migration policy practice

MIGRATIONPOLICY PRACTICEISSN 2223-5248

Joint Managing Editors:• SolonArdittis(Eurasylum)• FrankLaczko(International

OrganizationforMigration–IOM)Editorial Advisers:

• JoannevanSelm(Eurasylum)• KarolinePopp(International

OrganizationforMigration–IOM)Editorial Coordinator:

• ValerieHagger(InternationalOrganizationforMigration–IOM)

Editorial Assistants:• MyleneBuensuceso/MelissaBorlaza

(InternationalOrganizationforMigration–IOM)

• AnnaLynConstantino(InternationalOrganizationforMigration–IOM)

Editorial Committee:• AderantiAdepoju(HumanResources

DevelopmentCentre,Lagos,Nigeria)• RichardAresBaumgartner(European

AgencyfortheManagementofOperationalCooperationattheExternalBordersoftheEuropeanUnion–FRONTEX,Warsaw)

• PeterBosch(EuropeanCommission,Brussels)

• JuanCarlosCalleros(StaffOfficeofthePresidentofMexico)

• DavidCostello(Commissioner,OfficeoftheRefugeeApplications,fromtheGovernmentofIreland)

• HowardDuncan(Metropolis,Ottawa,Canada)

• NeliEsipova(GallupWorldPoll,NewYork)

• AraceliAzuaraFerreiro(OrganizationofAmericanStates–OAS,Washington,D.C.)

• PhilippeFargues(MigrationPolicyCentre–MPC,Florence)

• LukasGehrke(InternationalCentreforMigrationPolicyDevelopment–ICMPD,Vienna)

• ShahidulHaque(MinistryofForeignAffairs,GovernmentofthePeople’sRepublicofBangladesh)

• MichelleLeighton(InternationalLabourOffice–ILO,Geneva)

• PietroMona(SwissAgencyforDevelopmentandCooperation,FederalDepartmentofForeignAffairs,Berne)

• WilliamMcClure(AustralianDepartmentofImmigrationandBorderProtection)

• JenniferMcDonald(Passport,ImmigrationandCitizenshipAgency,MinistryofNationalSecurity,Jamaica)

• SankarRamasamy(DepartmentofLabour,NewZealand)

• DilipRatha(WorldBank,Washington,D.C.)

• CécileRiallant(EC-UNJointMigrationandDevelopmentInitiative,Brussels)

• NandKishoreSingh(MemberoftheIndianParliament,NewDelhi)

• SimonTonelli(CouncilofEurope,Strasbourg)

• AdrianavanDooijeweert(DutchAdvisoryCommitteeonMigrationAffairs–ACVZ,TheHague)

• MaiaWelbourne(CitizenshipandImmigrationCanada–CIC,Ottawa)

• KlausF.Zimmermann(InstitutefortheStudyofLabor–IZA,Bonn)

Published jointly by the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and Eurasylum Ltd.

A Bimonthly Journal for and by Policymakers Worldwide

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IntroductionSolon Ardittis and Frank Laczko

Regional cooperation in international migration: The case of the Arab RegionEnas El Fergany

La genèse de la politique d’immigration au MarocCharef Mohamed

Beyond root causes: Fragmented migration in the Middle East and North Africa regionMichael Collyer, Bashair Ahmed, Markus Breines,

Vanessa Iaria and Elisa Pascucci

Human trafficking and exploitation in times of crisis: Considerations for the Middle East and North Africa region towards bridging the protection gapAgnes Tillinac

The North Africa Mixed Migration Task Force and the Mixed Migration HubSteve Thorpe

Migration research in the Middle East and North Africa: An overview of recent and forthcoming publicationsPublicationsMPP Readers’ Survey

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SomalisarriveatBossasoPortinPuntland,Somalialast13June2015.©IOM2015.

Vol. V, Number 3, July 2015–September 2015MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE2IntroductionSolon Ardittis and Frank Laczko1

WelcometothenewissueofMigration Policy Practice, which focuses on the migrationchallenges facing the countries of the

MiddleEastandNorthAfrica(MENA).Itisoftensaidthat no country can manage migration successfullyalone,asmigrationinevitably involvesarelationshipbetween at least two States. Thefirst article in thisissue, by Enas El Fergany from the League of ArabStates(LAS),addressestheimportanttopicofhowtopromote regionalmigrationcooperation in theArabregion. TheArab regionhostsmore than30millioninternationalmigrants,andmigrationhasanimportantimpacton thedevelopmentof these countries. TheArabcountriesareestimatedtohavereceivedmorethanUSD53billion in remittances in2014.TheLASis a regional intergovernmental organization of 22Arabcountriesandhas recentlyestablished, for thefirsttime,anArabRegionalConsultativeProcessonMigration (ARCP).Oneof the initiatives thatwill beimplemented by the ARCP is to establish an ArabInformationSystemonMigration.

Thesecondarticleinthisissue,byCharefMohamed,focusesonmigrationpolicychangesinMorocco.Thearticle explains howMorocco has developed a newmigrationpolicyandhighlightshowthecountryhasbecomeanimportantdestinationthathostsperhapsup to 450,000migrants in an irregular situation, inaddition to the 86,000 legal migrants. Some of thenoteworthyeventsinMoroccooverthepasttwoyearshaveincludedthereformstothemigrationandasylumpolicy prompted by the September 2013 report bytheConseilNationaldesDroitsde l’Homme,aswellas a regularization campaign conducted throughout2014.Theauthorconcludesthatitwillbeimportantto improvedata collection tobetterunderstand theneedsofmigrantsinMorocco.

Nearly every day in the media, we hear decisionmakersorexpertstalkingabouttheneedtoaddressthe“rootcausesofmigration”,totackletheEuropeanmigration crisis. The third article in this issue – byMichael Collyer, Bashair Ahmed, Markus Breines,Vanessa Iaria and Elisa Pascucci – questions thevalidity of using the concept of “root causes”. Itis argued that the root cause approach has twosignificant weaknesses: (1) it does not provide abasis for differentiating between different groups

ofpeoplewithdifferentneedsandopportunities tomove;and(2)itfailstoaccountforonwardmigration.Theauthorsdemonstratetheweaknessofthe“rootcausesapproach”throughinterviewswithnearly100migrants in theNorth EasternAfrica region in early2015.AkeyfindingoftheresearchisthatEuropeisnottheintendeddestinationevenformanyofthosewhoeventually get there, at leastwhen they leave theirhomes.Theauthorsconcludethatthe“rootcauses”approach is not a very useful tool for policymakersbecauseitdoesnotfullyexplainwhycertainpeopleinacountrymove,usuallyasmallminority,whilethemajoritydonot.

The fourth article in this issue, by Agnes Tillinac,discussesthesubjectofhumantraffickingintheMENAregion. The article presents new data on traffickingbasedonresearchconductedin2014inIraq,LibyaandSyrianArabRepublic. In Iraq, recentreportssuggestthatupto7,000peoplemayhavebeenabductedforthepurposesofsexualexploitation,forcedmarriageand other slavery-like practices. The article stressesthe need to look at theway inwhich humanitariancrisescanincreasehumantrafficking,andchangeitspatternsandrenderpersonsalreadydisplacedmorevulnerabletotrafficking.

Thelastarticleinthisissue,bySteveThorpe,presentsan innovative new project – the Mixed MigrationHub(Mhub).ThisinitiativewasdevelopedwithintheframeworkoftheNorthAfricaMixedMigrationTaskForce,whichisagroupconsistingofseveralagenciesincluding the Danish Refugee Council, IOM, theOffice of theHigh Commissioner for Human Rights,the Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat (Nairobi),theUnitedNationsHighCommissioner forRefugees(UNHCR)andUNOfficeonDrugsandCrime.MHubisaninformationandresearchnetworkthatcollects,analyses and disseminates relevant data across theMENAregion.

The editors of Migration Policy Practice would liketo thank Karoline Popp and Jennifer Sparks, ofIOM’s Office in Cairo, for all their dedicated effortsto generate and coordinate the five contributionspublishedinthisspecialissueontheMENAcountries.

WethankallthecontributorstothisissueofMigration Policy Practiceandinvitereaderstospareacoupleofminutestoparticipateinasurveywhichaimstohelpusidentifyourreaders’profiles,theinstitutionstheyrepresentandtheirprimary interests inour journal.Shouldyouwishtoparticipate inthissurvey,pleaseclick here.n

1 Solon Ardittis isManaging Director of Eurasylum Ltd. FrankLaczko is Head of the Migration Research Division at theInternationalOrganizationforMigration(IOM)HeadquartersinGeneva.Theyaretheco-editorsofMigration Policy Practice.

https://www.surveymonkey.com/s/J3M7PS5

Vol. V, Number 3, July 2015–September 2015MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE 3

Introduction

Internationalmigration isaconstantanddynamicphenomenon which is affected, especially now,bymany factors, including demographic changes

in northern countries, conflicts, instability and highunemployment rate in southern countries. It is alsoassociated with other issues such as development,security and demography. This creates greaterincentives to strengthen international and regionalcooperation in this field, and requires diversifiedpolicyinterventionsinordertomaximizeitspotentialbenefits and minimize related costs for bothcountriesoforiginanddestinationaswellasmigrantsthemselves. Thus, holistic regional frameworks thattake into account the various faces of migrationand thedynamics that shaped it areneeded toputeffective migration policies that tackle migration-related challenges and attract its opportunities toharnessmigrationfordevelopment.

Untilrecently,answerstomigrationissueshadbeenconsideredessentiallyonanationalorbilateralbasis.Governmentsarenowbecomingawareofthefactthatsolutionscanbefoundattheregionaland/orgloballevel inspiteofpersistingdifferences inperceptionsandinterestsamongcountries.Thefactorsthathavecontributed to this new awareness over the yearsare recognition of the limits of strictly national orunilateralpoliciesand the interrelatednessbetweenmigration and other transnational issues, whichreinforcestheneedformoremultilateralcooperationinthisfield.2

Regionalization has become a major strategyfor dealing with the challenges facing individualcountries. It enhances comparative advantages andturns them into competitive advantages, therebyensuringthesustainabilityofdevelopment.Regional

1 Enas El Fergany is Director of the Population Policies,ExpatriatesandMigrationDepartmentattheLeagueofArabStates.

2 C. Thouez and F. Channac, “Shaping internationalmigrationpolicy: The role of Regional Consultative Processes”, West European Politics,29(2):370–387.

entitiesareeagernowtoestablishpartnershipswithother regions, regardless of geographic proximity.Major interests have led to interaction betweenquite separate regions that enjoy different levels ofeconomicandsocialdevelopment.3

Intergovernmental cooperation is now observablein most parts of the world and new forums haveemerged based on cooperation between countriesand coordination among various decision-makinglevels.This convergenceofeffortsat theglobalandregional levels underlies a convergence in actors’perceptions, expectations and behaviour that isfacilitated by the transfer ofmodels of cooperationbetween different regions of the world,4 thuscontributing to strengthening policy convergenceand creating regional harmonization of policies andpractice.

The emphasis on coordination and cooperationin migration policy originated in the 1980s, andprogressed rapidly through the 1990s with theemergenceofamultitudeofregionalandinternationalinitiatives, activities, and structures dedicated tointernational migration policy and practice. Theseinitiatives encourage consultation, information-sharing, and coordinationbetweenvarious levelsofpolitical decision-making both within and betweencountries, which reflects in part the multilevelgovernancerequiredinthisfield.5

Nowthereisavarietyofeffortsundertakentowardsstrengthening inter-State cooperation at regional,cross-regionaland international levels,eachprocessinonewayoranotherisshapingthedevelopmentofmigrationpolicy.ThisarticlehighlightsthecooperationintheArabregionandtheeffortsundertakenbytheLeagueofArabStates(LAS)inthefieldofmigration.

3 UnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforWesternAsia(UN-ESCWA),“InternationalMigrationandDevelopmentintheArabRegion:ChallengesandOpportunities”,PopulationandDevelopmentReport,thirdissue,2007.

4 C.ThouezandF.Channac,op.cit.

5 Ibid.

Regional cooperation in international migration: The case of the Arab RegionEnas El Fergany1

4 Vol. V, Number 3, July 2015–September 2015MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE

International migration in the Arab region

TheArabregionisoneofthemostimportantregionsintermsofinternationalmigrationrates.In2013,theArabregionhosted30.3millioninternationalmigrants,whiletherewere21.9millionmigrantsfromtheArabcountries in the same year.6Migration in the regiontakes different forms – voluntary and involuntary,regular and irregular, intra- and interregional – aspeoplerespondtoawiderangeofsituationsandtheopportunitiesandchallengestheycreate.

Simultaneously,migrationfrom,intoandwithinArabcountriesisoneoftheimportantfactorsofsustainabledevelopmentinthecountriesoforiginandcountriesofdestination.Apartfromtheirroleinstrengtheningbonds of friendship between countries of originandcountriesofdestination,migrants contribute tosocioeconomicdevelopmenteffortsintheArabregionthrough:theirskillsandefficiency;theiremployment,whichfillsthegapsinthelabourmarketofcountriesofdestination;theirremittances,whichhelpinraisingthe standard of living of migrants’ families in theircountriesoforiginand increating jobopportunitiestherein.7

Theabilityofmigrationtocontributetodevelopmentdependsonseveralfactors,essentiallytheabilityandwillingness of governments and other stakeholdersto efficiently manage migration flows throughresponsivemigrationpolicieswhich,atthesametime,upholdmigrantrightsandtakeintoconsiderationthesociety’sconcernsandneeds.8

MigrationpoliciesintheArabcountriesaredynamic,astheyhavechangedwiththeevolutionofmigrationandtherelativeimportanceofmigrationmovement,sizeandincentives.AlmosthalfoftheArabcountries(Algeria,Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon,Morocco, theOccupied Palestinian Territory, Sudan, the SyrianArabRepublic, Tunisia andYemen)haveestablishedmigrationandexpatriatesministriesorspecialbodies

6 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs,2013.Thesefiguresarelikelytounderestimatetherealscaleofmigrationfrom,toandbetweenArabcountriesduetodatalimitations and the role of recent conflicts in the region increatingnewsituationsofdisplacement.

