Military of the European Union

This article is about the totality of military cooperationbetween member states of the European Union, as wellas national capabilities. For a more narrow presentationof the present structure of cooperation within the legalframework of the union, see Common Security andDefence Policy.

Themilitary of the EuropeanUnion comprises the var-ious cooperative structures that have been established be-tween the armed forces of the member states, both in-tergovernmentally and within the institutional frameworkof the union; the Common Security and Defence Pol-icy (CSDP) branch of the Common Foreign and SecurityPolicy (CFSP).The policy area of defence is principally the domain ofnation states, and the main military alliance in Europeremains the intergovernmental North Atlantic Treaty Or-ganisation (NATO), which includes 22 of the EU mem-ber states together with four non-EU European coun-tries, Albania, Iceland, Turkey and Norway, as well asthe United States and Canada. The development of theCSDP with regard to the existing role of NATO is a con-tentious issue. The military form of European integrationhas however intensied in the beginning of the 21st cen-tury, bringing about the deployment of numerous CSDPoperations and the establishment of EU battlegroups. Thelatter have however never been engaged in operations, andother, recent examples of military integration, such asthe European corps, gendarmerie force and air transportcommand, are intergovernmental, and outside the insti-tutional framework of the union.Article 42 of the Treaty on European Union providesfor substantial military integration within the institutionalframework of the union.[2] Complete integration is an op-tion that requires unanimity in the European Council ofheads of state or government. For now it remains po-litically gridlocked considering the critical stance of theUnited Kingdom in particular.Article 42 does also provide for a permanent structuredcooperation between the armed forces of a subset ofmember states. As of 2015 this option has not been used,despite calls by prominent leaders such as former FrenchPresident Nicolas Sarkozy, German Chancellor AngelaMerkel, former Italian Foreign Minister Franco Frattiniand former Belgian Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt fora common defence for the Union.[3][4][5] However the de-bate has intensied by the stando between the EU andRussia over Ukraine. With new calls for an EU military

by EU commission president Jean-Claude Juncker and byother European leaders and policymakers like the head ofthe German parliaments foreign policy committee Nor-bert Rttgen, saying an EU army was a European visionwhose time has come.[6][7]

1 HistoryFurther information: Military history of Europe

Following the end of World War II and the defeat of theAxis Powers, the Dunkirk Treaty was signed by Franceand the United Kingdom on 4 March 1947 as a Treaty ofAlliance andMutual Assistance against a possible Germanattack in the aftermath of World War II. The DunkirkTreaty entered into force on 8 September 1947. The 1948Treaty of Brussels established themilitaryWestern UnionDefence Organisation with an allied European commandstructure under FieldMarshal Montgomery. Western Eu-ropean powers, except for Ireland, Sweden, Finland andAustria, signed the North Atlantic Treaty alongside theUnited States and Canada which only created a passivedefence association until 1951 when, during the KoreanWar, the existing and fully functioning Western UnionDefence Organisation was augmented to form the NorthAtlantic Treaty Organisation, NATO.

1.1 Western European Union

Further information: Western European Union

In the early 1950s, France, Germany, Italy and theBenelux countries made an attempt to integrate the mil-itaries of mainland western Europe, through the treatyestablishing the European Defence Community (EDC).This scheme did however not enter into force, as it failedto obtain approval for ratication in the French NationalAssembly, where Gaullists feared for national sovereigntyand Communists opposed a European military consolida-tion that could rival the Soviet Union. The failure to es-tablish the EDC resulted in the 1954 amendment of theTreaty of Brussels at the London and Paris Conferenceswhich in replacement of EDC established the politicalWestern European Union (WEU) out of the earlier es-tablished military Western Union Defence Organisationand included West Germany and Italy in both WEU andNATO as the conference ended the occupation of West

1

2 1 HISTORY

Germany and the defence aims had shifted fromGermanyto the Soviet Union.

1.2 Common Security and Defence Policy

Further information: Common Security and DefencePolicyOut of the 28 EU member states, 22 are also members

Map showing European membership of the EU and NATOEU member onlyNATO member onlyMember of both

of NATO. Another 3 NATO members are EU Appli-cants and 1 is solely a member of the European EconomicArea. In 1996, the Western European Union (WEU) wastasked by NATO to implement a European Security andDefence Identity within NATO, which later was passedover to the EU Common Security and Defence Policy asall Western European Union functions were transferredto the European Union through the Lisbon Treaty. Thememberships of the EU andNATO are distinct, and someEU member states are traditionally neutral on defence is-sues. Several of the new EUmember states were formerlymembers of theWarsaw Pact. The Berlin Plus agreementis a comprehensive package of agreements made betweenNATO and the EU in 2002; it allows the EU to draw onsome of NATOs assets in its own peacekeeping opera-tions, subject to a right of rst refusal in that NATOmust rst decline to intervene in a given crisis.Following the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Coun-cil agreed that the Union must have the capacity for au-tonomous action, backed by credible military forces, themeans to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, inorder to respond to international crises without prejudiceto actions by NATO. To that end, a number of eortswere made to increase the EUs military capability, no-tably the Helsinki Headline Goal process. After muchdiscussion, the most concrete result was the EU Battle-groups initiative, each of which is planned to be able todeploy quickly about 1500 personnel.[8]

The EU currently has a limited mandate over defence is-sues, with a role to explore the issue of European defenceagreed to in the AmsterdamTreaty, as well as oversight ofthe Helsinki Headline Goal Force Catalogue (the 'Euro-pean Rapid Reaction Force') processes. However, someEU statesmay and domakemultilateral agreements aboutdefence issues outside of the EU structures.

