represents no change from the way Minaveha speakers were writing their language prior to our arrival.

(23) {nimau } {amana } {nuam } nima#u ama#na nua#m hand#1S.ag1 father#3S.ag1 thoughts#2S.ag1 ‘my hand’ ‘his father’ ‘your thoughts’


The only problem in writing Class 1 nouns occurs when simplification of geminate clusters arising at the ag1 morpheme boundary creates ambiguous homographs. The set of ag1 person-number agreement markers is as follows:

1S u 1X ai 1N ka 2S m 2P mi 3S na 3P i

Paradigm of the ag1 Agreement Marker Ambiguous strings are created for 1X and 3P when a Class 1 noun stem ends in a.

(24) {nimai } {nimai } nima#ai nima#i hand#1X.ag1 hand#3P.ag1 ‘our hands’ ‘their hands’

Since most Class 1 nouns refer to obligatorily possessed body parts or familial relationships, normally their possessors are introduced into a discourse prior to being involved in a possessive construction. Hence, these potential ambiguities are usually clarified by the discourse context. We have never had any serious inquiries from Minaveha speakers into the possibility of separating ag1 person-number agreement markers from their stems.

4.1.1.2 Class 2 and Class 3 Nouns

Most noun phrases which contain unpossessed nouns of Class 2 or Class 3 present no problems for word division. However, in possessed constructions the po2 and po3, which indicate the person and number of the possessor, actually form one phonological unit with the following noun, as in (11). Since this sets up a situation where every possessed Class 2 noun would begin with a, the pn2 stem of the po2, and similarly, every possessed Class 3 noun would begin with ya, the pn3 stem of the po3, it seemed good to us to write the possessive clitics as separate possessive pronouns. This means that the initial boundary of the noun itself is always quite clear.

First we present the complete paradigm for the po2, which consists of the pn2, a, plus the appropriate ag2.

1S au 1X ama 1N aka 2S am 2P ami 3S a, an’, ana 3P ai

Paradigm of the po2 Possessive Pronoun


The complete paradigm for the po3, which consists of the pn3 ya plus the appropriate ag2, is given below.

1S yau 1X yama 1N yaka 2S yam 2P yami 3S ya, yan’, yana 3P yai

Paradigm of the po3 Possessive Pronoun

(25) {au kode } {aka hem } {ana tuta } 1S.po2 purse 1N.po2 lime.stick 3S.po2 time ‘my purse’ ‘our lime.stick(s)’ ‘his life/time’

(26) {ya manua } {yam manua } {yami manua } 3S.po3 house 2S.po3 house 2P.po3 house ‘his house’ ‘your house’ ‘your house’

Writing the possessive pronouns separate from the nouns they modify is similar to what is done in English, where an article and following noun, though they normally form one phonological unit, are written as separate words. Problems arise when the final vowel of the possessive pronoun is the same as the initial vowel of the noun. Writing both vowels creates an unnatural sequence to pronounce. In the following examples strings enclosed within square brackets represent underlying forms: phonological units actually pronounced. Forms enclosed within curly braces immediately below the underlying forms represent a possible way of writing the string in Minaveha. A question mark within parentheses following such a string indicates a potential problem for readers.

(27) [yamagida] [yamimta] {yama agida } (?) {yami imta } (?) 1X.po3 fishing.net 2P.po3 comb ‘our fishing net’ ‘your comb’

To write the possessive pronouns separately in these circumstances introduces an additional syllable into the string. Simply omitting the final vowels of the possessive pronouns in order to correct the syllabic structure of the string produces in each instance a string with a different meaning.

(28) [yamagida] [yamimta] {yam agida } {yam imta } *2S.po3 fishing.net *2S.po3 comb *‘your fishing net’ *‘your comb’

Our solution to these and similar problems introduced when single phonological units are separated into components orthographically has been to employ the apostrophe, as in English contractions, to show that a letter has been omitted. For Minaveha, the omitted letter


represented by the apostrophe is—with rare exceptions—the same as the letter which follows the apostrophe. When the apostrophe replaces an underlying i we can distinguish the 2P construction from the 2S construction by the presence or absence, respectively, of the apostrophe. For the Minaveha orthography we distinguish between the apostrophe (') and a right single curly quotation mark (’): the apostrophe is always straight, never curly.

(29) [yamimta] [yamimta] {yam imta } {yam' imta } 2S.po3 comb 2P.po3 comb ‘your comb’ ‘your comb’

Similarly, when the apostrophe replaces an underlying a we can distinguish the 1X construction from the 2S construction by the presence or absence, respectively, of the apostrophe:

(30) [yamagida] [yamagida] {yam agida } {yam' agida } 2S.po3 fishing.net 1X.po3 fishing.net ‘your fishing net’ ‘your fishing net’

There are similar problems with the po2 when the forms am and ami occur before noun stems beginning with i, and when the forms am and ama occur before noun stems beginning with a.

The most complex situation (having the most round-about solution) is created when Class 2 or Class 3 nouns having stem initial a are preceded by 3S.po2 or 3S.po3, respectively. As discussed in section 3.2.2, consonant epenthesis inserts an n between the final a of the po2 or po3 and the initial a of the noun stem. Therefore, writing the po2 and po3 as separate possessive pronouns produces the following types of orthographically unacceptable strings:

(31) [ananamana] [yananamana] {an anamana } (?) {yan anamana } (?) 3S.po2 reputation 3S.po3 knowledge ‘his reputation’ ‘his knowledge’

They are unacceptable because they produce closed syllables (an and yan). (As can be seen from these two examples, a noun root can belong to more than one possession class; and, when it does it has different meanings.)

Our solution to this problem has been facilitated by the fact that other similar forms exist where apostrophes must be employed. As described in Lovell [2009] and again in Lovell [1993], monosyllabic and disyllabic Class 2 and Class 3 nouns must take a disyllabic form of the po2 and po3, respectively. Thus the monosyllabic and disyllabic noun roots below take ana and yana, rather than a and ya.

(32) {ana kode } {ana hem } {yana bonu } 3S.po2 purse 3S.po2 lime.stick 3S.po3 boat.house ‘his purse’ ‘his lime stick’ ‘his boat house’


The following polysyllabic noun roots take a and ya.

(33) {a bababa } {a baiodo } {ya gigita } 3S.po2 width 3S.po2 harness 3S.po3 spirit.trap/bottle ‘its width’ ‘his/its harness’ ‘his spirit trap/bottle’

The situation then arises in which a monosyllabic or disyllabic Class 2 or Class 3 noun begins with a. The expected form of the possessive pronoun in such cases is either ana or yana. But after geminate cluster simplification, the deleted vowel necessitates the contracted forms an' and yan'.

(34) {an' ahe } {an' am } {yan' ava } 3S.po2 chant/song 3S.po2 food 3S.po3 dream ‘his chant/song’ ‘his food’ ‘his dream’

Since such contracted forms are already available in the lexicon of the language, we have a ready solution for the problematic closed syllables produced in cases like those given in (31). We simply append an apostrophe to the closed forms, too. Even though the final n in the possessive pronouns of polysyllabic Class 2 and Class 3 nouns arises because of epenthesis, and is added to the short po2 and po3, respectively, yielding an and yan, the language needs fewer rules, and is written with better internal consistency if, instead of the forms found in (31), we write:

(35) [ananamana] [yananamana] {an' anamana } {yan' anamana } 3S.po2 reputation 3S.po3 knowledge ‘his reputation’ ‘his knowledge’

This orthographic solution treats the final n of the closed syllable of the possessive pronouns as if it were, in fact, an open syllable which has been contracted because of geminate cluster simplification.

4.1.2 Nominalizations

Two types of nominalizations in Minaveha employ what we have chosen to write as nominalizing pronouns. Both types of nominalizations employ verbal infinitives. In tau nominalizations the nominalizer represents both a subject of the verb and, functionally, an actor. In pai nominalizations the nominalizer represents an object of the verb.

(36) [taumini] [paimini] {tau mini } {pai mini } one.who stands smt. stood up ‘one who is/was standing’ ‘smt. which is/has been stood (up)’

(37) [tauvona] [paivona] {tau vona } {pai vona } one.who speaks smt. spoken, or spoken with ‘speaker’ ‘smt. with which to speak’ (as a megaphone)


As long as the nominalizations occur as such, no problem is encountered in writing them as separate words, as given in the examples above. However, these nominalizations can then participate in inchoative constructions as noun incorporations. Thus, the expression ‘become smo./smt.’ has in Minaveha the form vi#NOMINAL, where the nominal can be a tau nominalization.