7 RegionalConsultativeMeetingonInternationalMigrationandDevelopmentintheArabRegion,FinalDeclaration,LeagueofArabStatesheadquarters,June2013.

8 WorkingGrouponInternationalMigrationintheArabRegion,TermsofReference,2013.

withinotherministries(likeministriesofforeignaffairsorministriesofsocialaffairs),whileinothercountries,mainlytheGulfCooperationCouncil(GCC)countries,ministries of interior and ministries of labour areresponsibleforthisissue.

Migrationintheregionisfrequentlyaccompaniedbynumerousconcernswithregardtothesocial,economicand legal frameworks inwhich it takesplace. Italsohasgreatpotentialtopositivelyimpacttheeconomicandsocialdevelopmentoftheregionacrossanumberofdifferentareas.Therefore,thegrowingimportanceoftheroleofdialogueandcollaborationintheArabregionmustberecognizedandsupportedbydifferentstakeholders, namely, international and regionalorganizations,governments,academic institutesandresearch centres, non-governmental organizations(NGOs)andmigrantsthemselves.

Opportunities and challenges of international migration

TheimpactofinternationalmigrationoncountriesintheArabregion–whethertheyarecountriesoforigin,destinationortransit–bringsbothopportunitiesthathave to be utilized and challenges that have to befaced.

Arab migrants can have a valuable positive impacton thedevelopment of the region; they are a hugereservoir of skills, expertise and resources that arestronglyneededby their homecountries. Theyalsosend remittances to their families and communitiesin their countries of origin. The Arab countries areestimatedtohavereceivedmorethanUSD53billioninremittancesin2014,upfromUSD49billionin2012.9

Countries like Egypt and Lebanon are among theworld’smost important recipients of remittances intermsofabsolutevalue.Remittancesassistinfundingdevelopment projects, reducing poverty, coveringhousehold expenses, improving level of education,improvinghealthconditionsandtradeactivities.

Ontheotherhand,thesocioeconomicdevelopmentof the Gulf countries as labour-receiving countrieshas long been reliant on large-scale immigration ofworkerstofillskillsandlabourgapsinordertoutilizethenaturalresourcebaseofthesecountries.

9 TheWorldBank,Migration and Development Brief 24,April2013.

5Vol. V, Number 3, July 2015–September 2015MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE

Nevertheless,migrationalsobringssomechallengestotheArabregion.Measuringinternationalmigrationis one of themain challenges. Countries still define“international migrant” differently, and this lack ofconsistency is one of the main obstacles to settingaccuratemeasurementsthatallowforcomparabilityat the regional and international levels. Measuringinternationalemigrationisanevenmorechallengingtask than measuring immigration, while reliableestimatesofemigrationarenecessaryforpolicymakersin order to manage international emigration andassessitsconsequencesforthecountriesoforigin.

Braindrain is alsoamajor challenge for the region.Drivenbymanyfactors,thesehighlyeducated,skilledArabs leave their home countries to find betteropportunities elsewhere, despite the fact that theirqualificationsareneededtoachievethedevelopmentintheirhomecountries.

The continuous irregular migration is anotherchallenge, with the growing cases of thousands ofyouth drowning at seas and the expansion of theactivitiesofcriminalnetworksandmigranttraffickers.Furthermore,thewidemovementofforcedmigrationintheregionistriggeredbythecauseoftheOccupiedPalestinianTerritory,thewarinIraq,thesituationsinLibyaand theSyrianArabRepublic,and theconflictinYemen.

Crisis in the Arab region

Whenrevoltsbrokeoutattheendof2010,theArabMediterranean countries were source to almost8 million first-generation migrants; 62 per cent ofthemwerelivinginanEUMemberState,27percentinanotherArabState(20%intheGCC)and11percentinanotherpartoftheworld.Byworldstandards,mostof these countries were above-average senders ofinternationalmigrants,withfirst-generationemigrantsrepresenting betweenmore than 2 per cent of thetotal population in the Syrian Arab Republic and12percentinLebanon,comparedwiththe3percentworldaverage.Libya,amajorreceiverofinternationalmigrants, was the only country with a smallpercentageofemigration(1%ofitspopulation).From2001 to 2010, the number of Arab MediterraneanmigrantstothemembercountriesoftheOrganisationfor Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD)increasedby42percent,from3.5toalmost5 million. In sharp contrast with the common ideathat internationalmigration has become globalized,thebiggestshareofthe increase inArabemigration

toOECDcountriesbetween2001and2010hasbeendestinedtoEurope(91%)andparticularlytothethreeclosest neighbours of the Arab States – Spain, Italyand France. In the first two countries, low- ormid-skilledmigrantswereattractedbyjobsleftvacantbynatives inconjunctionwithboomingeconomiesandrapidlyrisingstandardsofliving.InFrance,however,the recent increase inArab immigrationwasmainlyduetofamilyreunification.10

TheArabrevolutionshavesomeconsiderableeffectsonmigration, particularly onmovementsof people,migrationroutes,theperceptionofmigration-relatedissues and policies in all migration-related matters.Theperiod immediately following the revolts in theregionwasoneofintenseemigrationinmostofthesecountries.Millions of people left or were forced toleave their home countries over the last five years,andmanyneighbouringcountrieshavebeendirectlyaffectedbytheseflows.

TheArabrevolutionsalreadytriggeredmajorrefugeecrisesintheneighbourhoodofEurope.However,thebulk of the burdenwas supported by neighbouringArabStatesandTurkey.Governmentsandinternationalorganizationstooktheirpart,remarkablycivilsocietyandlocalpopulationsplayedthebiggestrole.11

One of the most dangerous consequences of thecurrentsituationintheArabregionistakingdangerousroutesofmigrationtryingtofleetheconflicts.Severalcountries intheArabregionare importantpointsoftransitalongthe irregularmigrationroutestakenbymigrants, includingunaccompaniedminors,notonlyfromtheregionbutalsofromoutside.

Migrants and refugees increasinglymakeuseof thesame routes and means of transport to get to anoverseas destination when these mixed flows areunabletoenteraparticularState legally.Theyoftenemploytheservicesofhumansmugglersandembarkondangerous seaor land trips,whichmanydonotsurvive. The Mediterranean basin and the Gulf ofAdenarethemaintworoutesintheregionforthesemixedflows.12

10 P.FarguesandC.Fandrich,Migration after the Arab Spring,Migration Policy Centre Research Report 2012/09 (SanDomenicodiFiesole(FI),RobertSchumanCentreforAdvancedStudies,EuropeanUniversityInstitute,2012.

11 Ibid.

12 Seewww.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home

http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home


Role of the League of Arab States

TheLASisaregionalintergovernmentalorganizationof the22Arabcountries.13 Itwasestablishedon22March1945,withtheaimtostrengthentiesamongthe Member States, coordinate their policies andpromotetheircommoninterests.14

The LAS and its specialized organizations offereda framework for the Arab countries to cooperateon issues related to migration and human mobilitywithin the region, and with sending and receivingregions. Intraregional cooperation in the field ofmigrationintheArabregionstartedinthe1950swiththeAgreementonArabEconomicUnityissuedbytheArabEconomicCouncil in1957,followedbyasetofagreements, declarations and charters that focusedon freedomofmobility forArab citizens to liveandworkthroughouttheArabregion,inadditiontogivingArab labour priority over non-Arabs and to simplifyrecruitmentprocedures.

Theimportanceoftheissueofinternationalmigrationto the LAShasbeen sparked in thepastdecade, asthe declarations of Arab summits have consistentlyincluded references to international migration andArab expatriates through reflecting the interest inthe role of Arab expatriates in the development oftheir home countries and stressing the importanceof promoting it, besides defendingmigrants’ rights,regulatingmigration of Arabworkers abroad, givingattentiontoskilledArabmigrants,andstrengtheningtheirrelationshipwiththeirhomecountries.15

13 LAS Member States: Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti,Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania,Morocco, Oman, the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Qatar,Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, the Syrian Arab Republic,Tunisia,theUnitedArabEmiratesandYemen.

14 League of Arab States, Charter of Arab League, 22 March1945.

15 The declarations that have included some paragraphsconcerning international migration and Arab expatriatesare: declaration issuedby theTunis summit in 2004on theprocessofdevelopmentandmodernizationintheArabworld;BrasiliadeclarationissuedbytheSummitofArabStatesandthe countries of South America in May 2005; Khartoumdeclaration in 2006;Dohadeclaration issuedby the secondSummitofArabStatesandthecountriesofSouthAmericainMarch2009;andtheArabEconomicandSocialDevelopmentSummit, held in Kuwait in January 2009. Agreements anddeclarationsareavailablefromwww.lasportal.org

As an implementationof thesedeclarations, the LAShas putmany programmes tomaximize the benefitsofmigrationandminimizeitsnegativeaspectsandtocommunicatewithArabexpatriateslivingabroadandpromotetheirparticipationinthedevelopmentoftheArabregion.Amongthemostimportantprogrammesof the LAS are the capacity-building programmesaimingtoimprovethemigrationmanagementcapacityof the Arab governments, the cultural programmefor second- and third-generation Arab expatriatesto engage themwith their home countries, and theprogrammeoncrimepreventionandhumantrafficking.In the implementation of these programmes, theLAS organized cultural trips, conducted studiesand prepared reports, and organized conferences,meetings,seminars,workshopsandfieldvisits.

ClosecooperationwithNGOsisparticularlyimportant,sincetheyareoftenthemostdirectlinkwithmigrantsand are continually attentive to their problems andneeds. It is for this reasonthat theLASseizeseveryopportunity to get to know and communicate withNGOs established by Arab communities abroad notonlytoexchangeinformationontheconcernsofeachotherbutalsotoidentifypossibleareasofcooperation,especiallywithaviewtoensuringeffectiverespectofmigrants’rights.

Undertakingtocontinueintensiveregionalcooperationinthefieldofmigration,theLASassists itsMemberStatestoestablishafruitfuldialogueandcooperationinthefieldofinternationalmigrationbetweenthemand with other regions. It focuses on supportingthem todevelopmoreeffectivepolicies forutilizingmigration in favour of Arab regional development,integratingexpatriatesinnationaldevelopmentplansand building bridges of dialogue. To achieve this,furtherprogresswasrequiredtocoordinatedialogueandactionamong the LASMember States, relevantinternationalagenciesandinstitutionsworkingintheregion,andexternalreceivingandsendingregions.Inthisframework,theLASworkedonestablishingnewmechanismsforcooperation inthefieldofmigrationintheArabregion.

Coordination with Member States

The LAS has always been the platform for dialogueand cooperationbetween theArab countries in thefield of migration. A lot of meetings were held ondifferent levels (ministerial, high-level officials andexpertsmeetings)todiscuss issuesofmigrationandArabexpatriates.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_organization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_world

http://www.lasportal.org


However, in the light of the emergence of manyRegionalConsultativeProcessesonMigration(RCPs),which proved their efficiency in building networksbetween participating States, the LAS has recentlyestablished theArab Regional Consultative Process on Migration (ARCP)asaState-driven,non-binding,flexibleandinformalforumtofacilitatedialogueandcooperation on migration issues between the LASMemberStates.ThefirstARCPmeetingwasheldattheLASheadquartersinApril2015.TheARCPwillberepresentedforthefirsttimeonthegloballevelduringthe FifthGlobalMeeting for Chairs and Secretariatsof Regional Consultative Processes on Migration,hostedbytheLASatitsheadquartersandorganizedincollaborationwiththe InternationalOrganizationforMigration(IOM)on21–22October2015.

Cooperation with international and regional organizations

Over the previous decades, the LAS has builtcooperation with various organizations related in awayoranothertomigration. Ithasastrongbaseofpartnershipswithdifferentlevelsofcommitmentandcontinuity. The Africa–Arab Summit, the Summit ofSouth American–Arab Countries and the EuropeanUnionArabLeagueforeignaffairsministerialmeetingsare examples of the established mechanisms ofcooperation with other regions. The RegionalCoordination Mechanism (RCM) of the Arab Statesbetween the LAS and the United Nations and theirspecializedagencieswasalsoestablishedin1999.Inaddition, memorandums of understanding (MoUs)with many international and regional organizations– like the International Labour Organization in1958,IOMin2000,theOfficeoftheUnitedNationsHigh Commissioner for Refugees in 2000 and theUnited Nations Population Fund, among others –were signed.16 Many activities and projects wereimplementedaccordingtotheseagreements.

Seeking to promote coordinated normative andtechnicalworkoninternationalmigrationintheregion,the Working Group on International Migration in the Arab Region was established inMarch 2013 at theeighteenthRCMmeeting.TheWorkingGroup is co-chairedbytheLAS,theUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforWesternAsia(UN-ESCWA)and

16 For more information on the LAS MoUs and agreements,see: www.lasportal.org/ar/legalnetwork/Pages/agreements_treaties.aspx

IOM, andwith themembership of 12UN agencies,inordertopreventduplicationofeffortsandensurea consistent, system-widemessage and strategy formigration.17

The Technical and Coordination Committee on Migration co-chaired by the African Union and theLASwasalsoestablishedaccordingtotheresolutionadoptedbytheAfrica–ArabSummitheldinKuwaitinNovember2013,tohelpstrengthentheircooperationin migration management and to promote andprotectmigrants’rights,especiallyintheprovisionofsoundadvicetoMemberStateson issuesrelatedtomigrationinbothregions,inconformitywithregionalandinternationalinstruments.

Conclusion and recommendations

With the rapid changes in the Arab region,programmatic responses have been limited bypolitical instability, shortageof informationand lackof fundingresources.Therefore,gaps in informationon and awareness of migration-related issues, inadditiontoseveralothergaps,stillneedtobetackled.Toaddressthesegaps,sharingexperiencesandbestpracticesaswellascoordinatingpoliciesoftheArabcountriesinthefieldofmigrationareimperatives.Inorder to formulate a comprehensive and integratedArabstrategyformaximizingthebenefitsofmigrationand minimizing its hazards while strengthening theposition of theArab States in negotiatingmigrationissues regionally and globally, and opening newhorizons for cooperation and partnership betweensending and receiving countries, the Arab StatesshouldplayaneffectiveroleinthenewlyestablishedARCP.