1.3 Initiative of the four

The European Defence Initiative is a proposal forenhanced European Union defence cooperation pre-sented by France, Germany, Belgium and Luxembourg inBrussels on 29 April 2003. It was based on the reinforcedcooperation principle and aimed for better reactivity un-der the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP).Some critics felt that this intra-European process wouldbe a source of tension in the transatlantic arena withNATO and some felt that this was a duplication of exist-ing means with the call for a distinct European headquar-ters. There were also some concerns about a multi-speedEurope. Britain was initially opposed to the concept butsubsequently modied its position in favour.[9]

It is sometimes referred to as the Initiative of the Four.

1.4 SAFE

On 20 February 2009 the European Parliament voted infavour of the creation of Synchronised Armed ForcesEurope (SAFE) as a rst step towards a true Europeanmilitary force. SAFE will be directed by an EU direc-torate, with its own training standards and operationaldoctrine. There are also plans to create an EU Coun-cil of Defence Ministers and a European statute forsoldiers within the framework of Safe governing train-ing standards, operational doctrine and freedom of op-erational action.[10] EU forces have been deployed onpeacekeeping missions from middle and northern Africato Western Balkans and western Asia.[11] EUmilitary op-erations are supported by a number of bodies, includingthe European Defence Agency, European Union Satel-lite Centre and the European Union Military Sta.[12]In an EU consisting of 28 members, substantial securityand defence co-operation is increasingly relying on greatpower co-operation.[13]

The entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon triggeredmember states of the Western European Union (WEU)to scrap the organisation, which had largely become dor-mant, but they have kept the mutual defence clause of theTreaty of Brussels as the basis for the EU mutual defencearrangement.

2.2 Defence Agency 3

2 Common Security and DefencePolicy

Main article: Common Security and Defence PolicyThe defence arrangements which have been established

Federica Mogherini is the current High Representative of theunion.

under the EU institutions are part of the Common Se-curity and Defence Policy (CSDP), a branch of theCommon Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). It shouldbe noted that Denmark has an opt-out from the CSDP.[1]

2.1 Security strategy

Main article: European Security Strategy

The European Security Strategy is the document in whichthe European Union claries its security strategy whichis aimed at achieving a secure Europe in a better world,identifying the threats facing the Union, dening itsstrategic objectives and setting out the political implica-tions for Europe.[14] The European security strategy wasfor the rst time drawn up in 2003 under the authorityof the EUs High Representative for the Common For-eign and Security Policy, Javier Solana, and adopted bythe Brussels European Council of 12 and 13 December2003.

2.2 Defence Agency

Main article: European Defence Agency

The European Defence Agency (EDA) is an agency ofthe union based in Brussels. Set up on 12 July 2004, itis a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) bodyreporting to the Council of the European Union. Its pri-mary role is to foster European defence cooperation.

2.3 Military Committee and Sta

Main articles: European Union Military Committee andEuropean Union Military Sta

Coats of arms of the Military Committee (left) and Sta

The European Union Military Sta (EUMS) is the bodyof the European External Action Service (EEAS) ledby a Director General a General Ocer, Admiral, orAir Ocer of three-star level that supervises operationscarried out by the union. The EUMS is overseen bythe European Union Military Committee (EUMC). TheEUMC is chaired by a General Ocer, Admiral, or AirOcer of four-star level.

2.4 Institute for Security Studies

Main article: European Union Institute for SecurityStudies

The European Union Institute for Security Studies(EUISS) is a Paris-based agency of the European Union.The EUISS evolved fromWestern European Union Insti-tute for Security Studies following a gradual transfer ofpowers from the Western European Union (WEU) to theEU. It now operates under the Unions Common Foreignand Security Policy (CFSP).The EUISS is an autonomous agency with full intellectual

4 2 COMMON SECURITY AND DEFENCE POLICY

freedom. As a think tank it researches security issues ofrelevance for the EU and provides a forum for debate. Inits capacity as an EU agency, it also oers analyses andforecasting to the High Representative for Foreign Aairsand Security Policy, Catherine Ashton.