(38) [vitauvimuniwaiwai] {vi#tau#vi#muni#waiwai } become#one.who#get.behind.faithfully ‘became a disciple’

(39) [vitauvona] {vi#tau#vona } become#one.who#speak ‘became a spokesman’

The problem introduced by these constructions is that if we adhere to the convention for tau and pai nominalizations, then (employing the hyphens and spaces where appropriate) we would write:

(40) [vitauvimuniwaiwai] {vi-tau vi-muni-waiwai } become#one.who get.behind.faithfully ‘became a disciple’

(41) [vitauvona] {vi-tau vona } become#one.who speak ‘became a spokesman’

The form in (40), which is actually a single predicate, on the surface now appears to be a sequence of two inchoative clauses, two independent predicates. And in (41) the infinitive, vona, is stranded as a verb, when, in fact, the 3S form is ivona, rather than vona, the infinitive form vona occurring only in nominalizations. Since these kinds of constructions do not occur often, they do not pose a frequent problem for readers. Much more frequent are the occurrences of the tau and pai nominalizations. By treating them as noun phrases having a pronominal modifier followed by a verbal infinitive, the verbal stem is easily identified, and the constructions are easy to read. Admittedly, readers will encounter a residue of problematic strings in cases like (40) and (41).

4.1.3 Comitative Constructions

One of the most unusual constructions in Minaveha is the comitative construction built upon a noun. It can easily be argued that the comitative construction is not a type of noun phrase at all, but is an adpositional phrase. Since Minaveha has postpositions, and postpositional phrases, the comitative phrase is unusual in that it is formed from two affixes, a prefix and a suffix, which attach themselves to a noun phrase. The CMT prefix is always


the same, na, while the suffix is identical with the dc1 and dc2 deictic markers, reflecting either the singularity or plurality of the noun stem involved. In the following examples the phonological string is enclosed in square brackets and the orthographic string is enclosed in curly braces.

(42) [taunauhavia nawaipaina omoi] {tau nau-havia na-waipaina omoi} tau#nau#havia na#waipai#na ø#omo#i one.who#CAUS#fight CMT#sword#dc1 3S.su#come#3S.ob ‘(a) soldier with/carrying/bearing a sword came (there)’

Comitative phrases present a problem because we have encountered no other prepositional affixes in the language. The two best choices seem to be (a) writing the CMT as a separate word (which would be consistent with the way most other complex nominal constructions are written) or (b) linking the CMT to the following noun stem by a hyphen (as shown above). Currently we are employing the latter method; but, there are problems using either strategy. As might be suspected, there are instances where geminate cluster simplification occurs.

(43) [taunauhavia napiana omoi] {tau nau-havia n'-apiana omoi} tau#nau#havia na#apia#na ø#omo#i one.who#CAUS#fight CMT#spear#dc1 3S.su#come#3S.ob ‘(a) soldier with/carrying/bearing a spear came (there)’

In (43) the a of the CMT and the initial a of apia ‘spear’ form a geminate cluster at the morpheme boundary. After simplification the normal course would be to leave the noun root (or stem) intact, and signify the vowel deletion by appending an apostrophe to the stem. However, this produces a string that is identical to a verb with the form

(44) ø#na#aXXX 3S.su#DES.mo#VERB (where the string aXXX stands for a verb stem which begins with an a.)

According to conventions described above, this string would have the orthographic form n'-aXXX. Thus, if CMT phrases are written as in (43), readers will be unable to distinguish them from verb phrases.

We fare little better if we separate the CMT from the noun stem with a space, for now we have stranded a single consonant as a word: n' apiana. No good solution has presented itself to us for writing comitative phrases. Writing comitative phrases as one word, with no break of any kind between the CMT and the noun stem produces enhomographic strings with the apparent form NOUN#dc1. The string napiana also has the following analysis:


(45) {napiana } napia#na sago#dc1 ‘that sago’

For this problem we have had to content ourselves with a solution which is less than ideal.

4.2 Verbs and Verb Phrases

As mentioned previously, the Minaveha verb has at least 11 slots into which morphemes of different types are inserted. As part of our training courses for teachers of vernacular pre-schools, tok ples pre-schools (TPPS), and vernacular elementary schools, we have included charts which acquaint teachers with the various categories within the verb. It is only by understanding the categories (and the types of morphemes which appear in each) that teachers can consistently apply rules for hyphenating long verb strings. Otherwise, the process will appear ad hoc and unmanageable. The following table showing the order of morphemes within the verb is one we have used successfully in our training courses.

mo mn3 mn2 mn1 av PL su (EP) as ROOT (OBT) ob

Linear Order of Morphemes Within the Minaveha Verb

In the chart above morphemes above the horizontal center line are separated from the

ROOT (and from each other) with hyphens. Morphemes below the line we do NOT separate from the ROOT or from contiguous morphemes. The table below gives a brief description of each of these morphemes, and where appropriate, actually lists out the morphemes which may appear in each slot.


Marker Description su subject marker (a, e, ø, i, ka, a, u, i) EP epenthetic vowel (a) mo mood marker (ta-, na-) mn3 manner prefix which describes the way in which the action

was initiated (si-, vi-) mn2 manner prefix which describes the way in which the action

was initiated (nau-, vo-, ma-, tupa-, tana-...) [there are a great many of these listed below]

mn1 (2C) manner prefix which describes the way in which the action was initiated (vi-)

as reduplicated portion of the ROOT which indicates durative aspect (or a similar aspect) based upon multiplicity of action, thus continuous, repetitious, habitual, etc.

ROOT the main part of the verb av adverbial modifiers which describe the manner in which the

action was completed (-kavovo, -wayohe, -waiwai, -yeha, -dadana, -vavaha, -uhauha, -haiawa, -vaine, -iaua) [see section 4.3.2 below]

OBT advancement marker (either e, or ye is added to the verb root to show that the action is directed at someone, or to someone, or from someone)

ob object marker (u, m, i, a, ka, ai, mi, i) PL plural object suffix for 3P which includes a group (-neiei)

Morphemes Within the Minaveha Verb The morphemes su, EP, mo, mn3, mn1, av, OBT, and ob are all closed sets. It is possible

that mn2 is also a closed set; however, the set is large, and we are not sure that we have exhausted it yet. Below is a table listing some of the morpheme combinations which appear in the mn3-mn2-mn1 slots. Most of these morphemes are mn2; only si- and vi- are mn3 or mn1. We simply list the forms here (without glosses) so that the reader can grasp the possible variety in the hyphenated prefixes mn3 through mn1.


am- amo- ana- apa- awa- bou- dewa- dune- epa- hui- imo- imo-vi- ino- ito- ito-vi- mau- ma(e)- mini- mo- nau- nau-vi- ni- nim- novo- nua- ona- si- si-vi- si-vo- si-vo-vitana- toha- tom- tunu- tupa- tutu- ubo- upwa- uta- va- va-vi- venau- vene- vimwa- vina- vi-nua- viau-, vi-au vona- vi-tutu- vi-tupa- vitu- vitua- vito-, v’-ito vita- vi- vo- vo-vi-

Hyphenated mn3-mn2-mn1 Verb Prefixes Orthographic rules governing which morphemes to write connected to the ROOT, and

which ones to separate with a hyphen are given in the table below. These rules are stated in practical terms for the Minaveha elementary school teachers.


Rule 1 We do NOT separate either end of the verb. Therefore, the pair of su (EP) stays joined to the next part, and the pair (OBT) ob stays joined to the previous part.

Rule 2 We do NOT separate the as from the ROOT. Rule 3 Try to find the ROOT. If you cannot find the ROOT then do

not separate anything with a hyphen. Write the entire word connected together.

Rule 4 If you find the ROOT, then does it have an as? If it does, see Rule 2.

Rule 5 Is there an av part of the verb? If there is, then separate it from the ROOT with a hyphen.

Rule 6 Is there a mn part of the verb? Is there more than one? If there is, then separate each of them from the ROOT with a hyphen.

Rule 7 Is there a mo part of the verb? If there is, then separate it from the ROOT with a hyphen.

Rule 8 Are any letters missing from the verb because we do not pronounce them? If so, put an apostrophe where they would go.

Rules for Hyphenating the Minaveha Verb

Once the teachers are able to comprehend the structure of the verb, and which of the

prefixes are above the line and which below (in the linear order of the morphemes, see above) then the task of knowing where to place hyphens and where NOT to place them is simplified.