Developing effective and permanent mechanismsthrough the establishment of networks,implementable initiativesandscientificprogrammesto benefit from the knowledge, skills, expertise,and resources of the Arab expatriates abroad,especially scientists, is a high priority. That is thereason behind the LAS’ seeking to create an Arabinformation system on migration, which includesdatabasesthatcovermigrationstatistics in theArabregion,migration legislations, experts database andmigration institutions database. This informationsystemwillhelpinsolvingtheproblemofthescarcity

17 WorkingGrouponInternationalMigrationintheArabRegion,op.cit.(2013).

http://www.lasportal.org/ar/legalnetwork/Pages/agreements_treaties.aspx

http://www.lasportal.org/ar/legalnetwork/Pages/agreements_treaties.aspx


of migration data in the region and will also helpthe Arab countries to engage their expatriates indevelopment through collaborativeefforts and jointfutureplansandinitiatives.

The current approach of encouraging the countriesto mainstream migration into their overallsocioeconomicplansshouldbesupportedandcouldbenefit from the multiple perspectives offered bydifferent organizations, and the harmonization ofmigration policies and management should be aprimarystrategy.

Better knowledge and enhanced capacities indifferent policy areas are essential to ensure theprotectionofmigrants,facilitationoflegalmigration,reduction of irregular migration, integration ofmigrants into the communities of their countries ofdestination, and the greater interlinking betweenmigration and development. In order to achievethis, the continuation of providing capacity-buildingprogrammesforgovernmentofficialsisessential.

Moreover,involvingmigrantsthemselvesandNGOsiscrucialtotakeamoreintegratedapproachtodealwith

thedifferent formsofmigration in theArab region.Differentstakeholdersshouldthereforeconsiderthesituation of international migration holistically andseek to further anchor their responses in broaderprocesses of change. Thus, the role of partnershipsshould be strengthened to give adequate attentionto the global challenges, includingmigration,whichrequirecollectivesolutions.Thesepartnershipsshouldrecognizetherelationshipbetweenmigrationandthethreepillarsof sustainabledevelopment (economic,social and environmental), and the importance ofthecontributionofmigrantstodevelopmentthroughremittances,tradeandinvestmentinthecountriesoforigin,andthroughskillstransfer,besidesworkingonreducingthenegativeimpactofforcedmigrationondevelopment.

Finally, the LAS believes that the synergy resultingfrom collaborations based on goodwill, commonobjectives and transparency between differentpartnersbothattheregionalandinternationallevelsis what the Arab region needs to face the complexsituation,particularlyinthisexceptionaltime.n

“...the role of partnerships should be strengthened to

give adequate attention to the global challenges, including

migration, which require collective solutions.”


La genèse de la politique d’immigration au MarocCharef Mohamed1

Le tournant migratoire marocain

Pourpartird’untruisme,laquestiondesmigrationsestquasiprésentedansnossociétés,quenoussoyonsdanslespaysdunordoudusud.Denosjours,ilestmême,difficile de trouver un concept plus universellementpartagéetusitéque celui de ‘migrations’. C’estunequestion qui fait l’objet d’un grand débat dans lessociétés de destination.Mais elle est aussi sujet depolémique, abondamment exploité, commenté etcritiqué, nourrissant les fonds de commerce desextrémistes.Alimentantdesdiscussionspassionnelles,des fantasmes extravagants, des exploitationsidéologiques innommables, devenant à la fois unenjeumondialetunsujetpolitique,quiappelleuneréflexion, une approche globale, un dialogue Nord-Sud, Sud-Sud et des réponses adéquates. Certes, lenombre d’immigrés et étrangers résidant auMarocs’élevaità86206individusensituationrégulièreen2014; mais, il y aurait selon les estimations, entre25000et45000migrantsensituationdite‘irrégulière’.Danstouslescas,àcejour,leurnombreresteinfime,comparé aux marocains et maroco-descendants àl’étranger,dont lenombreavoisine lescinqmillions.Néanmoins, cetétatde faitmet leMarocdevant lanécessité d’un vaste et profond remembrement deson arsenal sécuritaire et législatif, mais aussi, unredéploiement de sa diplomatie, avec l’impératifd’unemiseàniveaudesonassistancehumanitaire,delaredéfinitiondesmoyensd’identificationdesadmisaudroitd’asile,d’unrenforcementdelasociétécivile,d’unecoopérationétroiteaveclespaysd’origine,etc.

LeMarocestparmilespremierspaysàavoirratifiélaconventioninternationalesurlaprotectiondesdroitsde tous les travailleurs migrants et des membresde leurs familles2. Aussi, cette démarche demettreen place une nouvelle politique d’immigrationvolontariste et singulière au niveau du continentafricains’inscritdanslavolontéfermeduRoyaumede

1 Charef Mohamed est Géographe-urbaniste, Directeur del’ObservatoireRégionaldesMigrations :EspacesetSociétés(ORMES), Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines,UniversitéIbnZohr,Agadir,Maroc.Ilestégalementmembredu Conseil National des Droits de l’Homme du Maroc etPrésidentduConseilRegionaldesDroitsdel’Hommed’Agadir.

2 www.ohchr.org/FR/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CMW.aspx

renforcer le processus enmatièrededémocratie etdesdroitsdel’homme.Ellearencontréunéchotrèsfavorabledanslesmédiasetauprèsdesresponsablespolitiques africains et mondiaux3. A cet égard, ilfautsoulignerque laconstitutionmarocaineaffirmeclairement dans l’article 30, que : ‘Les étrangers jouissent des libertés fondamentales reconnues aux citoyennes et aux citoyens marocains, conformément à la loi. Ceux d’entre eux qui résident au Maroc peuvent participer aux élections locales en vertu de la loi, de l’application des conventions internationales ou de pratiques de réciprocité ’4.

Rupture et continuité dans la gestion administrative de l’immigration

De 1956, date de l’indépendance du Royaume duMaroc, à 2002, le cadre législatif de la politiquemarocained’immigrationn’apasbougéd’uniota.Auniveaujuridique,leMaroc,commepaysd’émigration,n’accordait en réalité que très peu de place à cephénomène5. Sa législation en la matière, datantde l’époque du protectorat, est considérée commedésuète,dépasséeetenpluséparpilléedansplusieurstextes juridiques,desannées trenteetquarante.En1996,àl’issuedelasignaturedel’accordd’associationentreleMarocetl’UnionEuropéenne,celle-cipoussaitleMaroc,commed’autrespaysd’ailleurs,àjouerenquelquesortelerôlede‘gendarme’6àsafrontièresudetàrenforcerlecontrôlemigratoireetlasurveillance

3 www.diplomatie.ma/Portals/réactions pol mig/réactionsniveauinternational19sep_1_.pdf

4 www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/-- -prot rav/ - - - i lo_a ids/documents/ lega ldocument/wcms_127076.pdf

5 CHAREF, M. : ‘Les migrations, un fait de société majeur, mais un champ de recherche encore marginal au Maroc’.International Journal on Multicultural Societies (IJMS), Vol.7, No.1, 2005:67-79 ISSN 1564-4901, www.unesco.org/shs/ijms/vol7/issue1/art5©UNESCO,p-p62-80;

6 ‘Sur laquestionmigratoire, leMarocrefusede jouer le rôledegendarmedel’Europe,etc’estlaraisonpourlaquellenousavonsdécidédenepassignerl’accordrelatifàlacirculationdes personne. Lequel accord comporte, des dispositionsinappropriées’, déclaration de M Saadeddine El Othmani,MinistredesAffairesEtragères,le23juillet2012auParlement

http://www.ohchr.org/FR/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CMW.aspx

https://www.diplomatie.ma/Portals/r�actions pol mig/r�actions niveau international 19 sep_1_.pdf

http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---ilo_aids/documents/legaldocument/wcms_127076.pdf



http://www.unesco.org/shs/ijms/vol7/issue1/art5

http://www.unesco.org/shs/ijms/vol7/issue1/art5


deseaux territorialeset internationales7.C’estaussien 1997 et 1998 que sont construites les barrièresbarbelées qui entourent aujourd’hui les villes deCeutaetMelilla.Cettepériodevoitaussi lamiseenplacedu systèmede surveillancedes frontières suddel’Europe,notammentsurledétroitdeGibraltar.

A la même époque (1998), l’Autriche accède à laprésidencedel’Unioneuropéenneetdiffusetrèsviteauxinstitutionsdel’UnionunDocumentdestratégiesurla‘politique de l’Union européenne en matière de migrations et d’asile’.LepremierministrebritanniqueTonyBlairpropose la création,dans lespaysvoisinsde l’Union européenne, de camps d’enfermementdes exilés déjà arrivés et souhaitant entrer enEurope.Chosecontrelaquelle leMarocaprotestéàl’époque.Aujourd’hui encore, il continuede refuserl’installation de camps sur son territoire8. Et, sousla présidence néerlandaise, il y a eu la création du‘Groupe de Haut-Niveau Asile-Migration’,quiélaborale plan dit : ‘Plan indicatif national pour le Maroc’ou‘PIN-Maroc’visantàamenerleMarocàaccepterl’applicationdesaccordsbilatérauxde réadmission9,àsignerdenouveauxaccordsdecetypeetàimposerdesvisasauxressortissantsduSénégal,duMali,delaRépubliquedémocratiqueduCongo,deCôted’Ivoire,deGuinéeetduNiger.Dès lors, leMarocmettraenplacetouteunepolitiquedansledomainemigratoire:loi sur l’immigration dite 02-0310 adoptée le11novembre2003,installationd’unereprésentationde l’OIMetde l’UNHCR, développementdesvoletsopérationnels,etc.Cedernier seconcrétisantpar lacréation en 2005 de la Direction de lamigration et

7 Ilfiniraparsignerle7juin2013,unaccorddepartenariatdemobilité,quicomprendunaxesur:‘Prévention et lutte contre l'immigration irrégulière, traite des êtres humains, gestion des frontières’. http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-is-new/news/news/2013/docs/20130607

8 ‘Jamais le Maroc n’installera un camp de réfugiés sur son territoire. Ce n’est pas dans l’esprit et la culture du Maroc. Le Maroc est un pays d’accueil de l’immigration subsaharienne’,déclaration de M Mezour Salaheddine ministre marocaindes Affaires étrangères à Radio Prague, lors de sa visite àla République Tchèque en juillet 2015 www.wakeupinfo.fr/2015/07/salaheddine-mezouar-ministre-des.html

9 LeMarocasignélePartenariatpourlamobilitéenjuin2013avec l’Union européenne et 9 Etats membres, à savoir : laRépubliquefédéraledel'Allemagne,leRoyaumedeBelgique,leRoyaumed'Espagne,laRépubliquefrançaise,laRépubliqueitalienne,leRoyaumedesPays-Bas,laRépubliqueportugaise,leRoyaumedeSuèdeetleRoyaume-Uni.

10 IlfautnoterquelaTunisiedesontcôté,s’estdotéed’uneloisurlacirculationdespersonnesetlecontrôledumouvementdesétrangersen2004etl'Algérieaadoptéuneloicadreenmatièremigratoire,enjuin2008.

delasurveillancedesfrontières(DMSF)auMinistèrede l’intérieur. Sa mission est : ‘ la mise en œuvre opérationnelle et le suivi de la stratégie nationale en matière de lutte contre les réseaux de trafic des êtres humains’.

Jusqu’en septembre 2013, et en dépit de lamobilisationde la société civile, certestimide,maisascendante, la politique d’immigration au Marocparaîtparticulièrementvelléitaireetencontradictionavecsesengagementsinternationaux.Lesconditionsde vie des immigrés se dégradent et leurs chancesd’intégration s’amenuisent, les poussant ‘dans une marginalité économique et social de fait’. Leschangementsseproduisentimmédiatementaprèslerapport du Conseil national des Droits de l’Hommede septembre 2013, intitulé : ‘Etrangers et droits de l’Homme au Maroc : Pour une politique d’asile et d’immigration radicalement nouvelle’11,quiexaminelesstructures,lespratiquesetlaconformitéaveclesengagements internationaux du Maroc. De ce fait,ce rapport marque un tournant dans la politiqued’immigration en mettant le gouvernement devantsesresponsabilités,etenl’invitantàmettreenplaceunvéritablestatutd’immigré,enconformitéaveclesengagementsinternationauxduMaroc.

