MIGRATION

Lower Six

What Migrants SeekWhat Migrants Seek

Most people Most people migrate in migrate in search of three search of three objectives: objectives: economic economic

opportunity opportunity cultural freedom cultural freedom environmental environmental

comfort. comfort.

Net MigrationNet Migration

The subject of this chapter is a The subject of this chapter is a specific type of relocation diffusion specific type of relocation diffusion called migration, which is a called migration, which is a permanent move to a new location. permanent move to a new location. Emigration is migration from a location Emigration is migration from a location Immigration is migration to a location. Immigration is migration to a location. The difference between the number of The difference between the number of

immigrants and the number of immigrants and the number of emigrants is the net migration. emigrants is the net migration.

Migration and CirculationMigration and Circulation MigrationMigration is a form is a form

of mobility, which is a of mobility, which is a more general term more general term covering all types of covering all types of movements from one movements from one place to another. place to another.

Short-term, Short-term, repetitive, or cyclical repetitive, or cyclical movements that movements that recur on a regular recur on a regular basis, such as daily, basis, such as daily, monthly, or annually, monthly, or annually, are called are called circulationcirculation. .

Global Migration PatternsGlobal Migration Patterns Most people Most people

migrate for migrate for economic economic reasons. reasons.

Cultural and Cultural and environmentenvironmental factors al factors also induce also induce migration, migration, although not although not as as frequently frequently as economic as economic factors.factors.

Fig. 3-2: The major flows of migration are from less developed to more developed countries.

Ravenstein’s LawsRavenstein’s Laws Geography has no Geography has no

comprehensive theory of comprehensive theory of migration, although a migration, although a nineteenth-century essay of nineteenth-century essay of 11 migration “laws” written 11 migration “laws” written by E. G. Ravenstein is the by E. G. Ravenstein is the basis for contemporary basis for contemporary migration studies. migration studies.

Ravenstein’s “laws” can be Ravenstein’s “laws” can be organized into three groups: organized into three groups: reasons reasons distance distance migrant characteristics migrant characteristics

Issue 1:Issue 1: Why People MigrateWhy People Migrate Reasons for migrating Reasons for migrating

Push and pull factorsPush and pull factors • • EconomicEconomic • Cultural • Cultural • • Environmental Environmental

– – Intervening obstacles Intervening obstacles

Distance of migration Distance of migration Internal migration Internal migration International migrationInternational migration

Characteristics of migrants Characteristics of migrants Gender Gender Family statusFamily status

Push – Pull FactorsPush – Pull Factors People decide to People decide to

migrate because of migrate because of push factors and pull push factors and pull factors. factors. A push factor induces A push factor induces

people to move out of people to move out of their present location their present location

A pull factor induces A pull factor induces people to move into a people to move into a new location. new location.

Both push and pull Both push and pull factors typically play a factors typically play a role in human role in human migration.migration.

Three Types of Push-PullThree Types of Push-Pull

We can We can identify 3 identify 3 major kinds of major kinds of push and pull push and pull factors: factors: Economic Economic Cultural Cultural EnvironmentalEnvironmental

Economic Push and Pull Factors Economic Push and Pull Factors

Most people migrate for economic reasons. Most people migrate for economic reasons. The relative attractiveness of a region can shift The relative attractiveness of a region can shift

with economic change.with economic change.

Cultural Push and Pull Factors Cultural Push and Pull Factors

Forced Forced international international migration has migration has historically historically occurred for occurred for two main two main reasons: reasons: Slavery Slavery Political Political

instabilityinstability

Environmental Push and Pull Factors Environmental Push and Pull Factors

People also migrate for People also migrate for environmental reasons, pulled environmental reasons, pulled toward physically attractive toward physically attractive regions and pushed from regions and pushed from hazardous ones. hazardous ones.

Attractive environments for Attractive environments for migrants include mountains, migrants include mountains, seasides, and warm climates. seasides, and warm climates.

Migrants are also pushed from Migrants are also pushed from their homes by adverse their homes by adverse physical conditions. physical conditions.

Water—either too much or too Water—either too much or too little—poses the most common little—poses the most common environmental threat.environmental threat.

Twentieth Century InstabilityTwentieth Century Instability In the twentieth century, forced In the twentieth century, forced

international migration increased international migration increased because of political instability because of political instability resulting from cultural diversity. resulting from cultural diversity.

Refugees are people who have been Refugees are people who have been forced to migrate from their home forced to migrate from their home country and cannot return for fear of country and cannot return for fear of persecution. persecution.

Political conditions can also operate as Political conditions can also operate as pull factors, especially the lure of pull factors, especially the lure of freedom. freedom.

With the election of democratic With the election of democratic governments in Eastern Europe during governments in Eastern Europe during the 1990s, Western Europe’s political the 1990s, Western Europe’s political pull has disappeared as a migration pull has disappeared as a migration factor. factor.

However, Western Europe pulls an However, Western Europe pulls an increasing number of migrants from increasing number of migrants from Eastern Europe for economic reasons.Eastern Europe for economic reasons.