2.5 Battle groups

Main article: EU BattlegroupThe battle groups adhere to the CSDP, and are based on

Personnel from the Nordic Battle Group at an exercise in 2010

contributions from a coalition of member states. Eachof the eighteen Battlegroups consists of a battalion-sizedforce (1,500 troops) reinforced with combat supportelements.[15][16] The groups rotate actively, so that two areready for deployment at all times. The forces are underthe direct control of the Council of the European Union.The Battlegroups reached full operational capacity on 1January 2007, although, as of January 2013 they are yetto see any military action.[17] They are based on exist-ing ad hoc missions that the European Union (EU) hasundertaken and has been described by some as a new"standing army" for Europe.[16] The troops and equip-ment are drawn from the EUmember states under a leadnation. In 2004, United Nations Secretary-General KoAnnan welcomed the plans and emphasised the value andimportance of the Battlegroups in helping the UN dealwith troublespots.[18]

2.6 Security and Defence College

Main article: European Security and Defence CollegeThe European Security and Defence College (ESDC) isa virtual institution for strategic level training within thearea of Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP).ESDC was created in 2005 by a decision of the Councilof the European Union,[19] and takes the form of anetwork of various national institutions of the EuropeanUnion member states, such as defence colleges, and theEuropean Union Institute for Security Studies.[20]

Coat of arms of the college

2.7 Helsinki Headline Goal

Main article: Helsinki Headline Goal

The Helsinki Headline Goal Catalogue is a listing of rapidreaction forces composed of 60,000 troops managed bythe European Union, but under control of the countrieswho deliver troops for it.

2.8 Development that is provided for

2.8.1 Complete integration

The Treaty of Lisbon introduced the following in thefounding treaties of the union:

2.8.2 Permanent structured co-operation

Main article: Enhanced co-operation Permanent Struc-tured Cooperation in DefenceThe Treaty of Lisbon added the possibility for thosemembers whose military capabilities fulll higher criteriaand which have made more binding commitments to oneanother in this area with a view to the most demandingmissions shall establish permanent structured cooperationwithin the EU framework (PSCD).[22]

Those states shall notify their intention to the Council andto the High Representative. The Council then adopts,by qualied majority a decision establishing permanentstructured cooperation and determining the list of par-ticipating Member States. Any other member state, that

5In 2009 the Treaty of Lisbon (signing depicted) entered intoforce, enabling permanent structured cooperation in defence be-tween a subset of willing member states. As of 2015 this optionremains unused.

fullls the criteria and wishes to participate, can join thePSCD following the same procedure, but in the voting forthe decision will participate only the states already partof the PSCD. If a participating state no longer fullls thecriteria a decision suspending its participation is taken bythe same procedure as for accepting new participants, butexcluding the concerned state from the voting procedure.If a participating state wishes to withdraw from PSCD itjust noties the Council to remove it from the list of par-ticipants. All other decisions and recommendations ofthe Council concerning PSCD issues unrelated to the listof participants are taken by unanimity of the participatingstates.[22]

The criteria established in the PSCD Protocol are thefollowing:[22]

co-operate and harmonise requirements and pool re-sources in the elds related to defence equipment ac-quisition, research, funding and utilisation, notablythe programs and initiatives of the European De-fence Agency (e.g. Code of Conduct on DefenceProcurement)

capacity to supply, either at national level or as acomponent of multinational force groups, targetedcombat units for the missions planned, structuredat a tactical level as a battle group, with supportelements including transport (airlift, sealift) andlogistics, within a period of ve to 30 days, in partic-ular in response to requests from the United NationsOrganization, and which can be sustained for an ini-tial period of 30 days and be extended up to at least120 days.

capable of carrying out in the above timeframes thetasks of joint disarmament operations, humanitarianand rescue tasks, military advice and assistancetasks, conict prevention and peace-keeping tasks,tasks of combat forces in crisis management, includ-ing peace-making and post-conict stabilisation[22]

As of October 2010 there is no announcement for PSCDestablishment.

3 Intergovernmental cooperationThis section presents an incomplete list of forces andbodies established intergovernmentally outside the legalframework of the union amongst a subset of memberstates. The military forces that have been establishedare typically dedicated in priority to the European Union(EU), but may also be deployed either in a NATO envi-ronment, acting as part of the European branch ofNATO,acting upon the mandate of the participating countries,or acting upon the mandate of other international orga-nizations, such as United Nations, the Organization forSecurity and Co-operation in Europe, or any other inter-national entity.

3.1 Terrestrial3.1.1 Finabel

Main article: Finabel

Finabel is an organisation that promotes cooperation andinteroperability between the armies of its participatingnations.[23] Founded in 1953, Finabel has a small perma-nent secretariat, and is controlled by the army chiefs ofsta of its participating nations. The organisation main-tains working groups that publish studies relating to stan-dardisation of equipment, procedures, testing methodsand glossaries.