Une nouvelle politique globale relative aux questions d’immigration et d’asile

LechangementdecapestpourbeaucouplerésultatdelavolontéRoyaledemettreenplaceunepolitiqued’immigrationfondéesurlatraditionhumanitaireetsoucieusedurespectdesdroitsfondamentauxdelapersonne ; une politique réaliste et humaniste. Eneffet, le 9 septembre 2013, avant de connaitre lesobservationsduComitépourlaprotectiondesdroitsdetous les travailleursmigrantsetdesmembresdeleursfamilles,renduespubliquesle13septembre,ilyaeulapublicationd’uncommuniquéducabinetRoyalexhortant lapriseen comptedes recommandationsduConseilnationaldesdroitsdel’hommeetinvitantà l’adoption d’une approche globale et humaniste,conformément au droit international et dans lecadre d’une coopération multilatérale rénovée.Le lendemain, le 10 septembre 2013, Sa Majestéle Roi a présidé une réunion en présence du chefdu gouvernement marocain et d’une délégationministérielle, au cours de laquelle il a appelé à

11 Opuscitatum.

http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-is-new/news/news/2013/docs/20130607

http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-is-new/news/news/2013/docs/20130607

http://www.wakeupinfo.fr/2015/07/salaheddine-mezouar-ministre-des.html

http://www.wakeupinfo.fr/2015/07/salaheddine-mezouar-ministre-des.html


l’adoption d’une nouvelle politique migratoire encoordination avec le Conseil national des Droits del‘Homme(CNDH).Le12septembre2013,ilyaeulamiseenplacedequatrecommissionschargéesdelamiseenœuvredesrecommandations:

•une commission chargée de la réforme et lamiseenplaced’un arsenal juridiquerelatifà lamigration,l’asileainsiquelatraitedespersonnes;

•unecommissionchargéedelarégularisationdelasituationadministrativedecertainescatégoriesdemigrantsensituationirrégulière;

•unecommissionchargéed’étudierlesdemandesd’asile reconnues par le Bureau du HautCommissariatdesNationsUniespourlesréfugiés;

•unecommissiondiplomatique;

Lesactionsengagéesnepourront,cependant,réussirpleinement qu’à condition de rectifier au préalablecertainessituations.Dansunepremièreétape,pouréviter les risques de tergiversations et dissiper lesinquiétudes, le Gouvernement a entrepris, le 25septembre2013,l’ouverturedubureaudesréfugiésetapatrides12,affiliéauministèredesAffairesétrangères.Sachantquel’écoledemeurelepremiermilieupropiceàl’intégration,etqu’ilfaudraitêtreparticulièrementattentifauxactionsdeformationdesjeunes,ilfallaitremédierauxcarences,lourdesdeconséquencespourlesjeunesetpourlasociété.Or,danscevolet,ilyavaittoutunfaisceaudemesuresdiscriminatoires,quecesoitauniveaudesinscriptionsoudelascolaritédesenfantsdemigrants.Aussi, d’unepart, le 9octobre2013, leministèrede l’Éducationnationale a publiéune circulaire facilitant la scolarisation des enfantsdemigrantsensituationirrégulière.D’autrepart,cesenfants ont été encouragés à passer, notamment,par l’éducation non formelle13 (ENF) pour parfaireleur apprentissage de l’arabe. En outre, sachantque la solution des problèmes des immigrés et del’immigration devrait être recherchée de concert

12 LeMarocaadhéréàlaConventionde1951relativeaustatutdes réfugiés, le 07 novembre 1956 et à son Protocole de1967,le20avril1971.Le20juillet2007,ilasignéunaccordde siège avec le HCR qui permet à ce dernier d'avoir unereprésentationofficielleàRabat.

13 Elleestdéfiniecomme«touteactivitéd’éducationorganiséeetsystématique,exécutéeàl’extérieurducadredusystèmescolaire formel pour fournir un type d’apprentissage choisi,à des sous-groupes particuliers de la population AuMaroc,l’ENFapris amiseen forme institutionnelleenmai1997àl’intérieurdesstructuresduMEN.

aveclasociétécivileetlesmigrantseux-mêmesd’unepart,etqued’autrepart, lavieassociativeconstitueun moyen efficient d’insertion sociale, les pouvoirspublicspermettent, le4décembre2013,auGroupeantiraciste d’accompagnement et de défense desétrangersetdesmigrants(GADEM)d’accéder,enfin,au statut d’association autorisée, après plusieursannéesdedéni.

Au-delà de ses actions ponctuelles et des réponsesconcrètes immédiatement applicables, le nouveauGouvernement, dit Benkirane II, institué le 10octobre 2013, s’est attaché à réorienter la politiquede l’immigration en fonction des recommandationsdurapportduCNDH.Ainsi,pourlapremièrefoisdansl’histoireduMaroc,ilyauralacréationduMinistèrechargé des Marocains Résidant à l’Etranger et desAffaires de la Migration, le 10 octobre 2013 et lapublicationdudécretn°2-14-192du4avril2014.Ceministèreestcenséélaborerlespolitiquesetprendrelesmesuresnécessairesafindefaciliter l’intégrationsociale, éducative et culturelle des immigrés etréfugiésrésidantauMaroc.Ilassureégalementlerôled’interfaceetd’impulsiondesactionsdecoopérationdanscedomaine,auxniveauxbilatéral,multilatéraletrégional.

Pour cela, il fallait d’abord apurer le passé. C’est cequi fut entrepris avec l’opération de régularisationexceptionnelle. Celle-ci devait, en effet, mettre finà la précarité de la situation administrative desimmigrés, et leur assurer une vie normale. Ainsi,le 11 Novembre 2013, le Ministère de l’IntérieurorganiseconjointementavecleMinistèrechargédesMarocains résidantà l’EtrangeretdesAffairesde laMigration,uneconférencedepresse,pourexpliciterl’opération de régularisation exceptionnelle. Elles’étalera du 2 janvier au 31 décembre 2014, et lescritèresd’identificationsont:

1. Lesétrangersconjointsderessortissantsmarocainsjustifiantd’aumoins2ansdeviecommune;

2. Les étrangers conjoints d’autres étrangers enrésidence régulière au Maroc et justifiant d’aumoins4ansdeviecommune;

3. Lesenfantsissusdesdeuxcassusvisés;

4. Les étrangers disposant de contrats de travaileffectifsd’aumoins2ans;

5. Les étrangers justifiant de 5 ans de résidencecontinueauMaroc;

6. Les étrangers atteints de maladies graves et setrouvant sur le territoire national avant le 31décembre2013.


Les objectifs retenus ne peuvent évidemment êtreatteints que si la société civile est associée, dansunedémarchedeconcertation.C’estcequetenterade faire, le 14Novembre 2013, leMinistère chargédes Marocains résidant à l’Etranger et des Affairesde la Migration, en organisant la première journéed’informationauprofitde la société civile. Elle serasuivie, le 3 décembre 2013, par une réunion duPrésident du CNDH, avec des représentants de lasociété civile14, dans l’objectif de connaître leurspositionsetpropositions.Toutennotantl’importancedecertainesavancées,lesmembresdelaplate-formedéplorent, dans un mémorandum adressé le 13décembre2013auPrésidentduCNDH, le caractèrerestrictifdescritèresadoptés15.

Lors de cette opération exceptionnelle derégularisation, l’administration n’avait plus lepouvoir discrétionnaire de refuser les demandesd’octroi de titre de séjour. En effet, dans le soucid’écarter tout risque d’arbitraire administratif, danschaquecommissionpréfectorale la sociétécivileestreprésentée par deux personnes désignées par leCNDH,enplus:

1. du gouverneur de la préfecture ou la provinceconcernée,président.

2. du préfet de police ou du chef de la sûretérégionaleouprovincialeouduchefdudistrictdepoliceterritorialementcompétent.

3. du commandant régional de la GendarmerieRoyalecompétent.

4. duDirecteurrégional,préfectoralouprovincialdelaSurveillanceduTerritoire.

5. duchefd’antennelocaledelaDirectionGénéraledesEtudesetdelaDocumentation(DGED)16.

Et c’est là une disposition sans précédent dansune procédure administrative, dont l’idée est defaire de cet exercice, une initiation à la démocratieparticipative. De surcroit, pour protéger le candidatcontre d’éventuels abus, une Commission nationale

14 Les associations de migrants au Maroc et la ‘plate-forme protection migrants’,quicomprendlesassociationssuivantes:AssociationdeLutteContreleSida(ALCS),Amane,Caritas,leComitéd’EntraideInternational(CEI),leGADEM,laFondationOrientOccident(FOO),OumelBanine,Médecinsdumonde,TerredesHommes,CISS,Droit et Justice, FondationAlianzaporlaSolidaridad.

15 www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/rapport_maroc_migration_fr.pdf

16 C’estunservicederenseignementsetdecontre-espionnage.

deRecours,présidéeparleCNDHestmiseenplacele25juin2014,pourétudierlesdemandesinterjetées.D’ailleurs,c’estconformémentauxrecommandationsde cettecommissionqu’il aétéprocédéàpartirdu23 juillet 2014 à la régularisation systématique del’ensembledespostulantsdesexefémininetdeleursenfantsetà ladécisionde leurpermettre l’accèsauRAMED17.Enfin,pourévitertouteprécipitationdansl’exécutiondelamesurederefoulementadministratif,ilaétédécidéd’unemanièreimplicite,desurseoirauxrefoulementsetlerapatriementdurantlapériodederégularisation18.

Commeonpeutenjuger,ilestapparunécessairedepréparerà lahâteunesériedemesuresdestinéesàrépondreauxmultiplesgriefsrelevésparleCNDH.Ils’agitdésormaisdeconcilierl’obligationdecontrôlerl’immigration dite ‘irrégulière’ et/ou ‘clandestine’,tout en respectant les engagements internationauxdu Maroc. Pour la première fois, la corrélation estclairement établie entre le suivi de ce dossier et lanécessité de le confier à une structure capable defairelasynthèsedecettequestiontransversale.Cettedisposition est l’une des principales avancées danscedomaine.Ilyaunevolontédesedémarquerdesorientations suivies jusqu’alors, à savoir :mettrefinà la précarité du statut de l’immigré ; élaborer unevéritablepolitiqued’insertionsocialeetunepolitiquedecoopérationaveclespaysd’Afriquedel’Ouest.

Le déroulement de l’opération de régularisation exceptionnelle

L’objectif principal a été de lancer l’opération derégularisationauplusvite,sansprendrepourautantle temps nécessaire, ni pour diffuser l’informationauprèsdespersonnes concernées, ni de sensibiliseret/ou mobiliser le tissu associatif pour répandrel’annonce et préparer les migrants. Résultat, il y aeuméconnaissancedesdémarchesàaccomplir,desdifficultés à trouver l’information et une forme deméfiance à se présenter au bureau des étrangers.Enfin, plusieurs cas de figure rendent la situationlaborieuse: lesdifficultés rencontréesaveccertainesadministrations locales ou consulaires, pour fournirles documents nécessaires; l’obligation d’être surplacepourobteniruneréponseetfaireavancerson

17 Ils’agitdel'AssuranceMaladieObligatoiredebase(AMO)etduRégimed'AssistanceMédicale(RAMED).

18 SelonleGADEM,cettetrêveneseraitpasrespectée,dansleNordetl’Orientale!

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Vol. V, Number 3, July 2015–September 2015MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE 13

dossier ;etmaitriser les rouagesde l’administrationmarocaineetfairefaceàsaroutine.

Il y a bien eu l’ouverture de quatre vingt troisbureaux,etlaformationenquelquesjoursdesagentsresponsables, mais par le biais de l’interprétationdes textes, chaque agent ou presque conserveses habitudes. C’est connu, la volonté d’imposerde nouvelles normes achoppe bien souvent surl’ensembledeshabitudes,desroutines,despratiqueset de rémanence, déjà intégrées par les agents,contribuant à une forme d’homogénéisation deshabitus.Mêmesilacirculaireaétépubliéeenarabe,enfrançaisetenanglais,lesentretiensnesesontpastoujours biens déroulés, faute d’interprète. Aussi,certainscandidatsparlentduparcoursducombattantetseplaignentdesobstacles.D’autresontpréférénepas se présenter de crainte d’être démasqués sansêtrepourautantrégularisés.

27 573 demandes ont été enregistrées, dont10240déposéespardesfemmes,soitenviron37%.Letauxdesavisfavorablesavoisineles66%,soit18293régularisés,originairesde116pays.Lesressortissantssénégalais se placent en tête des demandeurs avec24,1%du total des demandesdéposées, suivis desSyriens(19,2%),Nigérians(8,7%), Ivoiriens(8,3%),Guinéens(5,9%),Congolais(5,7%),Maliens(4,8%),Camerounais (3,95 %), Philippins (3,4 %), etc. Surle plan géographique, la distribution spatiale est lasuivante:Rabat(4867demandes),Fès(2110),HayHassani(1915),Tanger-Assilah(1517),Oujda-Angad(994),Marrakech (819),AinSebaaHayMohammadi(735),Casablanca-Anfa(691),Laayoune(550)etSalé(410).Ilfautsoulignerquedixpréfecturesetprovincesconcentrent plus de 82% des demandes déposées,d’oùuneformedeconcentrationdanslesprincipalesvillesdelafaçadeatlantique,ettoutparticulièrementunaxeTanger-Casablanca.

Globalement, les témoins privilégiés qui ont suivicetteopérationdetrèsprès,àsavoirlesreprésentantsdelasociétéciviledanslescommissionsprovinciales,ontexpriméleursremarqueslorsd’unatelierbilan,demi-parcours,organiséparleCNDH.Ilsévoquenttousplusd’aspectspositifsqued’aspectsnégatifs.Maislàaussi,ilyadesdifférences,enfonctiondesrégionsetdudegrédeconnaissancedudossierdesmigrations.Plussouvent,onsignale laméfiance, lapeur, lepeude maitrise des dispositions par des responsablesadministratifs, une certaine envie ‘d’expédier le traitement des dossiers’,voire de‘les bâcler’…Maisbienplussouvent,onsignaleunbonrapportentrelesreprésentantsdesassociationset les fonctionnaires,untraitementminutieuxdesdossiers,etunevolontédevérifierlesdocumentsd’unemanièreimpartiale.