4.3 Modifiers

4.3.1 Generic Modifiers

Some Minaveha modifiers as so generic in nature that they can be added to nouns, adjectives, and verbs. When added to nouns they function adjectivally; when added to adjectives and verbs, they function adverbially. Three generic modifiers which function in this way are given in the table below.

hoi ‘very, true, (truly)’ ohota ‘only’ vaine ‘extremely’

Generic Modifiers of Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs

We can add the modifiers to nouns:


(46) {natu-hoina } natu#hoi#na child#true#3S.ag1 ‘his true child’

(47) {au heta-ohota } 1S.po2 self-only ‘all by myself’

We can add the modifiers to adjectives:

(48) {ani-hoina } ani#hoi#na big#true#3S.ag1 ‘true big’ or ‘very big’

(49) {ahihi-vainena } ahi#ahi#vaine#na RDP#good#extremely#3S.ag1 ‘extremely good’

We can also add the modifier vaine to verbs:

(50) {nata-vainei } ø#nata#vaine#i 3S.su#grow#extremely#3S.ob ‘grow extremely (large)’

4.3.2 Adverbs

Another group of modifiers is added only to verbs. For that reason we refer to them as adverbs, adverbial modifiers, or adverbial suffixes. The list of adverbial modifiers includes the following:


haiawa ‘dance-like’ (by metaphorical extension ‘happily’) havine ‘again’ or ‘repeatedly’ iaua ‘fully’ kavokavovo ‘crazily’ kavovo ‘with no purpose in mind’ or ‘thoughtlessly’ kwayavoni ‘in a frenzy’ or ‘in a rush’ uhauha ‘so as to fall back/lapse’ vavaha ‘eternally’ or ‘permanently’ waiwai ‘faithfully’ or ‘persistently’ wayohe ‘without successful completion’ yavune ‘away from the source’ yeha ‘so as to complete (a task)’

Adverbial Modifiers

We use hyphens to join all the adverbial suffixes in the table above to the verb roots (or stems) they modify, as specified in Rule 5 above for verbs, and as shown in examples (51) through (54) below.

(51) {idewa-haiawa } i#dewa#haiawa 3P.su#do#dancing ‘they are/were happy’

(52) {ivunu-havineai } i#vunu#havine#ai 3P.su#hit#again#1X.ob ‘they hit us again (and again)’

(53) {iam-iaua } i#am#iaua 3P.su#eat#fully ‘they ate until they were full’

(54) {ipota-wayoheu } i#pota#wayohe#u 3P.su#wait#in.vain#1S.ob ‘they waited for me in vain’

4.4 Other Word Classes

As mentioned above in section 4.3.1, the word class of adjectives can take one of the hyphenated adverbial modifiers. Determiners, conjunctions, interjections, and negatives are all word classes which consist largely of monomorphemic words. Therefore, hyphens are not


necessary when writing members of those word classes. Pronouns and postpositions are word classes which may employ roots plus agreement markers plus the LDA, a. The most complex of them is five syllables in length.

(55) {wayahikaia } wayahi#ka#i#a about/concerning#1N.ag1#EP#LDA ‘to/from/at/with us’

Though complex in their morphology, neither pronouns nor postpositions employ hyphens. One place hyphens are used extensively is among ordinal numbers which have been

borrowed from English. The traditional Minaveha number system is described in Lovell [1993], and can produce very long strings. For example, the number twenty-six would be written as follows:

(56) {onoto aitamoata ka nima papani-keana ka aitamoata } man one and hand side -alone and one ‘[one man=20 (10 fingers + 10 toes)] and/plus [just one hand=5] and/plus [1]= 26’

Instead of writing such long strings, translators chose to write English (or Arabic) numbers for cardinal numbers larger than four.

Traditionally, ordinal numbers were formed by prefixing vi- to cardinal numbers, then adding what is presumably the dc1 suffix.

(57) {v'-inuana} [vi#inua#na] become#two#dc1 ‘second’

Wide-spread use of English numbers has led to the formation of ordinal numbers like the following:

(58) [vi#sikisi#na] become#six#dc1 ‘sixth’

(59) [vi#pipitini#na] become#15#dc1 ‘fifteenth’

It seemed best to the translators to write these borrowed ordinal numbers as {vi-6-na } and {vi-15-na }, respectively.

28 Minaveha Orthography: Results of Testing

5 RESULTS OF TESTING

Because our original plan of long term testing (outlined in the Introduction) was curtailed by the push for vernacular literacy, especially the TPPS component, we did not collect as much data as we would have liked in the assessment phase of how various ways of writing the language (essentially, dividing words) affects fluency, speed, and comprehension. The following discussion is divided into two sections, one reporting our observations of adults and one reporting our observations of children who participated in the TPPS program (and later in the Minaveha elementary school program). For the purposes of this paper we consider as adults anyone who has completed grade 6, or who is older than a grade-6 leaver, since this group includes those who have had some prior experience with written materials either in English (through the government school at Mapamoiwa) or in Dobu (through church materials).

5.1 Observations of Adults

We have recorded our observations of adult Minaveha speakers while they read aloud both short samples of native authored texts, and longer selections of translated material. These observations support the decision made by the community to divide lengthy words (verbs) with hyphens rather than spaces. They do not, however, support the community decision to divide long words rather than write them as connected strings.

5.1.1 Where Do the Verbs End?

Using either kind of literature (native authored or translated) readers tended to have more trouble reading when longer words were broken into segments separated by spaces. Though most readers say they prefer to have the longer words (usually the verbs) broken into smaller units, they actually read more fluently in samples in which the verbs were written as one word!

Although the following analysis is only conjecture regarding the reasons Minaveha readers encountered difficulty, we also noticed that it was more difficult for us to read the verbs when they were broken into smaller units. One thing which was quite clear to us was that we were encountering difficulty at two levels of syntactic recognition.

With morpheme boundaries and word boundaries conflated (i.e., both represented by a space), we could not tell at a glance (rapid scanning of a line) exactly how many “words” comprised a verb. This meant that we had to “feel our way along” a line of text, not really knowing within which cluster the primary word stress for a word was to fall. The technique seemed to require that we read past where the verb ended (to determine its rightmost boundary), then go back and reread the verb applying the primary word stress to the proper syllable. For instance, consider the following sentences from the Gospel of Mark (15:10-11a) written using the space method of word division.

Minaveha Orthography: Results of Testing 29

(60) Pilate avaha anamanei vivane tau vinomu matagenai ivi bwanou Iesu wayahina |< CL >| REL |< CL >| |< PP >| [ v ] [ v ] ‘Pilate already knew that the important priests were jealous concerning Jesus e nuanuai ina nau vi anigi. CJ |< NP >| |< COMP >| [ v ] and they desired [that] they will kill him Kate tau vinomu matagenai yoko inau vi neha nehai … CJ | < NP >| |< VP >| [ v ] But the important priests stirred up the crowd …’

Bracketing in (60) is done on two lines. The line directly beneath the text employs straight brackets to show phrase boundaries over which might be drawn intonation contours. (We shall return to this matter below.) On a second line beneath the text, a v between square brackets shows the extent of each verb.

The first problem is that the entire verb must be scanned to determine whether it is transitive or intransitive. This can only be determined by locating an object marker at the very end of the verb. If it is there, the accent is applied to the penultimate rhyme character. If it is not there, the stress is applied to the antipenultimate rhyme character. If one cannot easily locate the final cluster of the verb, then primary word stress is impossible to fix, and readers will necessarily falter.

5.1.2 Where Do Intonation Contours Begin and End?

Similarly, unless one knows where the verbs begin and end, it is difficult to fix the limits of the phrases over which intonation contours apply. Looking back at (60), we can see that in the first line there are three intonation contours: the first ends with the verb anamanei; the second ends with the verb ivi bwanou; and the third ends with the postposition wayahina. The second line contains a clause introduced by a conjunction, e. The clause consists of a complement taking noun phrase nuanuai ‘their desire,’ and its complement, the verb ina nau vi anigi. However, a relative pronoun, vivane could be inserted between the NP and the COMP, as it is inserted between the two CL elements in the first line. One intonation contour applies to the NP and then another applies to its complement. In the third line there is one intonation contour for the NP and another for the VP, again ending with a long verb string, inau vi neha nehai. Some important things to notice for readers are:

Verbs are the key to determining the final boundaries of most intonation contours (not surprisingly, since Minaveha is predominantly S O V).

The terminus of most intonation contours coincides with the right boundary of the verb.

30 Minaveha Orthography: Results of Testing

Intonation contours can cover other types of phrases, such as noun phrases and postpositional phrases, as well as those larger than a verb (such as a clause).

Visual clues which aid the reader in quickly identifying boundaries of the verb (both initial and final) will inherently furnish information about the proper intonation contours for phrases. This, in turn, will help readers comprehend the larger units of sentences and paragraphs.

All these factors strongly favor hyphenating verbal constituents (if they must be broken up at all) rather than separating them with spaces. Hyphens serve the dual purpose of separating the constituents, while at the same time joining together those constituents which occur between spaces. Below, we have reworked the short passage from Mark using hyphenation.