3.1.2 Eurocorps

Main article: EurocorpsThe European Corps, often shortened as Eurocorps,

Personnel of the European Corps in Strasbourg, France, duringa change of command ceremony in 2013.

is an army corps of approximately 1,000 soldiers sta-tioned in Strasbourg, France. Based in the French city

6 3 INTERGOVERNMENTAL COOPERATION

of Strasbourg, the corps had its headquarters establishedin May 1992, activated in October 1993 and declared op-erational in 1995. The nucleus of the force is the Franco-German Brigade, established in 1987.[24]

3.1.3 I. German/Dutch Corps

Main article: I. German/Dutch CorpsI. German/Dutch Corps is a multinational formation

Coat of arms of the corps

consisting of units from the Dutch and German armies.The corps headquarters also takes part in NATO Re-sponse Force readiness rotations. The Corps headquar-ters are situated in Mnster (Westphalia), formerly theheadquarters of the German Armys I. Corps out ofwhich 1 German/Netherlands Corps evolved. The corpshas national and multinational operational responsibili-ties, and its commanding ocer is the only one in Eu-rope to have OPCON in peacetime.[25] Due to its roleas a NATO High Readiness Forces Headquarters, sol-diers from other NATOmember states, the United States,Denmark, Norway, Spain, Italy, the United Kingdomamongst others, are also stationed at Mnster.

3.1.4 Multinational Corps Northeast

Main article: Multinational Corps NortheastThe Multinational Corps Northeast was formed on 18September 1999 at Szczecin, Poland, which becameits headquarters. It evolved from what was for manyyears the only multinational corps in NATO, Allied Land

Coat of arms of the corps

Forces Schleswig-Holstein and Jutland (LANDJUT) (inits turn, a part of Allied Forces Northern Europe). From1962 LANDJUT had been responsible for the defence ofthe Baltic Approaches from a headquarters at Rendsburg,Germany. It comprised the 6th Panzergrenadier Divisionand the Danish Jutland Division.

3.1.5 Gendarmerie Force

Main article: European Gendarmerie Force

The European Gendarmerie Force (EUROGENDFORor EGF) is an intervention force with militarised po-lice functions and specialisation in crisis management,designed after the French Gendarmerie, the SpanishGuardia Civil, and the Italian Carabinieri and its Multi-national Specialized Units (M.S.U.).[26][27] The force wascreated in 2006, and had its status enshrined in the Treatyof Velsen, signed 18 October 2007.[28]

3.2 Aerial

3.2.1 Air Group

Main article: European Air Group

The European Air Group (EAG) an organisation that pro-motes cooperation and interoperability between the airforces of its participating nations. It was established in1995 to promote collaboration between the British and

3.4 Multi-component 7

French air forces in the rst Gulf War and the subsequentBalkans operations.

3.2.2 Air Transport Command

Main article: European Air Transport CommandThe European Air Transport Command (EATC) is the

The seat of the command, which is under construction and willbe inaugurated in 2016[29]

command centre that exercises the operational controlof the majority of the aerial refueling capabilities andmilitary transport eets of its participating nations. Lo-cated at Eindhoven Airbase in the Netherlands, the com-mand also bears a limited responsibility for exercises, air-crew training and the harmonisation of relevant nationalair transport regulations.[30][31]

The command was established in 2010 with a view to pro-vide a more ecient management of the participating na-tions assets and resources in this eld.

3.3 Naval3.3.1 Maritime Force

Main article: European Maritime Force

The European Maritime Force (Euromarfor or EMF) isa non-standing,[32] military force[33] that may carry outnaval, air and amphibious operations, with an activationtime of 5 days after an order is received.[34] The forcewas formed in 1995 to fulll missions dened in thePetersberg Declaration, such as sea control, humanitarianmissions, peacekeeping operations, crisis response oper-ations, and peace enforcement.

3.4 Multi-component3.4.1 Movement Coordination Centre

Main article: Movement Coordination Centre Europe

Movement Coordination Centre Europe (MCCE) isan organisation located at Eindhoven Airport in the

Netherlands that aims to coordinate and optimize theuse of airlift, sealift and land movement assets owned orleased by its participating nations. Established on 1 July2007 when the earlier European Airlift Centre (EAC)and the Sealift Co-ordination Centre (SCC) merged, theMCCE was a response to the shortage of aerial and navalstrategic lift capabilities reported by the EU and NATOin 1999. The centre is presently staed by 30 militaryand civilians personnel from its participating nations. Inaddition to its EUmembers, the United States and Turkeyparticipate in the MCCE.

3.4.2 Organisation for Joint Armament Coopera-tion

Main article: Organisation for Joint Armament Cooper-ationThe Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation

The national acquisitions of the A400M transport aircraft (de-picted in 2010) were made jointly made through OCCAR.

(shortened OCCAR; the French acronym) is an organisa-tion that facilitates and manages collaborative armamentprogrammes through their lifecycle between its partici-pating nations.