En guise de conclusion

Sans entrer dans tous les détails des résultats decette opération de régularisation, ni développerla genèse de la politique migratoire marocaine,on s’est contenté dans cet article d’en indiquer lesgrandes lignes. A cet égard, il convient de rappelerqu’il n’existe aucune base d’information, à la foisconsolidéeetaccessible,permettantdeconnaître lenombreexactdesétrangersauMaroc.Iln’existepasnonplusd’informationprécise,qu’ellesoitstatistiqueouqualitative,surlesraisonsdeleurprésence,leursmotivations,leurrépartitionsocio–démographique,leur distribution géographique, les difficultés qu’ilsrencontrent, les ressources qu’ils mobilisent pourles résoudre, leur intégration, etc. Il demeure doncurgent,auniveaunational,de sensibiliser la sociétépar des campagnes d’information, et de former etaccompagner matériellement les acteurs associatifsafin qu’ils puissent jouer le rôle d’interface. Demême, il est nécessaire d’encourager la rechercheet la formation de jeunes sur les questions desmigrations.n

Vol. V, Number 3, July 2015–September 2015MIGRATION POLICY PRACTICE14Beyond root causes: Fragmented migration in the Middle East and North Africa regionMichael Collyer,1 Bashair Ahmed,2 Markus Breines,3

Vanessa Iaria4 and Elisa Pascucci5

ThenewEuropeanAgendaonMigrationofMay2015 (EuropeanCommission,2015), likemuchof the recent discussion on responses to the

current migration and refugee crisis, is significantlyframedasanattempttoaddressthe“rootcauses”ofthemovement ofmigrants and refugees across theMediterranean.The root causeapproach in tacklingmigrationandrefugeemovementsdatesbacktothe1980s.Ithasreceivedsignificantcritique(Zetter,1988;VanHear,1998)andhasbeenshowntobeextremelydifficulttoimplementinpractice,inthecontextoftheICARAoftheearly1980s,forexample(Betts,2009).6

The root cause approach also relies on an over-simplistic conceptual account of the causes ofmigration and refugee movement, raising twofurtherproblems.First,itfailstoexplainwhyalargepopulationofthoseaffectedbythesamecombinationofrootcausesdonotallchoosetomove.Itthereforeleads to particularly blunt policy responses that areinsufficiently targeted at particular groups who aremostlikelytomove.Second,therootcauseapproachprivilegesthesituation in the individual’scountryoforigin, even though many migration decisions aremadebypeoplewhohavealreadyleft.Theresearchpresented here highlights how many of thoseattemptingtoreachEuropeonlydosoaftercontinualfailuretofindsecurityorlivelihoodsinneighbouringcountries,sometimesoveraperiodofmanyyears–afindingthatreinforcesotherrecentresearchontheseissues(Collyer,DuvellanddeHaas[eds.],2012).

1 DrMichaelCollyerisReaderinGeographyattheUniversityofSussex,UnitedKingdom.

2 Bashair Ahmed is a human rights researcher currentlycompleting a doctorate degree in Migration Studies at theUniversityofSussex.

3 MarkusBreinesisinthefinalyearofdoctorateinAnthropologyattheUniversityofSussex.

4 Dr Vanessa Iaria is a visiting researcher at the Council forBritishResearchintheLevantinAmman,Jordan.

5 Dr Elisa Pascucci is a research fellow at the University ofTampere,Finland.

6 InternationalConferenceonAssistancetoRefugeesinAfrica,heldinGenevain1980and1984.

The central argument in this paper is that the rootcause approach must be supplemented by a moresophisticated conceptual framework. This has threeclear implications: (1) it helps explain why somepeople are more likely to move than others; (2) itdraws attention to the situation of migrants andrefugeesinneighbouringcountries;and(3)itsupportstheidentificationofparticularprioritygroupswhosehumanrightsaremostatrisk.Thispaperreportsonrecent research involving just under 100 interviewsconducted with migrants, refugees, asylum-seekersandmembersoftheirfamiliesinEgypt,Ethiopia,Italy,MaltaandSudan.Thepaperfallsintotwosections.Thefirstsectionoutlinesabroaderconceptualframeworkthan a purely root cause approach for consideringthe origin of migration and refugee movements.Thesecondapplies this to recent researchevidencethat identifies four groups of individuals that areparticularly at risk. The paper concludes with anumber of policy recommendations that could beincorporatedintotheEuropeanAgendaonMigrationtoreflectthismodifiedconceptualapproach.

Beyond root causes: Migration decision-making and fragmented migration

The root cause approach has two significantweaknesses: (1) it does not provide a basis fordifferentiatingbetweendifferentgroupsofpeoplewithdifferentneedsandopportunitiestomove;and(2)itfails to account for onwardmigration,which occursfollowinganinitialmovementawayfromthecountryoforigin.Bothoftheseissueshavebeenidentifiedforsome time, but the conceptual developments havenot been reflected in policy responses, such as theEuropeanAgendaonMigration.

The issues of differentiation has been consideredin theoretical work on migration and refugeemovements since theearly1990s (Richmond,1994)buthasbeenaddressedmostcompletelybyVanHear(1998),whoofferedasubstantialmodificationofthebasic root cause approach. VanHear identifies fourdomains,whichall influencethemigrationdecision.Thefirstdomainencompassesfundamentalstructuralissues, such as levels of development or conflict,whichareusually labelledasrootcausesbutcanbe


addressedonlybyexternalpolicy interventionswithgreat difficulty over long periods of time and oftenwithunintendedconsequences.Theseconddomainis “proximate causes” or “factors which bear moreimmediatelyonmigration”(VanHear,1998:19).Thisbegins to differentiate to identify specific impactsof root causes with identifiable, often spatially ortemporarily restricted impacts on the developmentof conflict, the nature of the economic cycle orlocalized environmental hazards. The third domainis “precipitating factors”, which ultimately provokea decision to flee or migrate at the individual orhousehold level. This often involves a significantpersonalchangethatmaynotbecommontoalargergroupofpeople,suchasspecificthreats,deathofafamilymember,completelossofeconomiclivelihoodoroftensomecombinationofinfluences.

Theseinitialthreedomainsareallmodifiedbyafourthdomainof“interveningfactors”that“enable,facilitate,constrain, accelerate or consolidate migration”(Van Hear, 1998:20). This includes fundamentalconsiderations such as the opportunity to migrate.Not all individuals experiencing precipitating factorsactuallymove, since theymay lack the opportunitytodoso,includingthefinancialresourcestosupporta journey. It also includes the broader migrationregimeofpoliciesdesignedto facilitateorconstrainmovement. It is this area where the unintendedconsequences of root cause interventions becomeapparent, such as the now well-known result ofimproveddevelopmentonencouragingmigration(deHaas,2005).

The influence of these intervening factors providesfurther differentiation between those who do anddo notmove and where those whomove are ableto travel to, since theopportunities and constraintsaround movement typically apply differentially tothe full-range potential destinations. Individualsmay recognize that distant places simply cannot beaccessed, though the urgency to move may forcethemacrosstheclosestborderfromwheretheymaybeabletoaccessfurtherinformationorresourcestomove again, if necessary, sometimes several yearslater. This pattern of movement may be repeatedin a formof “fragmentedmigration” (Collyer, 2007)inwhichmigration thatactuallyoccurs inanumberof disjointed stages is eventually presented as asingle, linear, directed, consolidated movement.This fragmented pattern is characteristic of muchundocumentedmigrationaroundandintotheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica(MENA)region.

The fragmented nature of much undocumentedmigrationintheregionsupportsthesecondproblemoftherootcauseapproach.Migrantsandrefugeesmayhavelivedabroadforyears,sometimesevendecades,before planning further onward migration. In suchsituations, an improvement in the structural factorsthatmayhaveprovokedtheir initialmigrationisnotlikelytohaveanydirectinfluenceontheirdecisiontoleave. Thiswas recognizedbyZetterearlyon in theroot causedebate,writingofaneed“todistinguishquitecarefullybetweenoriginal,continuingandpre-crisisrootcauses,andequallyintractablepost-exodusconsequences” for refugees (1988:100). In thesecircumstances, greater attention to the differentialimpacts of these “post-exodus consequences” willsupportrenewedfocusonthehumanrightssituationof migrants, refugees and asylum-seekers who arealready on themove. The recent research in NorthEastAfricawasdesignedtohelpinformthisprocess.

Profiles of migrants most at risk in North East Africa

The research onwhich this accountwas basedwascarriedoutbytheauthorsbetweenJanuaryandApril2015(Ahmedetal.,2015[forthcoming]). It involvedinterviewswithalmost100migrants,refugees,asylum-seekers,non-migrantmembersof their familiesandrepresentatives of NGOs in Egypt, Ethiopia, Italy,Malta and Sudan. Research was coordinated fromthe University of Sussex, United Kingdom, in closecooperationwith theMixedMigrationHub and theIOM Regional Office for MENA. Full research andconclusions will be published in the forthcomingreport, Conditions and Risks of Mixed Migration in North East Africa,tobepublishedinSeptember2015.The research illustrates that migration across thisregionisfarmorecomplicatedthanthepictureofone-waytravel towardsEuropethatsometimesemergesfrommedia or policy accounts. Interviews highlightthe complexity of regional, cross-border, frequentlycircular migrations, only a small minority of whichare directed towards an attempted Mediterraneancrossing. Interviews with recently arrived migrants,refugees and asylum-seekers in Malta and Sicilysuggest that Europe is not the intendeddestinationevenformanyofthosewhoeventuallygetthere,atleastwhentheyleavetheirhomes.

Migration projects typically change along theroute. Migrants, refugees and asylum-seekers areencouragedonwardby socialnetworksand spheresof information that have expanded in recent yearsthrough much greater internet access. Patterns of


fragmentedmigrationresultfrompeoplebeingforcedtochangeplansbythesituationsofchronicinsecurity,lackofaccesstohumanrights,suchaslabourrightsorlimitedprotection,whichtheyfindalongtherouteoracross thenearest internationalborder.Althoughmost people have been compelled tomove due topersecution or armed conflict, seeking asylum andprotectionelsewhere,thisresearchhasdocumentedaseriesofabusesofmigrantsthatoccurduringthejourney and further increase the need for humanrightsprotectionevenforthosewhoseinitialmoveswereinsearchoflivelihoodsanddignity.

Researchidentifiedfourmajorriskprofilesofhumanrights abuse during migration across North EastAfrica; although some of these are associated withparticular groups of people, they are not discreteandmayoverlap.Someindividualsmayfacemultiplerisks. These risks relate to root causesofmigration,but individuals face very different proximate andprecipitating factors, which explains why noteveryonewith aparticular profile canorwillmove.These risks are further compoundedbywhat Zettercalled “post-exodus consequences”, since individualvulnerability is likely to increase,orat least change,once individuals leave their country of citizenship.The four riskprofilesareas follows: (1) those facedby Eritrean refugees engaged in onwardmovementfrom the camps in Ethiopia and Sudan; (2) movingwithoutdocumentation;(3)increasedvulnerabilityofunaccompaniedminors;and(4) therisksofblurringbetween processes of smuggling and trafficking,particularlyattheborders.Thissubsectionconsiderstheseinturn.

Althoughallgroupsareatrisk,Eritreanrefugeesareparticularly vulnerable, since return to Eritrea willlikely result in significant mistreatment. With littlehope for the future in Ethiopia, due to the lack ofpossibilities for obtaining citizenship, finding formalemployment or other permanent solutions, onwardmigration stands out as the only feasible optionto improve their lives. A 25-year-old Eritrean mancommented:

AllrefugeesinthecampknowtheproblemsontheroadtoLibya.Butbecauseofthesmallchancesforresettlement everybody will try to go the illegalway.Atthistimeoftheyeartheweatherisgood,somaybeIwillgoafteronemonth.Ifearitalot,butbecauseIhavenootheroptionIhavetogo.TherearelotsofpeopleIknowthathavegone.SomeofmyfriendshavemadeittoEuropeandothershavedied.

The risks en route to Europe are formidable (IOM,2014),butneedtobeconsideredinrelationtothelackof prospects for any improvements and thedespairEritreansfeltinrefugeecamps.ManyEritreanswerewillingtotrytoimprovetheirliveselsewheredespitebeingwellacquaintedwiththerisksonthe journey,andthisplacesthematanadditionalrisk.

The second clear area of risk is the lack of identitydocuments,which is particularly common for thosemovingaroundthisregion.ThepossessionofidentitydocumentsisunusualinEthiopiaandSudan,andthemajorityofasylum-seekerswhoapproachprotectionagencies in Egypt have no official documents(passport, identitycard,birthcertificates)fromtheircountry of origin. In some cases, documents areconfiscatedbysmugglers, lostduringthe journeyordeliberately destroyed. For migrants, refugees andasylum-seekers from Eritrea and Sudan, especiallyDarfur and other conflict-affected areas, however,leaving their country legally is often impossible,becauseauthoritiesdonotissuetraveldocumentstoeveryone in the first place. Someof the informantsfromDarfurand,toalesserextent,NorthernSudan,reportednotbeingawareoftheirexactdateofbirth,which had never been officially registered. The UNHighCommissioner forRefugeesrecognizesthe lackof identity as an additional problem faced bymanyrefugeesandasylum-seekers.

These risks are further compounded for minorstravellingbythemselves.This isthethirdriskprofileidentifiedandonewhichseveralNGOrepresentativesreported was growing. It is increasingly commonfor minors to leave Eritrea before they are forciblyrecruited into the army. While the role of familyis central in the phase preceding the actual travel,once en route, unaccompanied minors often findthemselves feeling confused and unsafe, withoutpoints of references or reliable sources of help.Their journey into Egypt is particularly risky andtraumatizing,tothepointthatthetwounaccompaniedminors interviewed inEgyptreportedhavingdoubtsseveraltimesthattheywouldreachtheirdestinationsafely.Bothofthemexperiencedextremehungerandthirst, aswell as violenceandattempts at extortionby the smugglers. After reaching their destinations,unaccompaniedminorsarelikelytofindemploymentin very precarious and irregular conditions forexample,asdomesticworkers.


Finally, those migrants, refugees and asylum-seekerswho rely on brokers to facilitate or arrangetheir journey are at an additional risk. Although inlegal terms, smuggling and trafficking are distinctprocesses,inpractice,thesecanbeblurred.Anumberofaccountswerereceivedfromindividualswhohadcontacted smugglers to facilitate their journey onlytofindthatlateron,particularlyatbordercrossings,they were sold to traffickers and subsequentlyransomed. Those individuals who were believed tohavefamilymembers inEurope(andthereforehaveeasier access to cash)wereatparticular riskof thisprocess. This interchange between smuggling andtraffickingoperations,wherewhatappearstobethestraightforward facilitation of migration turns intosomethingmuchmoreabusiveandcoercivethanthemigrations,refugeesandasylum-seekerswereinitiallyexpecting.

Conclusion: Policy implications

The utility of the root cause approach is extremelylimited in offering an explanation of why certainpeople move and others do not. It needs to besupplemented with a far more detailed analysisincorporating not only proximate and precipitatingfactors but also intervening factors that facilitateorconstrainmovement. The four riskprofileshighlightthe significance of differentiating root causes. Thisconceptualizationcanhelpexplainwhy,inthecontextof widespread human rights abuse in Eritrea forexample,onlyaminorityofpeopleactuallyleave.