(61) Pilate avaha anamanei vivane tau vi-nomu matagenai ivi-bwanou Iesu wayahina e nuanuai ina-nau-vi-anigi. Kate tau vinomu matagenai yoko inau-vi-nehanehai …

As described in chapter 4, hyphens occur less frequently in word classes other than verbs; so normally, hyphens show at a glance where the verbs are. In addition, both the initial and final boundaries of lengthy verbs are apparent, since the leftmost hyphenated constituent is the beginning and the rightmost hyphenated constituent is the end.

5.2 Observations of Children

Minaveha children have a wider selection of acceptable reading material at this point in the program than adults, since the books prepared for the earliest stages would not generally appeal to adults. (See the discussion in Chapter 7 for details about the materials produced thus far.) Most adults have been churched in the United Church, formerly the Methodist Mission in the D’Entrecasteaux Islands, primarily through a hymnal in the Dobu language. This older generation prefers to sing from the Dobu hymnbook whenever they gather for church meetings, Christmas celebrations, and other special church-related activities, such as funerals. However, children today sing a great many choruses in several languages, including English, Dobu, and Bwaidoka (a language spoken on neighboring Goodenough Island). They sing these choruses in several settings, including formal gatherings at the Minaveha elementary schools, at Sunday school, and at informal gatherings when they play and work.

Young men and women (both married and unmarried) between the ages of 16 and 30 appear to prefer singing these choruses to the older Dobu hymns in the Sunday school classes they teach, and in the youth meetings they have. As a consequence, they are teaching these choruses to the children and they have requested that the translation committee produce some translations of the choruses they already know, as well as any new choruses that they may be able to learn.

Minaveha Orthography: Results of Testing 31

5.2.1 Original Materials

Because we were entering the second stage of our original plan for testing literacy materials when the big push for TPPS began, we were then writing verbal constituents separated from the verb root with spaces when we produced the first set of pre-readers and primers for the TPPS teachers to use. These materials were produced in the village between late December 1993 and the beginning of term 1 in 1994. Teachers tended to prefer this method because there were few long words to daunt their young pupils. Children were reading mostly short words (when they read words) and very slowly and mechanically, with little intonation. As mentioned above in another context, reading long verbs written as one word, though it presented them with longer, continuous strings, had several advantages for beginning readers, the chief one being that they had no morphophonemic reconstruction to do on their own in order to read the word. That is, writing the verbs as one long word made the written language WYSIWYS: what you see is what you say. When a Minaveha phonological unit (like the string itaivaitem) is written divided into its constituents (either ita ivaitem or ita-ivaitem), it then becomes the reader’s task to reconstruct the diphthong ai from the separated constituents a i or a-i. This was the main reason we began the program writing verbs as connected entities.

5.2.2 Subsequent Materials

As described in the Introduction, the community leaders overwhelmingly preferred to divide lengthy words; and, when this issue was finally put to a vote the outcome was 35-15 in favor of dividing. Therefore, the original materials were revised, hyphens were inserted, and these revised materials were introduced for the 1995 school year. However, the task of reconstructing diphthongs across (now) hyphenated boundaries remains one which the children will need to master.

Reconstructing diphthongs across hyphenated morpheme boundaries is a skill that readers can eventually learn. A few of the better adult readers have already learned to do it very fluently. We have observed, though, that it is a problem for children, even for the better readers among them. They are all just beginning; so, we must be patient in evaluating their progress. Our early observations of both adults and children lead us to suspect that this may be one of the most challenging areas for Minaveha elementary school teachers and students.

32 Minaveha Orthography: Dialect Variation

6 DIALECT VARIATION

In 1986 during our first stay in the village I conducted a dialect survey of all four wards of the Minaveha language group. People in these four wards (from east to west Igwaheta, Kukuya, Ibwananiu, and Mapamoiwa) live along the perimeter of the Kukuia Peninsula. For the survey I secured two speakers in each ward who were born and raised in that ward, a man and a woman in each of three wards, and two men in the fourth. Ages of the participants also varied, one young man and one young woman being approximately 18 years old, one older man being in his mid-60’s or older.

The results of that survey showed that the Minaveha language group is a highly homogeneous one. Results on the long (extended) SIL dialect survey forms showed less than 4% lexical variation across the entire survey. Results of the inquiries on the form entitled Language Use and Attitudes also gave little evidence of heterogeneity. In addition, results of the survey entitled Data Based On Observation Of Language Usage Patterns showed that the only language in common use within each of the four wards is, in fact, Minaveha. Only at the government station at Mapamoiwa could any appreciable use of another language on a daily basis be found. The Dobu language was used in all Sunday church services, but rarely used elsewhere.

One of the responses on these early survey forms which differed in two wards, we later learned, is quite acceptable in the other two. There are two acceptable words for ‘dog:’ kokou and kedewa. Most speakers in Ibwananiu and Kukuya (the central wards) prefer kedewa while three of those surveyed in the two extremities responded with kokou. Yet, one of the hamlets within Ibwananiu ward is named Kokou Tanihai, “Dogs’ Ears.” Furthermore, Chowning’s Molima-English Lexicon [1958:63] also gives kedewa as the word then in use by the language group to the east, strongly ruling out ingression of kokou from the Molima language. One other differing response in the survey was (now) obviously due to the respondent’s misunderstanding the term being elicited.

This low degree of dialect variation is not too surprising when one understands the physical distances involved. Ibwananiu ward is the most populous (approximately 600 at the time of the survey) and is centrally located on the southernmost part of the peninsula. An 8 kilometer walk along a coastal path to the west brings one to Mapamoiwa (population 300 at the time of the survey), the location of a Sub-district Station and the community school. Nearly all the children from Ibwananiu and Mapamoiwa wards who attend primary school do so at Mapamoiwa Community School. (Not all children of school age attend school.)

About 5 kilometers to the east of Ibwananiu ward is Kukuya ward (population 400 at the time of the survey), and some 6 kilometers further east lies Igwaheta (population 250 at the time of the survey), the site of Igwaheta School, founded by Catholics. All children from Kukuya and Igwaheta wards who attend primary school do so at Igwaheta School. In addition, there are a few children from the eastern part of Ibwananiu ward who also walk to Igwaheta to attend school.

The short distances separating the four wards favor frequent contacts, inter-marriage, and language homogeneity.

Minaveha Orthography: Dialect Variation 33

The only common lexical differences which surface in conversations are between Igwaheta residents and the rest of the language group. Igwaheta residents employ v in several words where other speakers employ n. This is by no means a regular phonological change. Rather, there is a small inventory of words in which this difference manifests itself.

word central and

western residents eastern (Igwaheta)

residents ‘today’ ataina ataiva

‘just like that’ deinake deivake

Lexical / Dialect Variation of the Easternmost Ward Residents of Igwaheta are also sometimes referred to by other Minaveha speakers as a

different group, the Mibodana, a term which is also sometimes used to refer to members of the next language group to the east, Tola’ai-Molima. Igwaheta readers have had no apparent difficulty reading and understanding materials produced in the ‘central dialect’ (if such minute differences can truly be said to furnish evidence of the existence of distinct dialects). Throughout much of the 1990’s there were two members of the Igwaheta community on the translation committee (one from the United Church community, and one from the Catholic community). During that same period there were two TPPS teachers working at the pre-school at Igwaheta. About ten years after the formation of the first Minaveha TTPS, national educational reforms have introduced the concept of vernacular elementary schools. There is no longer an operational TPPS in either Igwaheta or Kukuya. The Minaveha elementary school in Ibwananiu became quite large, precipitating a move to a larger piece of land. As it turned out, the available land was closer to Kukuya, facilitating the need to incorporate students from Kukuya into the Ibwananiu school.

34 Minaveha Orthography: Current Literacy Situation

7 CURRENT LITERACY SITUATION

This chapter includes a summary of vernacular materials produced thus far in Minaveha. This is done primarily in the form of an annotated bibliography. This chapter also includes a description of the literacy program now being conducted within the Minaveha language group.

7.1 Published Materials

In the following summary of publications the word “publication” is used in an informal sense meaning “made available to the public in printed form”. This summary includes materials which have been offset and bound (and thus which have been assigned ISBN numbers), as well as materials which have been printed in limited quantities in the village or within the region and bound with staples or “comb binding”. It includes nothing which has been reproduced directly from manuscripts (literally “handwritten documents”) by copy machine.

Entries for the following annotated bibliography have the following form:

Year First Published. Title. (English Title.) Author(s) or Translators and editor(s). [ISBN number if applicable] Number of copies released. (Description of format and contents.)

The titles within a category of the annotated bibliography of materials are listed either chronologically or by their series number.

1. Scripture Portions:

1992. Malika. (The Gospel of Mark in the Minaveha Language.) Minaveha Translation Committee. [ISBN 9980 0 1030 4] 200 cc. (Offset Half-Quarto translation of the gospel of Mark, dedicated on 14 February, 1993; contains 72 pp., 18 illustrations, 1 map.)