3.4.3 Combined Joint Expeditionary Force

Main article: Combined Joint Expeditionary ForceThe Combined Joint Expeditionary Force (CJEF) is aFranco-British military force. It draws upon both theBritish Armed Forces and the French Armed Forces toeld a deployable force with land, air and maritime com-ponents together with command and control and support-ing logistics. It is distinct from the similarly named UKJoint Expeditionary Force.The Combined Joint Expeditionary Force (or CJEF) isenvisaged as a deployable, combined Franco-British mil-itary force for use in a wide range of crisis scenarios, upto and including high intensity combat operations. As ajoint force it involves all three armed Services: a land

8 4 NATIONAL MILITARIES

French president Nicolas Sarkozy and British prime ministerDavid Cameron signing the Lancaster House Treaties in 2010,establishing the Franco-British Expeditionary Force

component composed of formations at national brigadelevel, maritime and air components with their associatedHeadquarters, together with logistics and support func-tions.The CJEF is not conceived as a standing force but ratheras available at notice for UK-French bilateral, NATO,European Union, United Nations or other operations.Combined air and land exercises commenced during2011 with a view towards developing a full capability.The CJEF is also seen as a potential stimulus towardsgreater interoperability and coherence in military doc-trine, training and equipment requirements.

3.5 Membership

4 National militariesSix EU states host nuclear weapons: France and theUnited Kingdom each have their own nuclear programs,while Belgium, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands hostUS nuclear weapons as part of NATOs nuclear sharingpolicy. Combined, the EU possesses 525 warheads, andhosts between 90 and 130 US warheads. The EU has thethird largest arsenal of nuclear weapons, after the UnitedStates and Russia.

4.1 Expenditure and personnelFurther information: List of countries by militaryexpenditures

The following table presents the military expendituresof the members of the European Union in euros ().The combined military expenditure of the member statesamounts to just over is 192.5 billion.[1] This repre-sents 1.55% of European Union GDP and is second onlyto the 503 billion military expenditure of the UnitedStates. The US gure represents 4.66% of United StatesGDP.[35] European military expenditure includes spend-ing on joint projects such as the Euroghter Typhoon

and joint procurement of equipment. The EuropeanUnions combined active military forces in 2011 totaled1,551,038 personnel. According to the European De-fence Agency, the European Union had an average of53,744 land force personnel deployed around the world(or 3.5% of the total military personnel). In a major op-eration the EU could readily deploy up-to 425,824 landforce personnel and sustain 110,814 of those during anenduring operation.[35] In comparison, the US had on av-erage 177,700 troops deployed in 2011. This represents12.5% of US military personnel.[35]

In a speech in 2012, Swedish General Hkan Syrn crit-icised the spending levels of European Union countries,saying that in the future those countries military capabil-ity will decrease, creating critical shortfalls.[36]

Guide to table:

All gure entries in the table below are provided bythe European Defence Agency for the year 2012.Figures from other sources are not included.

The operations & maintenance expenditure cat-egory may in some circumstances also include -nances on-top of the nations defence budget.

The categories troops prepared for deployed oper-ations and troops prepared for deployed and sus-tained operation only include land force personnel.

4.2 Naval forces

Charles de Gaulle aircraft carrier is the largest commissionedwarship in the European Union.

The combined component strength of the naval forces ofmember states is some 563 commissioned warships. Ofthose in service, 3 are eet carriers, the largest of which isthe 42,000 tonne Charles de Gaulle. However two 70,600tonne Queen Elizabeth-class carriers are projected to en-ter service in the Royal Navy starting 2017. The EU alsohas 5 amphibious assault ships and 13 amphibious sup-port ships in service. Of the EUs 58 submarines, 21are nuclear-powered submarines (11 UK and 10 French)

4.4 Air forces 9

while 37 are conventional attack submarines. Many Eu-ropean Navies do not classify destroyer sized vessels asdestroyers, and instead classify them as frigates regard-less of size and role. This would explain the relativelylarge dierence between the number of destroyers andfrigates in service.Operation Atalanta (formally European Union NavalForce Somalia) is the rst ever (and still ongoing) navaloperation of the European Union. It is part of a largerglobal action by the EU in the Horn of Africa to deal withthe Somali crisis. As of January 2011 twenty-three EUnations participate in the operation.Britain and France have blue-water navies while Italy,Spain and the Netherlands have green-water navies.Guide to table:

Ceremonial vessels, research vessels, supply vessels,training vessels, and icebreakers are not included.

The table only counts warships that are commis-sioned (or equivalent) and active.

Surface vessels displacing less than 200 tonnes arenot included, regardless of other characteristics.

The amphibious support ship category includesamphibious transport docks and dock landing ships.

The anti-mine ship category includesminesweepers and minehunters.

Generally, total tonnage of ships is more importantthan total number of ships, as it gives a better indi-cation of capability.

4.3 Land forces

The Leopard 2 main battle tank

Combined, the member states of the European Unionmaintain large numbers of various land-based militaryvehicles and weaponry.Guide to table:

The table is not exhaustive and primarily includesvehicles and EU-NATO member countries underthe Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty(CFE treaty). Unless otherwise specied.

The CFE treaty only includes vehicles stationedwithin Europe, vehicles overseas on operations arenot counted.