Thesecondimportantdevelopmenttotherootcauseapproach involves conscious focus on neighbouringcountries and countries of first asylum, includingthe onwardmovement of refugees. Addressing theroot causes in the country of origin will have nodirect impactontheir situation,apart fromperhapsencouraging return, which would require a reallydramaticimprovement.Attentiontothepost-exodussituationisparticularlyurgentforthosepeopleonthemovewhoaremostat riskofhumanrightsabuses,linkedtotheirobviousvulnerabilityonthejourney.In its current form, the new European Agenda onMigration does not incorporate this expandedunderstanding of root causes. Rather than broadlyconceived development projects, which are likelyto result in increased migration, new approachescould reflect on how to support smaller groups,such as persecutedminorities or children in dangerof conscription.Aswith development interventions,

policyapproaches thatseekto target theproximateor precipitating factors affecting these groupsshould not be motivated exclusively by a desire toreduce emigration. It is very possible that certaininterventions will actually increase emigration, andin some cases thatmay be the best result, so thatgreater liberalization of movement or more secureprotection in neighbouring Statesmay be themosteffective response. Whatever the specifics of thepolicy approach, it is important that they progresssignificantlybeyondthenotionofstructurallydefinedrootcauses inanalysingboththedetailedcausesofmovementandthepost-exoduscontext.n

This article is a summary of the forthcoming publication by the Mixed Migration Hub and the University of Sussex, “Conditions and Risks of Mixed Migration in North East Africa”. For more information on the Mixed Migration Hub, please see the article by Steve Thorpe in this edition of Migration Policy Practice and visit www.mixedmigrationhub.org/.

References

Ahmed,B.etal.2015 Conditions and Risks of Mixed Migration

in North East Africa. MixedMigrationHub,Cairo(forthcoming).

Betts,A.2009 Protection by Persuasion: International

Cooperation in the Refugee Regime.CornellUniversityPress,IthacaandLondon.

Collyer,M.2007 In between places: Trans-Saharan transit

migrants in Morocco and the fragmentedjourney to Europe. Antipode 39(4):668–690.

Collyer,M.,F.DuvellandH.deHaas(eds.)2012 Critical Approaches to Transit Migration.

SpecialissueofPopulation, Space and Place18(4).

deHaas,H.2005 International migration, remittances and

development:Mythsandfacts.Third World Quarterly 26(8):1269–1284.

EuropeanCommission2015 CommunicationonAEuropeanAgendaon

Migration,COM(2015)240final.

http://www.mixedmigrationhub.org/


InternationalOrganizationforMigration(IOM)2014 Fatal Journeys: Tracking Lives Lost during

Migration.IOM,Geneva.

Richmond,A.1994 Global Apartheid: Refugees, Racism and the

New World Order.OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford.

VanHear,N.1998 New Diasporas. The Mass Exodus, Dispersal

and Regrouping of Migrant Communities.Routledge,London.

Zetter,R.

1988 Refugees, repatriation and root causes.Journal of Refugee Studies1(2):265–282.


Human trafficking and exploitation in times of crisis: Considerations for the Middle East and North Africa region towards bridging the protection gap*

Agnes Tillinac1

Recent reports have shown that specific groups ofpersons,suchasYazidiwomenandchildren,allegedlyranging between 3,500 and 7,000 individuals, havebeen abducted for purposes of sexual exploitation,forced marriage and other slavery-like practiceseitherinIraqorinneighbouringSyrianArabRepublic.In Libya, the absence of rule of law creates a stateof impunity, where traffickers act without fear ofarrestandcondemnations.Asylum-seekers,refugeesand migrants are considered the main targets andthe most vulnerable categories. Among the Syrianrefugeeswhohavefledtheircountry,many familieshave adopted negative coping mechanisms, suchas forced early marriages and child labour, oftenresulting in exploitation, and potentially traffickingasnewsupplychainsopenuptomeetthedemandsfromnewmarkets.

States have a responsibility under international lawto act “with due diligence to prevent trafficking, toinvestigate and prosecute traffickers and to assistandprotecttraffickedpersons”.2However,intimesofcrisis, theStates’ability to respond toawide range

* Thisarticleisdrawnfromanumberofsourcesanddocumentsrecentlyreleased,inparticulartheIOMresearch,Addressing human trafficking and exploitation in times of crisis – Evidence and recommendations for further action to protect vulnerable and mobile populations (International Organization forMigration (IOM), (forthcoming, September 2015); L.Lungarotti, S. Craggs, A. Tillinac, “Trafficking in persons intimes of crisis – A neglected protection concern: the caseof Iraq”, in Humanitarian Exchange Magazine (forthcoming,September 2015), available from www.odihpn.org/humanitarian-exchange-magazine; and the summary reportoftheonlineconsultationeventorganizedon18June2015bytheProfessionals inHumanitarianAssistanceandProtectionoffice(PHAP).

1 AgnesTillinac isa consultantandcounter-traffickingexpert.She has been conducting research for IOM on humantrafficking in times of crisis since November 2014. She hasworked for IOM in a number of conflict and post-conflictsettings,includingduringtheLibyacrisisof2011.

2 “All States, irrespective of their place in the traffickingcycle, have an international legal responsibility to act withdue diligence in preventing trafficking; investigating andprosecuting suspected traffickers; and providing assistanceand protection to those who have been trafficked” –Principle 2, in “Recommended Principles andGuidelines onHumanRightsandHumanTrafficking”,UNOfficeoftheHighCommissionerforHumanRights(OHCHR),May2002.

of identifiedthreats isoftenconstrained. Regardingtrafficking in persons (TIP), the InternationalCommunityevenappearsdivided in itsapproach toacknowledge these severe abuses intimesof crisis;it is often perceived as a low-concern or minorproblem to address. As a result, considering TIPas aphenomenon that couldbeadirect resultof acrisis is largely ignored and therefore overlooked inpreparation of a humanitarian response and in theadaption of operational tools and policies, both atgovernmentalandnon-governmentallevels.Thisgapisofparticularconcerninregions,suchastheMiddleEast and North Africa (MENA), where prolongeddevastatingconflictsexacerbateidentifiedriskfactorsandtraffickingmanifestations.

Human trafficking is a complex crime againsthuman beings; a severe violation of human rights.It is constituted of three key elements: an act(recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouringor receipt of persons), using means of coercion orthreattohavecontroloverapersonforthepurposeofexploitation.Exploitationmay takevarious forms:sexual exploitation, labour exploitation, forcedbegging, organ removal, slavery and slavery-likepractices.Thesethreeelementsneedtobeconnectedtodefinethisphenomenonas trafficking inpersons.Inthecaseofchildren,onlytwo(actandexploitation)outof the threeelementsneed tobepresent tobeabletodefinetrafficking.

Why TIP in times of crisis should be of concern

While indicative information on TIP during timesof conflict and disasters existed, a critical gap wasremainingonthescaleandscopeoftheproblemandtheassociatedneededresponse.Whereoftenscantinformation isavailable,until recently, itwas largelybiasedtowardsattemptingtogainanunderstandingon the trafficking of women and girls for sexualexploitation,overlookingotherformsofexploitation.Inanattempttofillthisgap,theIOMcommissioned,in 2014, a research on trafficking and exploitationin times of crisis to better understand the scope

http://www.odihpn.org/humanitarian-exchange-magazine

http://www.odihpn.org/humanitarian-exchange-magazine


andnatureof thephenomenon.3 Focusingprimarilyon theMENA region, and on Iraq, Libya and SyrianArab Republic in particular, the research highlightsspecific vulnerabilities and risk factors to be takenintoaccountintimesofcrises,analysesparticularitiesof trafficking trends identified in different crisesscenariosandoffersrecommendationstoStates,thehumanitarian community, the UN system and thedonorscommunity.

Extracts of IOM-commissioned research findings4

• Crises are likely tohavean impactonTIP, not justindirectlyaffectedareas,butalsoinregionshostingmigrants,independentlyfromtheirlegalstatusandthenatureofthecrisis;

• Theerosionofruleoflawandinstitutionalbreakdown,development of criminal activities, corruption andinvolvementofofficials,impunityandtheenhancedreliance on negative copingmechanisms and riskysurvivalstrategies,areobservedinmanylarge-scalecrisesandrepresentimportantriskfactorsforTIP;

• At the onset of a crisis, existing criminal networksmay become disembroiled but may also adapt tothenew situation– for example, by targetingnewvictimsinnewplacessuchasrefugeeandinternallydisplacedpersons (IDP)campsor localpopulationshostinghighnumbersofmobilepopulations;

• Traffickersmayseektotakeadvantageofpopulationsreceivinghumanitarianassistance to increase theircriminalactivitiesthroughfraudulentandultimatelyexploitative opportunities of employment oronwardsmigration;

• Independentfromthetypeofcrisis,IDPandrefugeecamps are breeding grounds of new victims fortraffickersandothercriminalnetworkslookingforacheapor freeworkforce,sexual servicesandotherexploitativeservices;

• The general lack of economic opportunities andincreasingrelianceonnegativecopingmechanismscan translate, in some cases, into heightenedvulnerability to TIP among affected populations.Positions of vulnerability may be abused, whiletraffickerstakeadvantageofthedesperateeconomicandsocialconditionsoftheaffectedpopulation;

3 While the research paper is expected to be released inSeptember, a briefing document is already available forconsultation online: Addressing human trafficking and exploitation in times of crisis – Evidence and recommendations for further action to protect vulnerable and mobile populations(IOM,Geneva,July2015),availablefromwww.iom.int/sites/default/files/press_release/file/CT_in_Crisis_FINAL.pdf

4 Ibid.

• Traditionalharmfulpractices,suchasearlymarriage,areincreasingduringcrisissettingsandsomemightleadtotrafficking;

• The absence of protection or immediate solutionsincrease exposure to trafficking, particularly inprotractedsettings;

• Otheraggravatingfactorsrelatedtodiscrimination,whether gender-based, ethnic, racial, religious,social,inthecommunitiesoratnationallevel.

• All these risk factors can be observed across theMENA region, where trafficking may amount,in several cases, to war crime and crime againsthumanityasperpetratedbypartiestoconflict.

Why human trafficking has been overlooked in crisis situations so far5

Sowhy,despitethesestronginterlinksanddevastatingeffects, does human trafficking remain so poorlyaddressed in times of crisis in general, and in theMENAregioninparticular?

Several reasons can be put forward to justify thisbreach in the humanitarian response, such as thecomplexity of the phenomenon, with no clearboundaries in the definition, the absence of anti-trafficking legislation in many States, or the lackof enforcement are someof them. TIP is alsooftenquestioned. Is trafficking actually happening?Whilethe humanitarian community reached a consensuson assuming that gender-based violence (GBV)was not only happening in crisis setting, but alsoincreasing, much remains to be done towards TIPunderstanding and counter-trafficking integration inemergencyresponse.Inthisregard,theissuesoftheidentification of victims, the documentation of thecases and the relevant reporting mechanisms is ofparticularinterest.Traffickingisbothacomplexcrimeandahiddenphenomenon.Intheabsenceofproperidentificationofvictims,itthenbecomesachallengetobringtheevidenceofitsexistenceincrisissettings,anditsscale.Withnodedicatedreportingmechanism,counter-trafficking is rather mainstreamed withinotherprotectionareasofconcern,thoughthelackofawarenessusuallyhamperstheprocess.

5 On this issue, see also L. Lungarotti, S. Craggs, A. Tillinac,“Trafficking in persons in times of crisis – A neglectedprotection concern: the case of Iraq”, in Humanitarian Exchange Magazine(forthcoming,September2015).

http://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/press_release/file/CT_in_Crisis_FINAL.pdf

http://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/press_release/file/CT_in_Crisis_FINAL.pdf


Notalways identified,documentedand investigatedproperly in the field, TIP in times of crisis is also avery little documented issue by researchers andacademics in comparisonwithother serioushumanrightsviolations.6Crisissituationsneverofferoptimalconditionsforresearchanddocumentation.Resourcesarescarce,andenvironmentsarechallenging.Priorityis rightlygivento life-savingactions.However,moreshouldbedonetoaddressthisimportantknowledgegap.

Moving forward: A shared responsibility

A number of policy options and solutions couldthereforeberecommended.Firstofall,tolaunchanappropriateresponsetoTIPincrises,TIPshouldgainrecognitionasaphenomenon interrelated tocrises,notonlyasasideeffect.Consequently,humanitarianresponses in crises would have to be adapted toencompass the full reality of human traffickingand exploitation, as well as avoid leaving forms oftrafficking unaddressed and victims unassisted. Inpractice,thiswouldmeanasafirststepthatcapacity-building efforts towards humanitarian practitionersand targeted awareness-raising initiatives shouldbe implemented to make sure the phenomenon isunderstood by front-line workers and other fieldpractitioners.

Itwouldalsomeantheadaptationofexistingreportingmechanismsusedinemergencysettings,suchasUNreports on sexual violence againstwomen and girlsinarmedconflicts,or theMonitoringandReportingMechanism on serious violations against childrento better reflect on trafficking and exploitationmanifestationsintimesofcrisis.Similarly,informationmanagementtoolsshouldbeconsolidatedtoenablesystematic documentation of TIP manifestations.While the GBV Information Management Systemand the Child Protection offer this opportunity intheir respectivedesign, inpractice, thequalificationof trafficking victim is often put aside, leaving thishuman rights violation under-reported. As regardsmale victims or other forms of trafficking, such asTIPforthepurposeoforganremoval,theabsenceofdedicated tool within the international communityresponsehamperallattemptsofdocumentationand

6 However, a number of researches have been recentlycommissioned by different actors (UN, NGOs, universities,donors)on the issue. Such initiatives shouldbeencouragedandfurtherdeveloped.

consolidated analysis. In addition, specialized NGOsand organizations involved in direct assistance tovictims,safesheltersandotherservicesusuallykeeptheir own records outside the cluster mechanismsdue to a number of reasons, in particular relatedto security and safety. Other actors, considered asdevelopment ones, may lack awareness regardinghumanitarianinterventionsandspecificmechanisms,andhencedonotusuallyparticipateintheresponse.A consolidated or more consistent TIP informationmanagement system matching security and safetyset standards would help humanitarian and policyworkers to get abetterpictureof theextentof thephenomenon,itsdifferentforms,andhence,facilitateanenhancedresponse.