1994. Ioni. (The Gospel of John in the Minaveha Language.) Minaveha Translation Committee. [ISBN 9980 0 1328 1] 300 cc. (Offset Half-Foolscap translation of the gospel of John, dedicated in February 1995; contains 109 pp., 16 illustrations.)

1994. Ludi E Iona. (The Books of Ruth and Jonah in the Minaveha Language.) Translated by Tau Nenegemo. [ISBN 9980 0 1336 2] 300 cc. (Offset Half-Foolscap translations of the books of Ruth and Jonah translated by the chairman of the Minaveha Translation Committee, dedicated in February 1995; contains 30 pp., 8 illustrations.)

2009. Awaeha Vovouna. (The New Testament in the Minaveha Language.) [ISBN 9980 0 3399 1] 400 cc. (Offset and bound by Korean Bible Society, scheduled for dedication 14 August, 2009; contains 1099 pp., 16 color plates, 75 illustrations, 7 maps, glossary, map index, and topical index.)

Minaveha Orthography: Current Literacy Situation 35

2. Scripture Related Materials:

1994. Sipi E Ai Tau Dune-vi-avini (Yaubada Movina Wayahina). (Sheep And Their Shepherds (From God’s Word).) Tau Nenegemo. [ISBN 9980 0 1329 X] 300 cc. (Offset Half-Foolscap native authored text based upon research conducted as part of the NTC-2 course of 1994; scheduled for dedication and introduction in Feb. 1995; contains 20 pp., 12 illustrations.)

Global Recordings Network Titles: Global Recordings Network has published a series of 8 volumes entitled Look, Listen and Live (hereafter referred to as the LLL series). These volumes are illustrated and accompanied by English text. In late 2005 the Minaveha literacy coordinator, Midiwabu Yanuota approached me in Alotau and requested that we produce a series of diglot readers to help meet the needs of primary school students. Translation committee chairman, Tau Nenegemo and I began by translating the first two volumes of the series. In May 2008, the entire series was typeset as 8 diglot volumes in both Minaveha and English. Only one copy of each volume was produced for approval. In late 2008, Minaveha teachers gave their approval for each volume in the series. In mid-2009 we were still waiting for proper cover stock for printing approximately 50 copies of each title at the printshop in Ukarumpa.

2008. Buki 1 — Vi-putu Yaubada Wayahina / English Kadu Minaveha Ainua (Look, Listen, & Live Book 1 — Beginning With GOD.) Global Recordings Network, translated by Larry Lovell and Tau Nenegemo. Contains 50 pp. and 25 illustrations.

2008. Buki 2 — Ononotoi Bagibagi Yaubada Ivitumahanei / English Kadu Minaveha Ainua (Look, Listen, & Live Book 2 — Mighty Men of GOD.) Global Recordings Network, translated by Larry Lovell and Tau Nenegemo. Contains 50 pp. and 25 illustrations.

2008. Buki 3 — Vane-tawana Yaubada Wayahina / English Kadu Minaveha Ainua (Look, Listen, & Live Book 3 — Victory through GOD.) Global Recordings Network, translated by Larry Lovell and Tau Nenegemo. Contains 50 pp. and 25 illustrations.

2008. Buki 4 — Yaubada Ya Tau Paisewa / English Kadu Minaveha Ainua (Look, Listen, & Live Book 4 — Servants of GOD.) Global Recordings Network, translated by Larry Lovell and Tau Nenegemo. Contains 50 pp. and 25 illustrations.

2008. Buki 5 — Nau-dadana Kadu Vitana Matana Yaubada Wayahina / English Kadu Miaveha Ainua (Look, Listen, & Live Book 5 — On Trial for GOD.) Global Recordings Network, translated by Larry Lovell and Tau Nenegemo. Contains 50 pp. and 25 illustrations.


2008. Buki 6 — Iesu—Tau Viwavenena Kadu Tau Vo-vi-aiai / English Kadu Minaveha Ainua (Look, Listen, & Live Book 6 — Jesus—Teacher & Healer.) Global Recordings Network, translated by Larry Lovell and Tau Nenegemo. Contains 50 pp. and 25 illustrations.

2008. Buki 7 — Iesu—Kauvea Kadu Tau Ito-yavuha / English Kadu Minaveha Ainua (Look, Listen, & Live Book 7 — Jesus—Lord & Saviour.) Global Recordings Network, translated by Larry Lovell and Tau Nenegemo. Contains 50 pp. and 25 illustrations.

2008. Buki 8 — Nuana Ahihinata Ya Dewaia / English Kadu Minaveha Ainua (Look, Listen, & Live Book 8 — Acts of the HOLY SPIRIT.) Global Recordings Network, translated by Larry Lovell and Tau Nenegemo. Contains 50 pp. and 25 illustrations.

3. Minaveha Pre-School Teacher’s Guide: designed to assist teachers in introducing pre-school aged children to the letters of the alphabet over a period of two school terms; designed to be used initially in conjunction with the Minaveha Pre-Reader Series, later in conjunction with the Minaveha Reader Series #1.

4. Minaveha Elementary Teachers’ Guide: a fully revised edition of the above work.

1993. Tau Viwavenena Yai Pai Dune Pai Sawe Naona Minaveha Movi Wayahina #1 (Minaveha Pre-School Teacher’s Guide #1.) Larry Lee Lovell. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication designed to be used in class (like bigbooks) for introducing letters and their sounds in various environments; graded introduction based upon the actual frequencies of letters’ occurrences in the language; begins with a 2x2 matrix and four letters; beneath this matrix are whole words formed only from the letters in the matrix; each lesson introduces one new letter; all letters in the matrix are shifted to insure real recognition; new words are introduced in each and every lesson based solely upon the contents of the matrix; this first book contains 10 lessons, one for each week in a term, and introduces about half the graphemes needed to write Minaveha; introduced prior to the first TPPS teacher training workshop in January 1994; contains 12 pp.)


1993. Tau Viwavenena Yai Pai Dune Pai Sawe Naona Minaveha Movi Wayahina #2 (Minaveha Pre-School Teacher’s Guide #2.) Larry Lee Lovell. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication designed to be used in class (like bigbooks) for introducing letters and their sounds in various environments; continuation of the program begun in Guide #1 (above) graded introduction based upon the actual frequencies of letters’ occurrences in the language; begins with a review of the last lesson in the previous term; continues to introduce one new letter each of eight subsequent lessons, shuffling the letters within the matrices and introducing all new words, which can be used to practice recognition, pronunciation, as sight words, and for actual reading; this second book contains a final review lesson covering all the letters of the Minaveha alphabet; also contains a complete list of all words introduced categorized both by each lesson, and alphabetically; introduced prior to the first TPPS teacher training workshop in January 1994; contains 11 pp.)

5. Minaveha Pre-Reader Series: designed to be used with the Minaveha Pre-School Teacher’s Guides, described above. Books 1 and 2 are actually designed to be used before anything else to help introduce children to some of the principles used in reading, such as preferred direction of orientation, preferred direction of decoding / scanning lines, and fine discrimination of features of two dimensional objects. Books 3 and 4 are “alphabet books” which employ pictures for key words, as is popular in many Western countries. Books 5 and 6 are actually “readers” of a sort, but sentences in them are kept very simple. Book 5 is a description; the number of words in one sentence is normally three, but is limited to 6 or less, except in the last sentence which is a list. Book 6 is a narrative, but again no sentence exceeds 6 words in length. This entire series is scheduled for revision and re-typesetting in late 2009 as new illustrations become available.

1993. Minaveha Pai Aiava #1—Mayamayau. (Minaveha Pre-Reader (#1 Shape Discrimination)) Larry Lee Lovell. 14 cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication of shape recognition for pre-reading; contains a gradation of simple shapes moving from triangles and squares up through letter-like shapes; introduced for first TPPS teacher training workshop in January 1994; contains 6 pages of illustrations.)

1993. Minaveha Pai Aiava #2—Ginuma Ai Dune. (Minaveha Pre-Reader (#2 Letter Discrimination)) Larry Lee Lovell. 14 cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication of shape recognition for pre-reading; each page contains two rows of three similar letters each; introduced for first TPPS teacher training workshop in January 1994; contains 12 pp.)

1993. Minaveha Pai Aiava #3—Ginuma Aitamoata Aitamoata Ai Mayamayau. (Minaveha Pre-Reader (#3 Alphabet Key Word In Pictures)) Larry Lee Lovell. 14 cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication pre-reader for introducing Minaveha orthography; each page contains an illustration of a keyword and the initial letter of that word; introduced for first TPPS teacher training workshop in January 1994; contains 19 illustrations, 19 letters, 21 pp.)