The main battle tank category also includes tankdestroyers (such as the Italian B1 Centauro) or anyself-propelled armoured ghting vehicle, capable ofheavy repower. According to the CFE treaty.

The armoured ghting vehicle category includesany armoured vehicle primarily designed to trans-port infantry and equipped with an automatic can-non of at least 20 mm calibre. According to the CFEtreaty.

The artillery category includes self-propelled ortowed howitzers and mortars of 100 mm calibre andabove. Other types of artillery are not included re-gardless of characteristics. According to the CFEtreaty.

The attack helicopter category includes any ro-tary wing aircraft armed and equipped to engage tar-gets or equipped to perform other military functions(such as the Apache or the Wildcat). According tothe CFE treaty.

The military logistics vehicle category includeslogistics trucks of 4-tonne, 8-tonne, 14-tonne orlarger, purposely designed for military tasking. Notunder CFE treaty.

4.4 Air forces

A Euroghter Typhoon of the Royal Air Force

The air forces of EU member states operate a wide rangeof military systems and hardware. This is primarily dueto the independent requirements of each member stateand also the national defence industries of some memberstates. However such programmes like the Euroghter

10 7 REFERENCES

Typhoon and Eurocopter Tiger have seenmany Europeannations design, build and operate a single weapons plat-form. 60% of overall combat eet was developed andmanufactured by member states, 32% are US-origin, butsome of these were assembled in Europe, while remain-ing 8% are soviet-made aircraft. As of 2014, it is esti-mated that the EuropeanUnion had around 2,000 service-able combat aircraft (ghter aircraft and ground-attackaircraft).[57]

The EUs air-lift capabilities are evolving with the futureintroduction of the Airbus A400M (another example ofEU defence cooperation). The A400M is a tactical air-lifter with strategic capabilities.[58] Around 140 are ini-tially expected to be operated by 6 member states (UK,Luxembourg, France, Germany, Spain and Belgium).Guide to tables:

The tables are sourced from gures provided byFlight International for the year 2014.

Aircraft are grouped into three main types (indi-cated by colors): red for combat aircraft, green foraerial refueling aircraft, and grey for strategic andtactical transport aircraft.

The two other columns include additional aircraftaccording to their type sorted by colour (i.e. theother category in red includes combat aircraft,while the other category in grey includes bothaerial refueling and transport aircraft). This wasdone because it was not feasible allocate every air-craft type its own column.

Other aircraft such as trainers, helicopters, UAVsand reconnaissance or surveillance aircraft are notincluded in the below tables or gures.

Fighter and ground-attack

Aerial refueling and transport

5 See also Common Security and Defence Policy European Security Strategy Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Eu-rope

NATO NORDEFCO

6 Notes[1] The membership of Movement Coordination Centre Eu-

rope also includes some countries outside the union.

7 References[1] Defence Data Portal, Ocial 2012 defence statistics from

the European Defence Agency

[2] Article 42, Treaty on European Union

[3] Italys Foreign Minister says post-Lisbon EU needs a Eu-ropean Army, The Times. 2009-11-15

[4] Merkels European Army: More Than a Paper Tiger? byPeter C. Glover, World Politics Review, 2007-04-25.

[5] EUmilitary at Bastille Day celebration. Irishtimes.com (7July 2007). Retrieved on 2011-12-17.

[6] Jean-Claude Juncker calls for EU army , The Guardian.2015-03-08

[7] , Euractiv. 2015-03-09

[8] Council of the European Union (July 2009). EU BAT-TLEGROUPS (PDF). Europa web portal. Retrieved 3June 2013.

[9] Sarkozys bold European defence initiative

[10] Watereld, Bruno (18 February 2009). Blueprint for EUarmy to be agreed. The Daily Telegraph (London). Re-trieved 2010-05-12.

[11] Council of the European Union (April 2003). Overviewof the missions and operations of the European Union.Europa web portal. Retrieved 3 June 2013.

[12] Council of the European Union. CSDP structures andinstruments. Europa web portal. Retrieved 3 June 2013.

[13] The Russo-Georgian War and Beyond: towards a Eu-ropean Great Power Concert, Danish Institute of Interna-tional Studies". Diis.dk. Retrieved 27 April 2010.

[14] European security strategy, SCADPLUS, September 4,2006

[15] http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/Battlegroups.pdf

[16] New force behind EU foreign policy BBC News 15March 2007

[17] http://www.economist.com/news/europe/21569718-europeans-ability-deploy-force-abroad-falling-mali-shows-it-still-needed-europeCharlemagne: Europe in a foreign eld

[18] Value of EU 'Battlegroup' plan stressed by Annan foru-moneurope.ie 15 October 2004

[19] Luxembourg Presidency Press Release June 26, 2005:The European Security and Defence College has been es-tablished

[20] SCADPlus: European Security and Defence College(ESDC), accessed on March 4, 2008

[21] Treaty of Lisbon. EU.