Finally, counter-trafficking strategies should besystematicallypartoftheoverallprotectionapproachimplementedduringemergencies.ProtectionofIDPs,refugees, vulnerable migrants and other affectedpopulations against exploitation and trafficking intimes of crisis should be accordingly reflected inprotectionclusters’ strategies. Inaddition,basedoneachsetting,particularityaspecificworkinggroupinchargeofcoordinatingcounter-traffickingactivities,inparticularpreventionandmitigationmeasures,wouldbe recommended.Thespecificitiesof the traffickingcrime, its complexity, the profile of stakeholdersinvolved in counter-trafficking, the special needs ofthevictimsrequireparticularattentionandspecializedapproachtoensureprotectionstandardsaremet.Inanattempt to raiseawarenessonTIP intimesofcrisis and recommended actions, the UN SpecialRapporteur on trafficking in persons, especiallywomen and children, IOM and Caritas recentlybroughttheissuetoanumberofinternationalforums,includingduring the29thUNHumanRightsCouncilandinongoingconsultationsintheframeofthe2016World Humanitarian Summit.7 Conscious that a lotremainstobedonetoproperlyaddressTIPintimesofcrisis,andthattheresponsetoTIPwillhavetobeashared,collectiveone,theseeventsofferedimportantplatforms to advocate for the incorporation ofcounter-traffickingstrategieswithintheInternationalandHumanitarianCommunityresponses.n

7 Summaryreportoftheonlineconsultationeventorganizedon18June2015bytheProfessionalsinHumanitarianAssistanceandProtectionoffice(PHAP).


Selected best practice: The Mixed Migration Task Forces along the Eastern and North African migratory roads

Despite the overall response gap, the IOM research allowed to identify a number of good practices in terms of counter-trafficking activities in crisis settings. The case study below is one of them.

Basedontheimportantneedsobservedintheregionandfollowingthecontinuousflowofmigrantsanddeteriorationofthemigrationconditions,theInternationalCommunitydecidedtomobilizeitsresourcestogetbetterunderstandingofthedynamics,migrationtrendsandrootcausesaffectingcountriesintheregion,andprovidecoordinatedrights-basedoperational responses in the field. A number of nationalMixedMigration Task Forces (MMTF) forcesweredevelopedduringthelastdecade,suchasSomalia(2007)andYemen(2008),withUNHCRandIOMactingasco-chairs.Thestrongprotectioncomponent,theoverallauspicesoftheInter-AgencyStandingCommitteeProtectionCluster,theinter-agencyapproachandtheinclusionofvictimsoftraffickingamongtheprioritiesmaketheseMMTFgoodpractices.

In2011, inordertoaddressoverall regionalmigrationand identifyasylumchallenges,aRegionalMixedMigrationSecretariat (RMMS)was thenestablished, followedbyanother regionalplatform, theMMTFNOAH(NorthAfrica).Throughinnovativeresearchandknowledgemanagementactivities,aswellasfacilitationofinter-agencycollaboration,theseregionalMMTFaimsatpromotingahumanrights-basedapproachtoensuretheprotectionofpeoplemovinginmixedandcomplexflowsalongtheNorth/EastAfricanmigratoryroutes.TheRegionalMMTFcoreteamincludestheDanishRefugeeCouncil,UNHCR,OHCHRandIOM.

Thesestructuresareprovingtobefoundationalinensuringevidence-basedandtimelyresponsestoongoingcrisesinLibya,Yemenandacrosstheregioninrelationtothenexusbetweenhumantrafficking,crisisandmigrantprotection.

“Protection of IDPs, refugees, vulnerable migrants and other

affected populations against exploitation and trafficking

in times of crisis should be accordingly reflected in

protection clusters’ strategies.”


HumanmobilityinNorthAfricaischaracterizedby complex movements originating withinthe region, as well as other parts of Africa

andtheMiddleEast.Theseinvolvebothregularandirregular migrants, such as those escaping povertyanddiscriminationandotherhumanrightsviolations,those in search of a more dignified life and betteropportunities, refugees and asylum-seekers, andthose looking to reunite with family abroad. Someare smuggled migrants, others become victims oftrafficking, both of which include unaccompaniedminors.Addressingtherightsandneedsofvulnerablemigrants inthesemixedandcomplexflowsrequirescoordinatedeffortbykeyactorsandinsight intothecircumstancesofthesemovements.

TheMixedMigration Hub (MHub) works on behalfof the North African Mixed Migration Task Forceconsisting of the Danish Refugee Council, theInternational Organization for Migration, the Officeof the High Commissioner for Human Rights, theRegional Mixed Migration Secretariat (Nairobi), theUN High Commissioner for Refugees and the UNOfficeonDrugsandCrime.TheTaskForcepromotesa human rights-based approach to ensuring theprotection of peoplemoving inmixed and complexflows to, throughand fromNorthAfricaand fosterscollaborativeapproachesamongkeystakeholders.

MHub provides the secretariat for the North AfricaMixedMigrationTaskForcewithaviewto:

• Pooling expertise:NorthAfricaMixedMigrationTaskForcemembersregularlysharetheirexpertiseand identifygoodpracticesand lessons learned.MHubcollects thisexpertiseanddisseminates itthroughitsinformationchannels.

• Disseminating innovative and good practices:MHub and the North Africa Mixed MigrationTask Forcemembers share lessons learnedwithgovernments and concerned actors to promoteprotectionof thehumanrightsofpeopleonthemove.

The North Africa Mixed Migration Task Force and the Mixed Migration HubSteve Thorpe1

• Establishing priority areas for cooperation and potential joint programme responses: Exchangeand cooperation among members of the NorthAfrica Mixed Migration Task Force and withnational governments, interregional bodies andotherUNagenciescanpromotesynergies,definenewinterventionsandminimizeduplication.

• Advocacy:MHubprovidesacollectivemeansforTask Forcemembers to highlight pressing policyandprogrammaticconcerns.

MHub isalsoago-toplace forknowledge,dataandresearch.MHub collects, analyses and disseminatesrelevant data among North Africa Mixed MigrationTaskForcemembersand concerned stakeholders. Itproducesamonthlymigrationtrendbulletincoveringmixed migration issues in the region. These trendbulletinsbringtogetherinformationfromawiderangeof sources, such as national government statistics,internationalorganizations,NGOsandthemedia.

MHub produces innovative research. In July 2015,MHublauncheditsfirstresearchpublicationDetained Youth: the fate of young migrants, asylum seekers and refugees in Libya today, which looked into theconditionsofyoungmigrantsexperiencingdetentionin Libya today. This study demonstrated that asignificant number of migrants transiting throughLibya experienceddetentionat somepoint on theirjourney, in which beatings and appalling conditionswere widespread. Release was often secured onlywhenlargepaymentsweremadetoguards.Noneofthe 45 interviewees said they had access to a legalprocess, nor were they informed of their rights orgivenaccesstoalawyer.

A forthcoming study in partnership with SussexUniversity, titled Conditions and Risks of Mixed Migration in North East Africa, looks in detail atmigration patterns in Egypt, Ethiopia and Sudanfocusing on the experiences of people who are onthe move. This study finds that a lack of safe andregular migration opportunities drives migrationunderground, far too often resulting in humanrightsviolationsandabusesduringthejourney.Thisstudy identifies fourmajor protections issues. First,1 SteveThorpeistheResearchandDataAnalystfortheMixed

MigrationHub.HeisbasedinCairo.

http://www.mixedmigrationhub.org/mixed-migration-trends/monthly-trend-bulletins/

http://www.mixedmigrationhub.org/resources/mmtf-noah-research/




onwardmovementof refugeesarises froma lackofprotection,butalsocreates furtherprotection risks.Second,smugglingactivitiesmayquicklydevelopintotrafficking once the journey has begun due to thepracticeof individualsbeingpassed fromonegrouptoanother.Third, thecommon lackof identificationdocuments increases vulnerability when in contactwithaStateofficial,ofteninvolvinglegallysanctionedpunitive measures, such as detention and evendeportation. Finally, the growing population ofunaccompaniedminors making these journeys facegreater risks in comparison to other groups due totheir vulnerability. (For more detail, see article byMichaelCollyeretal.inthisissueofMPP.)

Inthecomingmonths,MHubwilllaunchtheMigrantFootprints database and visualization tool. This toolgathers statistics on migration routes and trendsin the region from various sources and makes thisinformationavailableusingdynamicdatavisualizationtechniques and interactive maps, providing anintuitiveandaccessibleplatformfordatasharing.n

Formoreinformation,visitthewebsitewww.mixedmigrationhub.orgContact:Steve Thorpe [email protected]

Detained Youth: The fate of young migrants, asylum-seekers and refugees in Libya today, July 2015

Thisstudypaintsadamningpictureof the immigrationdetentionofyoungmigrants,asylum-seekersandrefugeesinLibyatoday.Basedonin-depthinterviewswith45formerdetainees(85%ofwhomwereunaccompaniedchildrenoryoungpeople),thestudyrevealsaconsistentpatternofarbitrarydetention;ofpeopleheldformonthsatatimewithout any formofdueprocess in squalid, cramped conditions.Detentionoccurs in facilities across the country,manyofwhicharereportedtobeunderthecontrolofthegoverningauthoritiesormilitiaforces.Seriousviolations,includingallegationsofviolenceandbrutality,aresaidtobecommonplace, includinginsomeofLibya’smostwell-knowndetentioncentres.

Asthefirststudyofitskindtoassesstheparticularplightofdetainedrefugee,asylum-seekingandmigrantchildrenandyouthinLibya’simmigrationdetentioncentres,itprovidestimelyinformationaboutthecurrentsituationinthecountry.Therighttolibertyandfreedomfromarbitrarydetentionisamongthemostfundamentalofrightsbelongingtoallhumanbeings,anditsconsistentdenial,especiallytovulnerableminorsandyoungpeople,isamatterofthegravestconcern.TheabsenceofahumaneandorderlyframeworkforhandlingmigrationflowsinLibyaisnodoubtacontributingfactortotheeverincreasingnumbersofmigrants,asylum-seekersandrefugeeswillingtorisktheirlivesintheMediterraneantoreachthesafetyofEurope.

(Availableatwww.mixedmigrationhub.org/resources/mmtf-noah-research/)

http://www.mixedmigrationhub.org

mailto:steve.thorpe%40mixedmigrationhub.org?subject=



Migration research in the Middle East and North Africa: An overview of recent and forthcoming publications

IOM Middle East and North Africa 2014 Annual Report

The2014annualreportonIOM’seffortsintheMiddleEast and North Africa (MENA) reflects the areas ofworkcarriedoutbytheorganizationwithintheregion.Thereportalso includesadataanalysissectionthatpresentsacomprehensivebreakdownofpersonswhohavebefittedfromIOMactivities intheMiddleEastandNorthAfricain2014.

MENA Migration Blog

Hosted by IOMMENA, this blog provides a flexiblespacefordiscussionanddebatebetweenacademics,practitioners, journalists and students. In additionto being open to contributions, the blog maintainsa resource center for upcoming events and recentpublicationsregardingmigrationinMENA.

Migration Trends Across the Mediterranean: Connecting the Dots

ConductedbyAltaiConsultingforIOM,andbasedonuniqueandin-depthqualitativeresearchincountriesalongtheWesternandCentralMediterraneanroutes,the study adds new insights to the ongoing debateovermigrationacrosstheMediterranean.

Detained Youth: The Fate of Young Migrants, Asylum Seekers and Refugees in Libya Today

AnewstudybyAsmitaNaikfortheMixedMigrationHub (MHub) reveals a consistent pattern of youngmigrants, refugees and asylum-seekers held inarbitrarydetentioninsqualid,crampedconditionsformonthsat atimewithoutany formofdueprocess.The study explores the experiences of detention ofyoungmigrants,refugeesandasylum-seekersinLibyabetweenNovember2012andNovember2014.

http://publications.iom.int/bookstore/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=41_7&products_id=1505


http://menamigration.com/






1A Livelihoods Assessment of Lebanese Returnees

REFUGEES AT HOME A LIVELIHOODS ASSESSMENT

OF LEBANESE RETURNEES FROM SYRIA

November 2014

Refugees at Home: A Livelihoods Assessment of Lebanese Returnees from Syria

DisplacedfromresidencyintheSyrianArabRepublic,LebanesereturneesshouldhaveequalaccesstotheLebanese labour market and public services, butoften lack the support of humanitarian assistance,theLebanesegovernment,friendsandfamily,andinthesamewayasrefugees.Returneesremain,onthewhole,anunder-assistedgroup.

Assessment of Priorities for the Development of Libya’s Migration Policy: A Strategic Vision

Thisassessmentreportsupportseffortstodevelopadomesticmigrationpolicy for Libyaandprovidesanoverview of key migration challenges facing Libya,aswellassuggestshowthesemightbemetthroughgovernmentaction.

Pilot Project: Assessment and Strategy Development to Respond to Sea Level Rise on Human Mobility in Abu Qir, Egypt

This report outlines the results of research andactivitiesassessingtheimpactsofsealevelriseonAbuQir,andcontainsconclusionsand recommendationsonpolicyandpracticaloptionstocounterthenegativeeffectsofsealevelrise.

Ongoing Displacement: A Profile of Iraq 2013–2014

Ongoing Displacement profiles the displacementtrends, living conditions, needs and intentions ofpopulations that have been displaced in Iraq since2013.Throughaseriesofhouseholdquestionnaires,focus group discussions, as well as supplementarydata from IOM’s Displacement TrackingMatrix, thisreportshowshowthemostrecentcriseshaveaffectedinternaldisplacementinIraq.

https://www.iom.int/files/live/sites/iom/files/Country/docs/IOM-Lebanon-LH-Assessment-November-2014.pdf

https://www.iom.int/files/live/sites/iom/files/Country/docs/IOM-Lebanon-LH-Assessment-November-2014.pdf



http://iomiraq.net/reports/ongoing-displacement-profile-iraq-2013-2014

http://iomiraq.net/reports/ongoing-displacement-profile-iraq-2013-2014


Pilot Study: Ethiopian Migrant Labourers on Qat Farms in Rada’, Yemen

This research investigates the alleged situation ofEthiopianmigrantlabourersbeingforcedtoworkonqatfarmsinRada’Governorate,Yemen,andoffersalistofrecommendationstotakeactionandstrengthenthe response against labour exploitation, humantraffickingandmigrantsmuggling.