1993. Minaveha Pai Aiava #4— Ginuma Aitamoata Aitamoata Ai Mayamayau Kadu Ai Vona. (Minaveha Pre-Reader (#4 Alphabet Key Word And Pictures)) Larry Lee Lovell. 14 cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication pre-reader transition to primer; each page contains the same illustrations of keywords as Minaveha Pre-Reader #4, but the entire keyword is included instead of the initial letter of that word; introduced for first TPPS teacher training workshop in January 1994; contains 19 illustrations, 19 words, 21 pp.)

1993. Minaveha Pai Aiava #5—Wahuma Wayahina. (Minaveha Pre-Reader (#5 About The Heavens)) Larry Lee Lovell. 14 cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication first reader; most pages contain an illustration of some phenomenon in the sky with a short text which introduces only a few new lexical items; repetition of the words wahuma wayahina helps to reinforce patterns, while still using real words of three and four syllables; introduced for first TPPS school term beginning January 1994; contains 9 illustrations, 15 pp.)

1993. Minaveha Pai Aiava #6—Aitam Auyewa Megeia. (Minaveha Pre-Reader (#6 One Day In The Village)) Sitauwau Tau. 14 cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication second reader; most pages contain a short text written in short sentences about people from the author’s village; short sentences, but more complex than #5; introduced for first TPPS school term beginning January 1994; contains 7 pp.)

6. Minaveha Reader Series #1: a series of readers designed to be used by TPPS teachers in front of their classes. The text is printed in 34 point Century Gothic, with a graduated introduction of punctuation conventions and syntactic complexities. These books can be used to reinforce the lessons taught in the Minaveha Pre-School Teacher’s Guides, during the first two terms, but are actually meant to serve two main purposes: (1) supplementary reading by the teacher during the first two terms, (2) core reading for students during the last two terms. This entire series is scheduled for revision and re-typesetting in late 2009 as new illustrations become available.

1993. Taubwako E Waima. (Book 1: The Wallaby And The Red Ant) Christine Fred. 14cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication; traditional fable about friendship: the one you help today may be the one who helps you tomorrow; a genuine reader with no picture helps; special aids are (1) each sentence in its own paragraph, separated by an extra space from the next sentence; (2) each sentence in a block paragraph; (3) direct discourse set off by nesting indentation; contains 15 pp.)

1993. Dogi Wayahina. (Book 2: About Grass Skirts) Sitauwau Tau. 14cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication; description of how the traditional grass skirt is made; continues with specials aids of Book 1, but with no direct discourse; contains 5 illustrations, 12 pp.)

1993. Binama E Bunibuni. (Book 3: The Hornbill and The Blackbird) Abiabi Mabea. 14cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication; traditional fable about prudence: people can be unreliable and take advantage of you; utilizes the same special aids as Book 1; contains 15 pp.)


1993. Nau Napia Wayahina (Book 4: About Making Sago) Fredi Dinimone. 14cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication; description of the process of making sago; utilizes the same special aids as Book 1; contains 13 pp.)

1993. Mapohi, Babau, Ka Manubada (Book 5: The Bat, The Sun, and The Eagle) Tau Nenegemo. 14cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication; traditional fable explaining why the bat hangs upside-down during the day and feeds at night; utilizes the same special aids as Book 1, but pushes sentence length up to seven lines; contains 13 pp.)

1993. Bwayobwayo E Kunokuno (Book 6: The Crow and The Warbler) Tau Nenegemo. 14cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication; traditional fable explaining why the crow is black and antagonistic toward warblers; utilizes the same special aids as Book 1, except that direct discourse is now treated as other paragraphs, forcing students to read the quotation marks alone for clues; contains 10 pp.)

7. Minaveha Reader Series #2: a continuation of the previous series designed to move readers from the specially formatted texts toward reading texts with standard paragraph and sentence formatting. These books are still in a very large landscape format using 34 point text, so that the TPPS teachers can use them in front of a class. None of this series contains illustrations in the text—only one has a cover illustration. This entire series is scheduled for revision and re-typesetting in late 2009 as new illustrations become available.

1993. Kamkam E Baibai (Book 1: The Chickens And The Giant Clam) Fredi Dinimone. 14cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication; tale affirming the value of family ties: a chicken’s little brothers come to his rescue when he gets his leg caught in a giant clam; utilizes few of the special aids of Series #1; instead, (1) sentences are paragraphed normally; (2) paragraphs (after the first one) have indented first lines; (3) spaces are still inserted between paragraphs, however; no direct discourse in this book; contains 6 pp.)

1993. Vonu Vaivinei Yai Dewa (Book 2: The Ways of the Female Sea Turtle) Tau Nenegemo. 14cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication; description of the sea turtle’s egg laying, hatching of the young, their journey to the sea, their predators; same special features as Book 1; pushes paragraph length to 8 lines; contains cover illustration, 11 pp.)

1993. Vonu Pepewa Ai Inua Yai Dewa (Book 3: The Adventures of The Turtle and The Butterfly) Tau Nenegemo. 14cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication; traditional fable teaching the principle that tricking someone else to get them into trouble can backfire; same special features as Book 1; includes direct discourse within the same paragraph, where appropriate; contains 10 pp.)

1993. Tui Ana Itunu Wayahina (Book 4: About Firing Lime) Tau Nenegemo. 14cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication; description of the process of making lime from coral; same special features as Book 1; pushes paragraph length to 10 lines, which is an entire page length for these “bigbooks;” contains 10 pp.)


1993. Uta A Baguna (Book 5: Planting Yams) Tau Nenegemo. 14cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication; description of the process of planting yams; same special features as Book 4; contains 10 pp.)

8. Minaveha Reader Series #3: another TPPS series for use in class that completes the transition from texts which are specially formatted (to make them easy to read) to texts which are formatted with standard orthographic signals found in most books. Spaces are no longer inserted between paragraphs. This series continues with 34 point Century Gothic so that the text is visible to most students sitting 4 to 5 meters away. This series happens to contain three titles (Books 2, 3, and 5) which employ a common theme involving a woman being persecuted by her in-laws. Although that might seem strange, it is a very popular theme employed in other Minaveha traditional stories. Many of the longer “epic” stories have at least one minor plot involving the mistreatment of a married woman. Each title in this series was edited by Mr. Tau Nenegemo, the translation committee chairman, to insure that the spelling conventions employed by the various authors conformed to the new standards established by the community. All these titles were introduced in early 1995 to supplement the teachers’ inventory for the 1995 school year (and years following). This entire series is scheduled for revision and re-typesetting in late 2009 as new illustrations become available.

1995. Binama Viviwavina (Book 1: The Hornbill’s Story) Setter Gobugobu, edited by Tau Nenegemo. 14cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication; traditional fable about marriage arrangements needing the blessing of the father; not at all similar to Series 1, Book 3; contains 8 pp.)

1995. Tobadibadi-Wayove Viviwavina (Book 2: The Aibika Lady) Setter Gobugobu, edited by Tau Nenegemo. 14cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication; traditional tale teaching the principle that life can be better in the bush all alone than in a village where people criticize you; contains 9 pp.)

1995. Sihoniania Viviwavina (Book 3: The Story of Sihoniania: The Diseased and Crippled Widow) Voivoi Libai, edited by Tau Nenegemo. 14cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication; traditional tale about a widow who became crippled and was mistreated by her mother-in-law; contains 6 pp.)

1995. Umana Wagana (Book 4: The Lizard’s Skin) Jerry Autagui, edited by Tau Nenegemo. 14cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication; traditional fable/legend explaining the origin of the drum; contains 9 pp.)

1995. Vavine Anagoma (Book 5: The Woman Named Anagoma) Jerry Autagui, edited by Tau Nenegemo. 14cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication; traditional tale about a woman who lived in the ocean, came on shore, and married, but who is then mistreated by her parents-in-law; very similar to Book 2 in this series; contains 9 pp.)

1995. Taubwako E Wanabu (Book 6: The Wallaby And The Shark) Jacob Timothy, edited by Tau Nenegemo. 14cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / landscape publication; traditional fable teaching that it is not wise to believe everything you hear, neither is it wise to divulge your plans to an adversary; contains 13 pp.)


9. Bilingual Dictionary:

1995. Dictionaries of Papua New Guinea, Volume 14: Minaveha Field Notes Compiled by Tau Nenegemo and Larry Lee Lovell, edited by David Michael Snyder. 5 cc. released to the Minaveha language program. (Offset Half-foolscap; contains 216 pp.; the Minaveha Lexicon is currently under revision, and should be forthcoming in 2010.)