[22] Article 42(6), Article 43(1), Article 46, Protocol 10 of theamended Treaty on European Union

11

[23] Finabel information folder: Finabel: Contributing to Eu-ropean Army Interoperability since 1953

[24] Eurocorps ocial website / History. Retrieved 23February 2008.

[25] pp.26-27, Thomas-Durell Young, Multinational LandFormations and NATO: Reforming practices and struc-tures, Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. ArmyWar College,Carlisle Barracks, PA, 1997

[26] Hovens, J.L., and Van Elk, G.A.G., eds. (2011).Gendarmeries and the security challenges of the 21st cen-tury, FIEP Seminar Publication 2011.

[27] Arcudi, Giovanni, and Smith, Michael E. (2013). The Eu-ropean Gendarmerie Force: a solution in search of prob-lems?. European Security, 22(1), 1-20.

[28] Eurogendfor.org, Treaty establishing the European Gen-darmerie Force, accessed on January 24, 2014

[29] http://www.paulderuiter.nl/en/weblog/new-headquarters-for-the-european-air-transport-command-at-eindhoven-airbase/

[30] Eindhoven regelt internationale militaire luchtvaart(Dutch)

[31] http://www.eda.europa.eu/info-hub/news/2012/11/30/claude-france-arnould-visits-eatc-headquarters

[32] EUROMARFOR At Sea for Peace pamphlet. Retrieved11 March 2012.

[33] Biscop, Sven (2003). Euro-Mediterranean security: asearch for partnership. Ashgate Publishing. p. 53. ISBN978-0-7546-3487-4.

[34] EUROMARFOR Retrospective Portuguese Command,page 12. Retrieved 11 March 2012.

[35] EU-US Defence Data 2011, European Defence Agency,September 2013

[36] Croft, Adrian (19 September 2012). Some EU statesmay no longer aord air forces-general. Reuters. Re-trieved 31 March 2013.

[37] Marinecomponent Hoofdpagina. Mil.be. Retrieved on2011-12-17.

[38] Janes Fighting Ships 2009

[39] French Navy Ship List (defense.gouv.fr)".Navy ShipList, 22 October 2011.

[40] (German) Ozieller Internetauftritt der Marine. www.marine.de. Retrieved on 2011-12-17.

[41] . Hellenic-navy.gr. Retrieved on 2011-12-17.

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[44] (Lithuanian) Lithuanian Armed Forces :: Structure Navy. Kariuomene.kam.lt (21 January 2010). Retrievedon 2011-12-17.

[45] AFM - MARITIME PATROL VESSELS. Afm.gov.mt.Retrieved on 2015-04-08.

[46] Koninklijke Marine | Ministerie van Defensie. Defen-sie.nl. Retrieved on 2011-12-17.

[47] (Polish) Marynarka Wojenna. Mw.mil.pl. Retrieved on2011-12-17.

[48] Marinha Portuguesa. Marinha.pt. Retrieved on 2011-12-17.

[49] (Romanian) Fortele Navale Romne. Navy.ro. Retrievedon 2011-12-17.

[50] Slovensko obalo bo varovala Kresnica :: Prvi in-teraktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija.Rtvslo.si. Retrieved on 2011-12-17.

[51] Presentacin Buques Supercie Ships Armada Es-paola. Armada.mde.es. Retrieved on 2011-12-17.

[52] The Swedish Navy Frsvarsmakten. Forsvarsmakten.se(2 September 2008). Retrieved on 2011-12-17.

[53] Home. Royal Navy. Retrieved on 2011-12-17.

[54] Ministry of Defence - Vehicle & Aircraft Holdings withinthe scope of the Conventional Armed Forces in EuropeTreaty: Annual: 2013 edition, gov.uk, (pp.10-13), Ac-cessed 28 November 2014

[55]

[56] http://washington.mfa.gov.pl/en/about_the_embassy/waszyngton_us_a_en_embassy/waszyngton_us_a_en_military_attach/waszyngton_us_a_109

[57] World Air Force 2014 - Flight International,Flightglobal.com, Accessed 23 November 2014

[58] RAF A400m. RAF, MOD. Retrieved: 15 May 2010.

8 External links The Armed Forces of the European Union, 2011 -2013, by Charles Heyman. - Good overview of ev-ery armed force within the EU, detailed equipmentinventories.

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9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses9.1 Text