Pilot Study: Tourist Marriage in Yemen

Thispublicationassessesthephenomenonoftouristmarriage and explores the economic and socialdimensions and consequences of tourist marriage,highlights its impact on young Yemeni females andtheirfamiliesandidentifieshowtouristmarriageisaformofhumantrafficking.

Conditions and Risks of Mixed Migration in North East Africa (forthcoming)

Examining themigration patterns in Egypt, EthiopiaandSudanwithafocusontheexperiencesofpeoplewhoareonthemove,newinsightsaregainedintotheoften complex, multistage and non-linearmigrationjourneys, as well as the protection challengesfaced along theway. The studywas carriedout byresearchersoftheUniversityofSussexcommissionedbyMHub.

First Situation Report on International Migration in the Arab Region: Migration, Displacement and Development in a Changing Arab Region (forthcoming)

Thefirstofitskind,thisreportprovidesacomprehensiveoverviewofmigrationintheArabregion.Itcompilesup-to-date data on contemporarymigration trends,highlights themost important developments in theregion in numerous areas ofmigration governance,and in a thematic chapter, analyses the nature andeffectsofthedifferentkindsofforcedmigrationintheArab region and its consequences for development.The report is theproductof thecollaborationof15organizations that have come together under theumbrella of the Working Group on InternationalMigrationintheArabregionundertheleadershipoftheUNEconomicandSocialCommissionforWesternAfrica,theLeagueofArabStatesandIOM.Theworkwassupportedbyseveralinternationalexperts.

Returning Yemeni Migrants from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Analysis of the Character of Yemeni Irregular Migrants in Saudi Arabia and Potential Impacts / Implications of Large Scale Return (forthcoming)

ThischapteraimstoshedsomelightonthehistoricalpatternsoflabourmobilityfromYementoSaudiArabiaand the effects of this phenomenon in both YemenandSaudiArabia.ItexploresthepossibleimplicationsoftherecentNitaqat labourpolicychanges inSaudiArabia for Yemeni and host communities in SaudiArabia,aswellasforreturningworkers,theirfamilies,andcommunitiesoforigininYemen.



http://publications.iom.int/bookstore/free/Tourist_Marriage_Yemen.pdf


Publications

Mapping of Nigerian Health and Education Professionals in South Africa2014/60pagesEnglishAvailableforPDFdownload

ThetrendofNigeriansmigratingtoSouthAfricahasbeen increasing over time and indications are thatthisisstillcontinuing.Theincreasingmigrationtrendhascreatedanopportunity toharness thepotentialresources of this group. This mapping exercise wasconducted to provide information on the NigeriandiasporaworkinginthehealthandeducationsectorsinSouthAfrica,aswellas to identifythosewhoarewillingtoinvestorcontributetheirskillstowardsthedevelopmentofNigeria.

Dialogue International Sur La Migration N°24 - Migration et Famille2014/108pagesFrenchISSN1726-4030ISBN978-92-906AvailableforPDFdownload

Dialogo Internacional Sobre La Migración N°24 - Migración y Familias2014/108pagesSpanishISSN1726-4049ISBN978-92-906AvailableforPDFdownload

This publication contains the report andsupplementary materials about the workshop onmigration and families, which was held in Geneva,Switzerland, on 7 and 8 October 2014, within theframeworkoftheInternationalDialogueonMigration(IDM).Theworkshopwasthesecondinaseriesoftwoworkshopsorganized in2014under theoverarchingtheme,“MigrationHumanMobilityandDevelopment:Emerging Trends and New Opportunities forPartnerships”. It focusedonfamilymigrationandonthe differential and challenging impact ofmigrationon the family unit and its members, and offeredpolicymakers and practitioners an opportunity toshowcase and exchange policies, cooperation andpartnership frameworks, and lessons learned. Theworkshop also discussed practical solutions at theregional,nationalandinternationallevelstorespondto the challenges that migrant families and theirmembersarefacing.


http://publications.iom.int/bookstore/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=55&products_id=1519



Migration in Malawi: A Country Profile 20142015/120pagesEnglishAvailableforPDFdownload

ThisbookexploresmigrationinMalawianddiscussesthemostrecenttrendsinthenumbersandtypesofmigrants,irregularmigration,Malawiandiasporaandremittanceflows.

Migration in Kenya: A Country Profile 20152015/201pagesEnglishAvailableforPDFdownload

Migration in Kenya: A Country Profile provides anoverview of Kenya’smigration data, trends and thecountry’slegalframeworkandgovernancestructuresastheypertaintomigration.Thereportalsodescribesthe impact of migration on the country’s health,environment and socioeconomic development. Thereport can be considered a first step towards anintegratedandeffectivemigrationdatamanagementframework for the country. The migration profilingexercise was undertaken at the request of theGovernment of Kenya, through the Departmentof Immigration, and with funding from the IOMDevelopmentFund.




Assessment of Data Collection and Statistics on International Migration in LibyaEnglish

Screening Chest X-Ray Interpretations and Radiographic TechniquesEnglish

10 Years in Myanmar (2005–2014)English

Mapping of Basotho Health-care Professionals in the United KingdomEnglish

World Migration Report 2015Migrants and Cities: New Partnerships to Manage MobilityEnglish,French,Spanish

Beyond Goudou Goudou: Portraits of RecoveryEnglish

Assessmen

t of DAtA Co

lleCtion An

D stAtistiCs on in

ternAtio

nAl m

igrAtion in libyA

ASSESSMENT OF DATA COLLECTION AND STATISTICS

ON INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION IN LIBYA

YEARS INMYANMAR(2005–2014)

10

1MAPPING OF BASOTHO HEALTH-CARE PROFESSIONALS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

MAPPING OF BASOTHO HEALTH-CARE PROFESSIONALS

IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

International Organization for Migration (IOM)

International Organization for Migration (IOM)

2015

WORLDMIGRATION

REPORT

Migrants and Cities: New Partnerships to Manage Mobility

PORTRAITS OF RECOVERYBeyond Goudou Goudou:

IOM OIM

Forthcoming


MPP Readers’ Survey

Migration Policy Practice (MPP) waslaunchedthreeyearsagoandtheeditorswouldnowliketoinvitereaderstospareacoupleofminutestoparticipateinashortreaders’satisfactionsurvey.

Thepurposeofthissurvey,whichcanbetakenanonymously,istohelpusidentifyourreaders’profiles,theinstitutionstheyrepresentandtheirprimaryinterestsinourjournal.Thesurvey’sresponseswillcontribute,inparticular,toadjustingandimproving,asappropriate,MPP’scontentandstyle,andthusthereader’sexperience.

Shouldyouwishtoparticipateinthissurvey,pleaseclick here.

Thankyou.

Promoting the Health of Left-Behind Children of Asian Labour Migrants: Evidence for Policy and Action2015/12pagesEnglish

Despite the political discourse onmigration becoming an important issue intheglobal developmentagenda, themental andphysical health implicationsfor left-behind childrenofmigrantworkers have received less attention. Thecurrent evidence base on the health impacts of labour migration, both formigrantsandtheirfamilies,alsoremainsweak.Thehealthimpactonfamiliesleftbehindisespeciallysalientforthemajorityoflabour-sendingnationsthatmaylackadequateresourcestorespondtobroadpublichealthoutcomeslinkedtoincreasedmigrationanditscascadingreverseimpact.

InPromoting the Health of Left-behind Children of Asian Labour Migrants: Evidence for Policy and Action,authorsKolithaWickramage,ChesmalSiriwardhanaandSharikaPeirisexploreempiricalevidenceonthementalhealthandnutritionalimpactsofinternationallabourmigrationontheleft-behindchildrenofmigrantworkersinAsia.Tomitigatethesehealth-relatedrisksforleft-behindchildren,theauthorsdescribeapossiblemulti-dimensionalinterventionalframeworkthatcountriescanadopt.

Issue In BrIefA Joint Series of the IOM Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific and the Migration Policy Institute

Promoting the Health of Left-Behind Children of Asian Labour Migrants: Evidence for Policy

and Action Kolitha Wickramage, Chesmal Siriwardhana and Sharika Peiris

September 2015

Executive SummaryDespite the political discourse on migration becoming an important issue in the global development agenda, the mental and physical health implications for left-behind children of migrant workers have received less attention. And the current evidence base on the health impacts of labour migration, both for migrants and their families, remains weak. The health impact on families left behind is especially salient for the majority of labour-sending nations, which are mostly low- and middle-income countries that lack adequate resources to respond to broad public health outcomes linked to increased migration and its cascading reverse impact. Changing demographics and shifting epidemiological profiles of disease can compound changes brought on by increased international migration in labour-sending countries. International labour migration, despite its remittance-related and other benefits, can also at times create a negative influence on health, break down family and social cohesion and increase the burden on health systems. This Issue in Brief explores empirical evidence on the mental health and nutritional impacts of international labour migration on the left-behind children of migrant workers in Asia. Current evidence from Asian countries (Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam) shows both negative and positive influences from parental migration on the mental health and nutritional status of such children. Results from a nationally representative study from Sri Lanka, however, suggest that socio-emotional maladjustment and behavioural problems occur among children in the absence of a migrant worker parent, with two in every five shown to have mental disorders. In addition, left-behind children were shown to have higher levels of nutritional deficits compared to non-migrant children. Acceptance by communities of the normalcy of transnational migrant worker families and of transnational parenting may act as a determinant in reducing vulnerability and enabling resiliency among children whose parents are absent owing to migration. Mental health or nutritional issues arising as a consequence of parental separation through migration may be less traumatic if the migration experience is shared collectively, normalized within social/family structures and adequate support systems are in place, allowing children to develop along adaptive trajectories. Balancing human rights (for instance, the right of a single mother to migrate) with the health and social protection needs of left-behind children and their caregivers (especially elderly ones, such as grandparents) is a critical challenge. In the context of remittance-dependent economies, such challenges form formidable policy tasks for governments (and international agencies) seeking to better manage migration for development and poverty alleviation. This brief describes a possible interventional framework that could be adapted by countries to mitigate health-related risks for left-behind children. This multidimensional intervention framework proposes active engagement from governments, the labour-migration industry, private-sector partners, civil society, academia and migrant worker families themselves.

SEPTEMBER 2015 ISSuE NO. 14

https://www.surveymonkey.com/s/J3M7PS5


Call for authors/Submission guidelines

SinceitslaunchinOctober2011,Migration Policy Practice haspublishedover110articlesbyseniorpolicymakersanddistinguishedmigrationpolicyexpertsfromallovertheworld.

Past authors have included, inter alia:

Eric Adja, Director General of the International Migrants Remittances Observatory (IMRO) andSpecial Adviser to the President of Benin; John K. Bingham, Global Coordinator of civil societyactivities intheUnitedNationsHigh-levelDialogueonInternationalMigrationandDevelopmentandtheGlobalForumonMigrationandDevelopment;Ambassador Eva Åkerman Börje,ChairoftheGFMD2013-2014;Mark Cully,ChiefEconomistattheAustralianDepartmentofImmigrationandBorderProtection;António Guterres,UnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugees;Khalid Koser,ChairoftheWorldEconomicForumGlobalAgendaCouncilonMigration;Khalid Malik,DirectoroftheHumanDevelopmentReportOffice,UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP);Cecilia Mamlström,EUCommissioner forHomeAffairs;Ali Mansoor,Chairof theGFMD2012;Andrew Middleton,DirectorofCulture,RecreationandMigrantStatistics,AustralianBureauofStatistics;Najat Maalla M’Jid,UnitedNationsSpecialRapporteuronthesaleofchildren,childprostitutionandchildpornography;Robert A. Mocny,DirectorofUS-VISIT,USDepartmentofHomelandSecurity;Imelda M. Nicolas,SecretaryoftheCommissiononFilipinosOverseas(CFO),OfficeofthePresidentof the Philippines; Ignacio Packer, Secretary General of the Terre des Hommes InternationalFederation; Kelly Ryan (CoordinatoroftheIntergovernmentalConsultationsonMigration,AsylumandRefugees–IGC,Geneva);Martin Schulz,PresidentoftheEuropeanParliament;David Smith,DirectorofSurveysandReporting,AustralianDepartmentofImmigrationandBorderProtection;Sir Peter D. Sutherland,SpecialRepresentativeoftheUNSecretary-GeneralforMigration; Ambassador William Lacy Swing,DirectorGeneraloftheInternationalOrganizationforMigration(IOM);Myria Vassiliadou, EU Anti-Trafficking Coordinator, European Commission; Catherine Wiesner, DeputyAssistantSecretaryofState,BureauofPopulation,RefugeesandMigration,USDepartmentofState.

Migration Policy Practice welcomes submissions from policymakers worldwide. As a general rule, articles should:

•Notexceedfivepagesandbewritteninanon-academicandreader-friendlystyle.

•Coveranyareaofmigrationpolicybutdiscuss,asfaraspossible,particularsolutions,policyoptionsorbestpracticerelatingtothethemescovered.

•Provide, as often as applicable, lessons that can be replicated or adapted by relevant publicadministrations,orcivilsociety,inothercountries.

Articlesgivingaccountofevaluationsofspecificmigrationpoliciesandinterventions,includingbothevaluationfindingsandinnovativeevaluationmethodologies,areparticularlywelcome.

To discuss any aspect of the journal, or to submit an article, please contact:

• Solon Ardittis([email protected]);and

• Dr Frank Laczko([email protected])

mailto:sardittis%40eurasylum.org?subject=

mailto:flaczko%40iom.int?subject=

migration policy practice

Documents