10. Primer and Reader Series: Published in 1998, a series of 4 volumes.

1998. Iaiava A Pai Vi-putu (Primer) Authored by Larry Lovell, edited by Tau Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 2106 3] 100 cc. (Combines pre-reader materials with primer materials; includes 17 graduated lessons introducing the alphabet with accompanying key word illustrations; includes two short stories, one of which was authored by Sitauwau Tau; includes many illustrations, contains 77 pp.)

1998. Pai Iaiava #1 (Reader #1) Authored by many different people, edited by Larry Lovell and Tau Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 2107 1] 100 cc. (Collected stories of various types and genres from village authors; includes 30 stories, 7 illustrations, contains 70 pp.)

1998. Pai Iaiava #2 (Reader #2) Authored by many different people, edited by Larry Lovell and Tau Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 2108 X] 100 cc. (Collected stories of various types and genres from village authors; includes 27 stories, 5 illustrations, contains 81 pp.)

1998. Pai Iaiava #3 (Reader #3) Authored by many different people, edited by Larry Lovell and Tau Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 2109 8] 100 cc. (Collected stories of various types and genres from village authors; includes 18 stories, 11 illustrations, contains 65 pp.)

11. Aesop’s Fables: Originally published in 1995. The last edition was the 2nd edition published in 1999.

1999. Aesopi Ya Vona-tana-minikuna (Aesop’s Fables, 2nd Edition) Translated by Larry Lovell, edited by Tau Nenegemo. 20 cc. (Dot matrix A5; includes 9 fables, 9 illustrations, 23 pp.)

12. Shellbook Titles: This section contains 50 titles. Forty-nine of them were translated into Minaveha from the English shellbook catalogue and published during a literacy materials workshop in Alotau, MBP in December 2008. One title, Yau Tuta Vi-yawai, was authored in Minaveha and illustrated by workshop participants during the workshop. Mr. Paul Tokamweka graciously provided expert assistance with the illustrations.

2008. Aem Eveneu (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: TG0007—Give Me Your Legs.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1147 5] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 3 cc., contains 25 pp.


2008. Ai Ahiahina Megeia (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: FO0013—The Village Tree.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 2572 7] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 3 cc., contains 15 pp.

2008. Anni Ya Painaba (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: FG0005—Anni's Pineapple.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 2529 8] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 15 pp.

2008. Anunue Ka Gavivina (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: SC0018—Floating And Sinking.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 2573 5] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 15 pp.

2008. Ava Goyona (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: EN0005—The Bad Dream.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 930 85 3] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 31 pp.

2008. Binama Ka Auane (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: TG0010—Hornbill And Cassowary.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1166 1] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 17 pp.

2008. Boweta Ka Binama (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: TG0022—Kingfisher And Hornbill.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1465 2] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 3 cc., contains 25 pp.

2008. Dakidaki Ka Kamkam Onotona (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: TG0023—Duck And Rooster.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1466 0] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 19 pp.

2008. Daudau Itaina Wayahina (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: FG0038—The River.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 923 36 9] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 3 cc., contains 17 pp.


2008. Epuna Tautaumi (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: TG0008—Licking His Lips.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1150 5] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 3 cc., contains 19 pp.

2008. Hiu Vovouna Kwakwagonu Wayahina (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: FG0036—A New Home For Mother Sparrow.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 923 21 0] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 3 cc., contains 23 pp.

2008. Kabwako Yana Tou (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: EN0004—Butcher Bird Calls.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 930 37 3] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 9 pp.

2008. Kavimwa-nene (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: AS0009—Let's Play.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 0998 5] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 15 pp.

2008. Kimi Wana Vavinena (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: NG0002—Kimi's Grandmother.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1149 1] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 3 cc., contains 31 pp.

2008. Koiaka A Niam? (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: SC0014—Whose Friend Is He?.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1469 5] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 21 pp.

2008. Koiaka Na-Ivaiteai (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: AS0032—Who Will Help Me?.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 58 734 2] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 23 pp.

2008. Koiaka Wae Vi-gavivini (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: AS0014—Who Sank The Boat?.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1043 6] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 25 pp.


2008. Maiova-vavaha (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: EN0001—Lost Forever.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 58 940 X] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 13 pp.

2008. Ma'-keana (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: TG0004—The Lonely Woman.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1159 9] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 17 pp.

2008. Manua Yai Baguna (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: NG0012—The Birds' Garden.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1143 2] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 3 cc., contains 25 pp.

2008. Medeina Bwayobwayo Vutuvutuna Nigenigena (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: TG0016—How The Crow Got Black Feathers.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1151 3] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 17 pp.

2008. Mwata Yai Vin'-omana (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: TO0001—How Snakes Came To Be.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 923 26 1] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 21 pp.

2008. Nata-yuayua Vavinena Goyona (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: NG0004—The Terrible Twin Girls.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1153 X] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 25 pp.

2008. Nau-wawanim Daudaua Emamaei (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: SC0005—You Belong In The Water.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1468 7] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 19 pp.

2008. Pono Bagibagina Ana Wava Pugi (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: FG0030—Strong Pig Pugi.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1467 9] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 19 pp.


2008. Pono Novo-tawanena (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: NG0003—The Runaway Pig.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1148 3] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 25 pp.

2008. Tanatana Awana Ananina (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: AS0002—The Bigmouth Frog.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 0999 3] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 29 pp.

2008. Taubwako Ka Vonu (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: TG0002—Wallaby And Turtle.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1163 7] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 3 cc., contains 25 pp.

2008. Tensen Ka Kaiho Moe Sikoni Iapuni (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: NO0001—Tensen And Kaiho Bake Banana Scones.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 923 32 6] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 3 cc., contains 23 pp.

2008. Tevana Hoba Nihenina (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: FG0047—The Baby In The Bilum.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1173 4] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 25 pp.

2008. Tevana Onotona Vi-hanu (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: TG0017—Stone Boy.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1152 1] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 17 pp.

2008. Tonei (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: NG0010—The Feast.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1154 8] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 25 pp.

2008. Tuta Naona Mosibi Nihenina (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: NG0007—First Time In Moresby.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 923 24 5] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 17 pp.


2008. Utuna (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: AG0001—The Seed.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 2526 3] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 15 pp.

2008. Vahitau Inau-genanava (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: TG0001—Feeling Warm.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1162 9] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 17 pp.

2008. Vi-bani (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: NG0008—Line Fishing.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 923 29 6] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 23 pp.

2008. Vi-bani, Vi-bani, Vi-bani (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: NG0001—Fishing, Fishing, Fishing.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1158 0] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 3 cc., contains 25 pp.

2008. Wai Ka Ai Ananata (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: NG0013—Grandpa And The Fire.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1155 6] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 3 cc., contains 17 pp.

2008. Wamke Au Niau, Aaa (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: SC0006—You Must Be My Friend.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1470 9] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 19 pp.

2008. Wayo Yan' Ava (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: AS0004—The Crocodile's Dream.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1025 8] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 19 pp.

2008. Yau Kamkam Onotona (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: FO0004—My Rooster.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 930 49 7] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 15 pp.


2008. Yau Tuta Vi-yawai (My Holiday.) F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo; illustrated by Paul Tokamweka. Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; cc. 8, contains 19 pp.

2008. Yauke Iana Ananiu (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: SC0010—I Am A Big Fish.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1474 1] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 15 pp.

2008. Yauke Kamkam Onotou (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: SC0013—I Am A Rooster.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1477 6] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 15 pp.

2008. Yauke Kedewa Ananiu (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: SC0007—I Am A Big Dog.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1471 7] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 3 cc., contains 15 pp.

2008. Yauke Manua Yaveyaveha (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: SC0009—I Am A Bird.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1473 3] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 15 pp.

2008. Yauke Pepewa (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: SC0011—I Am A Butterfly.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1475 X] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 19 pp.

2008. Yauke Pono Ayona (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: SC0012—I Am A Mother Pig.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1476 8] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 15 pp.

2008. Yauke Simai Vavineu (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: SC0008—I Am A Mother Cat.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 0 1472 5] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 15 pp.


2008. Yauke Toti Atunu-mahemahei (Shellbook Catalog Code and Title: FG0027—I Shone The Torch.) Translated by Larry Lovell, and edited by F.Bobby, I.Monia, J.Donald, M.Tau, M.Yanuota, N.Kaienu, P.Benoai, T.Mokiloni, and T.Nenegemo. [ISBN: 9980 58 744 X] Published by Dean F Saxton, Jr.; Alotau, MBP; 1 cc., contains 25 pp.

13. Minaveha Song Book: originally a booklet, this publication, now in its tenth edition, has grown into a full-fledged book. The first edition contained just 7 songs (choruses and hymns) and the second edition contained the original 7 plus 6 additional songs. These were all translated from English by Larry Lovell and were printed in a 12 point monospaced font on dot matrix printer. Each booklet includes guitar chords and coordinated rhythmic/syllabic spacing. These were requested by the youth group in Ibwananiu Ward.