Military of the European Union Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_the_European_Union?oldid=675015983 Contribu-tors: Tpbradbury, Morwen, Sam Spade, Domino theory, Neutrality, Discospinster, Dpaajones, Guidod, Jigen III, Ronline, Alinor, Bart133,Jrleighton, Redvers, TheCoee, Ron Ritzman, Bobrayner, Woohookitty, Henrik, Essjay, Teemu Leisti, LeoO3, Mandarax, BD2412, Kb-dank71, Mancunius, Sj, Rjwilmsi, Lionel Elie Mamane, Red King, Ev, Themanwithoutapast, Mark83, Jay-W, MichaelJBuck, PeterGrey, The Rambling Man, Noclador, RussBot, John Quincy Adding Machine, Los688, DarkFireTaker, Rudykog, Hamster128, Searchme,Doktorbuk, Hazelorb, Mais oui!, Kingboyk, Nick-D, Mhardcastle, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, AtilimGunesBaydin, Hmusseau, Hikkaru,Hibernian, AKMask, Joebloggsy, Levimanthys, Ohconfucius, JLogan, Aled D, BraikoT, Marek.kvackaj, Willy turner, Kjallakr, Europimp,Dl2000, JoeBot, Boreas74, Spinoro, Xristar, HemlockMartinis, Necessary Evil, Wikien2009, Idnehekim, Quibik, DumbBOT, Narayanese,Daniel Heinl, Majorly, Lklundin, Sklp, Sheitan, Basilicum, Magioladitis, Bg007, Buckshot06, Paul111, BilCat, Dkeenaghan, Climax Void,A tumiwa, CommonsDelinker, Ssolbergj, Kudpung, Novis-M, Stambouliote, 2812, Bogdan~enwiki, Reymma, Kolja21, Hugo999, Tourbil-lon, Gpeilon, Banzor, Steven J. Anderson, Eurocopter, Austriacus, Suryoye, Sickshift169, Flyer22, Nopetro, Treehill, Faradayplank, Light-mouse, Onopearls, WikiLaurent, ClueBot, Clivemacd, Nielspeterqm, Nicola Romani, LD1989, Imperium Europeum, Markreidyhp, Carf1,Karabinier, Jusdafax, Thefathobbit, Searcher 1990, Anderssl, DumZiBoT, FueGo, Militaryboy, MystBot, Siekierki~enwiki, Addbot, MikeBabic, LaaknorBot, Debresser, Taketa, Gyzome, Yobot, 19est66, Amirobot, Nirvana888, AnomieBOT, Harkain, Fsopolonezcaro, King-pin13, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Khajidha, DSisyphBot, Kamil87, Mr George R. Allison, Mttll, Kursis, Mudilinho, Erik9bot, Right-CowLeftCoast, FrescoBot, CaptainFugu, GiW, Purpleturple, HamburgerRadio, Miguel Bravo-Ferrer, Elockid, HRoestBot, Seryo93, MRGWIKI999, Swalgal, Full-date unlinking bot, MasterTech1, Keys767, Antipastor, Bro5990, RjwilmsiBot, MAXXX-309, Jakerin, EmausBot,John of Reading, Rademire, Dewritech, Juniki San, MrGRA, AdAstraPerScientiam, ObscureReality, Subtropical-man, Aidan1226, Kook-iethebird, Tevion5, Jamison Lofthouse, Frietjes, Ninja of Tao, SojerPL, Eleventh1, Mark Arsten, Alexjazzy79, Lawardsday, Montcalm89,DrCruse, BattyBot, DerwahreStinkstiefel, Hurtuv, PantherBF3, Khazar2, Lefteris20, Titus Cogitatus, Mogism, Kotas10, Jamesx12345,Andyhowlett, Beloki, Faizan, Brixabrageld, Rob984, Henk P51, Suchypolska2013, Languid Scientist, Mediolanum, Antiochus the Great,Ihjdekeijzer, Commando Gunner, Martin4x4, Oliszydlowski, TheArmchairSoldier, Poligres, Twistyoak, Shammrock228, Barjimoa, Ar-govian, Hunaf, Delta4 Enric, Kaks000, Amature-Nascent, Aman1656, Dr Sgt Pepper, Hoornsma, Holandana, Suchypolska, Garak E.,Eusailor, RevolutionizeSeven, Politika92, Spirit of France, Sommarkatten, Jacob gets arroused by history and Anonymous: 361

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Public domain Contributors: Based on: Image:D-NL Korps (V1).jpg Original artist: Flor!an File:A400M.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/A400M.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally

posted to Flickr as A400M Original artist: Chris File:Cameron_and_Sarkozy.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Cameron_and_Sarkozy.jpg License:

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Gaulle_%28R91%29_underway_2009.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Navy VFA-146 ocial website [1] photo [2]Originalartist: USN

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9.2 Images 13

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14 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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9.3 Content license Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

HistoryWestern European UnionCommon Security and Defence PolicyInitiative of the fourSAFE

Common Security and Defence PolicySecurity strategyDefence AgencyMilitary Committee and StaffInstitute for Security StudiesBattle groupsSecurity and Defence CollegeHelsinki Headline GoalDevelopment that is provided forComplete integrationPermanent structured co-operation

Intergovernmental cooperationTerrestrialFinabelEurocorpsI. German/Dutch CorpsMultinational Corps NortheastGendarmerie Force

AerialAir GroupAir Transport Command

NavalMaritime Force

Multi-componentMovement Coordination CentreOrganisation for Joint Armament CooperationCombined Joint Expeditionary Force

Membership

National militariesExpenditure and personnelNaval forcesLand forcesAir forces

See alsoNotesReferencesExternal linksText and image sources, contributors, and licensesTextImagesContent license