1994. Minaveha Buki Ahe (The Minaveha Song Book, First Edition) Translated and arranged by Larry Lee Lovell. 14 cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / portrait publication; includes 7 translated songs; contains 4 pp.)

1994. Minaveha Buki Ahe (The Minaveha Song Book, Second Edition) Translated and arranged by Larry Lee Lovell. 14 cc. (Dot matrix 8½x11 inch / portrait publication; includes 13 translated songs; contains 7 pp.)

1999. Buki Ahe Tapanono Wayahina Minaveha Movia, Buki Ahe 7 (Song Book For Worship In the Minaveha Language, 7th Edition) Translated or authored by more than 15 contributors. 10 cc. (Laser printed, Half-foolscap; includes 111 songs, contains 93 pp.)

2009. Minaveha Buki Ahe (The Minaveha Song Book, Tenth Edition) Translated from Dobu, Bwaidoka, and Wedau, or authored by more than 20 contributors. 1 proof copy for review and village checking. (Inkjet on A5; includes 153 songs; contains 140 pp.)

7.2 Programs

As of 2009 the vernacular literacy program within the Minaveha language consists of three elementary schools located in the villages of Ibwananiu, Mapamoiwa, and Bwailele. The vernacular program is coordinated by Mr. Midiwabu Yanuota, who supervises 10 teachers, all grade 10 leavers with more than 8 years teaching experience, and most have more than 10 years teaching experience. Some of the teachers began their careers in vernacular education in the TPPS program of the mid-1990’s and have continued faithfully since that time.

7.2.1 Local Involvement

The first vernacular education program in the area was the Tok Ples Prep-School (TPPS) system designed by the PNG government. For the first few years it was in under the direction of the Minaveha Vernacular Prep-school Administrator, Mr. Jimmy Donald, a Mapamoiwa resident. During the mid- to late-1990’s there were eight vernacular prep-school classrooms operating in the Minaveha language: one at Bwailele (a border village near


Iaupolo), two at Mapamoiwa, three at Ibwananiu, one at Kukuya, and one at Igwaheta. The teachers (and teacher trainees) involved with those classrooms are listed in the table below:

Minaveha Vernacular Prep-School Teachers Bwailele: Charlie Gumina Mapamoiwa #1: Mesiwea Steven Benina Nason Mapamoiwa #2: Joshua Donald Iso Paul Ibwananiu #1: Midiwabu Yanuota Joram Benoai Ibwananiu #2: Matthew Yanuota Judith Gabebe Ibwananiu #3: Bonisi Mokiloni Aseli Dabunano Kukuya: Eddie Nanubo Weston Bwakineu Nesoiya Dagunaesi Igwaheta: Gabriel Mageva Louie Kamokamo

After several education reform initiatives at the national level, the TPPS system was

scrapped in favor of 3-year vernacular elementary schools (grades 0, 1 and 2), with primary education at the local government school running from grade 3 through grade 8, and with all secondary school education conducted out of the language group (as had traditionally been the case).

During this same volatile time there was significant teacher turn-over accompanied by classroom consolidation. Both the teachers and the parents of younger children saw the need to build a few large classrooms, rather than have many smaller classrooms spread throughout the Minaveha wards.

All vernacular instruction at Igwaheta ceased; and, some students from the western part of Kukuya began to attend the now much larger school in Ibwananiu which was relocated to the east of its original site (making it closer to Kukuya). The elementary school at Mapamoiwa also grew, as did the smaller school in Bwailele.


Minaveha Elementary School Teachers Involved in the 2008 Materials Workshop

Bwailele: Flora Bobby Mapamoiwa: Patrick (Joram) Benoai

Joshua Donald Tau Mokiloni (grade 7 teacher at govt. school) Ibwananiu: Midiwabu Yanuota Naomi Kaienu Kukuya: Maggie Tau Isaac Monia

Three other people teach regularly in Minaveha elementary schools, but were unable to

attend the workshop.

7.2.2 SIL Involvement

We, the SIL team, have provided guidance and conducted workshops to facilitate the teachers’ understanding of the history of decisions which have been made concerning the way writing the language has evolved since 1986. We have also conducted workshops to explain the grammar of the language in a more formal way for the teachers, so that they can appreciate why certain decisions about orthography were made by the Minaveha Translation Committee prior to the inception of TPPS in 1994. From 1986 until 1994 all decisions about the Minaveha language were discussed and reviewed by the Minaveha Translation Committee, the only local organization supporting use of the vernacular.

After the inception of TPPS, responsibility for writing the language was shared between the translation committee (comprised of older men and women, all over 30 except one) and the teachers (all under 30). In the years since transition from TPPS to elementary schools, the average age of teachers has increased. Most earlier decisions about the orthography have not been challenged by teachers, but there is lingering difficulty understanding the rationale behind how hyphenization is applied. All the materials produced and used in the TPPS program, and in the elementary schools have been produced by the SIL team, in cooperation with local teachers in workshops.

7.2.3 Provincial Involvement

Milne Bay Province sponsored a TPPS workshop for would-be teachers from West Fergusson Island in November 1993 at Mapamoiwa Government Station. Because we were involved in consultant checking sessions in Ukarumpa at that time, we were unable to be in the village to aid in that first workshop. Unfortunately, the official conducting the workshop [who shall go unnamed in this document] was of the opinion that Minaveha could be written quite satisfactorily using the Dobu orthography, despite strong protests from all the Minaveha participants. Neither Mr. Nenegemo’s arguments (he was chairman of the Minaveha Translation Committee at the time), nor the arguments of Mr. Fredi Aimana (who at the time was serving as the Minaveha Vernacular Prep-school Administrator) were effective in changing the mind of the official conducting the workshop. Dobu has no velar


fricative (for which Minaveha employs {h}); neither does Dobu have a dental fricative (for which Minaveha employs {y}); furthermore Dobu has the phoneme /j/ and writes {y} wherever it occurs. Since any occurrence of {y} in Minaveha is pronounced [ð ̪], the materials produced in that workshop had to be discarded.

Another TPPS workshop was scheduled for the Minaveha language group in August 1994. This workshop was to be held in Kukuya village, but was cancelled by provincial officials due to lack of financial resources.

The headmaster of the Mapamoiwa Community School at that time, Mr. Samson Melchiore, was very encouraging in getting the vernacular prep-schools off the ground. He helped to organize two provincial workshops. (Although the second vernacular teacher training workshop never took place, he had the responsibility of planning and coordinating the entire program. Three long community meetings were devoted to that purpose before the last minute cancellation notice was received.) His leadership and willingness to take on these extra responsibilities has been greatly appreciated by everyone in the Minaveha language group.

During the TPPS phase of vernacular education, teachers did not always receive the pay promised to them by the government. Only one lot of pay checks was received in 1994. These checks were for the first term of the 1994 school year. Essentially, half the teachers got paid, the other half did not. This was the only pay the teachers received during the year. Understandably, they were not encouraged at year’s end. To their credit, several of those teachers (some of whom were the most able and qualified young people available in the language group) did not become discouraged to the point of quitting the TPPS program right away. Many of them continued to teach, even without pay, and three are still teaching today.

Those elementary teachers still teaching in 2009 have also received training within the region at in-service training programs, normally held during Christmas holidays, and conducted by government trainers at ’Esa ’Ala. Mr. Paul Tokamweka (mentioned earlier in this chapter) is one such trainer who has assisted Minaveha elementary school teachers.

52 Minaveha Orthography: Bibliography

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1958. Chowning, Ann. Molima / English Lexicon. Photocopied Typescript (180 pages numbered by hand) obtained from G. W. Grace, Hawaii, 1969 by Russ Cooper, currently assigned to P.N.G. Branch of SIL.

1976. Lithgow, David R. Austronesian Languages: Milne Bay and Adjacent Islands (Milne Bay Province). In Pacific Linguistics, Series C - no. 39: New Guinea Area Languages and Language Study, vol. 2, S. A. Wurm, ed., pp. 441-523.

1989. Lovell, Larry and Connie. Anthropology Background Study of the Minaveha People and Culture. Unpublished MS, Summer Institute of Linguistics: Ukarumpa, E.H.P., Papua New Guinea.

1993. Lovell, Larry Lee. Minaveha Grammar: A Study of an Austronesian Language of Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea. Unpublished MS, Summer Institute of Linguistics: Ukarumpa, E.H.P., Papua New Guinea.

2009. . Minaveha Phonology. Unpublished MS, Summer Institute of Linguistics: Ukarumpa, E.H.P., Papua New Guinea.

1988. Ross, Malcolm. Proto Oceanic and the Austronesian Languages of Western Melanesia. In Pacific Linguistics, Series C - no. 98.

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