Refugees: Refugees: Sources and destinationsSources and destinations

Fig. 3-1: Major source and destination areas of both international and internal refugees.

Intervening ObstaclesIntervening Obstacles

Where migrants go is not always Where migrants go is not always their desired destination. their desired destination.

They may be blocked by an They may be blocked by an intervening obstacle. intervening obstacle.

In the past, intervening obstacles In the past, intervening obstacles were primarily environmental. . . were primarily environmental. . . like mountains and deserts. like mountains and deserts.

Bodies of water long have been Bodies of water long have been important intervening obstacles. important intervening obstacles.

However, today’s migrant faces However, today’s migrant faces intervening obstacles created by intervening obstacles created by local diversity in government and local diversity in government and politics.politics.

Distance TraveledDistance Traveled Ravenstein’s theories made two main points Ravenstein’s theories made two main points

about the distance that migrants travel to their about the distance that migrants travel to their home: home:

Most migrants relocate a short distance and remain Most migrants relocate a short distance and remain within the same country. within the same country.

Long-distance migrants to other countries head for Long-distance migrants to other countries head for major centers of economic activity. major centers of economic activity.

International vs. Interregional International vs. Interregional MigrationMigration

International migration is International migration is permanent movement from permanent movement from one country to another, one country to another, whereas internal migration is whereas internal migration is permanent movement within permanent movement within the same country. the same country.

International migrants are International migrants are much less numerous than much less numerous than internal migrants. internal migrants.

Interregional migration is Interregional migration is movement from one region movement from one region of a country to another, while of a country to another, while intraregional migration is intraregional migration is movement within one region.movement within one region.

Two Types of MigrationTwo Types of Migration

International International migration is migration is further further divided into divided into two types two types Forced Forced Voluntary Voluntary

Characteristics of MigrantsCharacteristics of Migrants Ravenstein noted distinctive Ravenstein noted distinctive

gender and family-status gender and family-status patterns in his migration patterns in his migration theories: theories: Most long- distance migrants have Most long- distance migrants have

historically been male historically been male Most long-distance migrants have Most long-distance migrants have

historically been adult individuals historically been adult individuals rather than families with children. rather than families with children.

Changes in Gender of Migrants Changes in Gender of Migrants But since the 1990s the gender But since the 1990s the gender

pattern has reversed, and women pattern has reversed, and women now constitute about 55 percent now constitute about 55 percent of U.S. immigration.of U.S. immigration.

Family Status of Migrants Family Status of Migrants Ravenstein also Ravenstein also

believed that most believed that most long-distance migrants long-distance migrants were young adults were young adults seeking work. seeking work.

For the most part, this For the most part, this pattern continues for pattern continues for the United States. the United States.

With the increase in With the increase in women migrating. . . women migrating. . . more children are more children are coming with their coming with their mother.mother.

E S Lee Hypothesis

• E S Lee (1966) used a variety of new hypotheses as a framework for the investigation of the spatial, temporal and causal factors in migration.

• He re-instated the basic push-pull concept instead of isolating the pressures and stimuli that confronted particular individuals and groups.

• He also restated Ravenstein’s laws in a more precise way and made them easier to test.

Lee suggested:-

• the causes of migration resulted from factors associated with the area of origin, area of destination, intervening obstacles and the migrants themselves.

• Every individual is exposed to a set of positive and negative factors which govern the move.

• These will vary according to the age, sex, education or marital status and that decisions can be modified by the intervening obstacles, such as legal restrictions, family attachments, personal anxiety, costs of the move etc.

• Many of these obstacles would be slight in some cases but in other it would make a migration impossible.

This is Lee’s Model of migration

24

Mexican Immigration Mexican Immigration

The origin of Mexican immigrants to the United The origin of Mexican immigrants to the United States matches the expectations of the migration States matches the expectations of the migration transition and distance-decay theories. transition and distance-decay theories. The destination of choice within the United States is The destination of choice within the United States is

overwhelmingly states that border Mexico. overwhelmingly states that border Mexico. But most immigrants originate not from Mexico’s But most immigrants originate not from Mexico’s

northern states but from interior states. northern states but from interior states. Because farm work is seasonal. . . the greatest number Because farm work is seasonal. . . the greatest number

of Mexicans head north to the United States in the of Mexicans head north to the United States in the autumn and return home in the spring.autumn and return home in the spring.

Issue 2: Migration PatternsIssue 2: Migration Patterns Global migration patterns Global migration patterns

U.S. migration patterns U.S. migration patterns Colonial immigration Colonial immigration 19th century immigration 19th century immigration Recent immigration Recent immigration

Impact of immigration on the U.S. Impact of immigration on the U.S. Legacy of European migration Legacy of European migration Undocumented immigration Undocumented immigration Destination of immigrants within the U.S.Destination of immigrants within the U.S.

Net Migration Net Migration (per population)(per population)

Fig. 3-3: Net migration per 1,000 population. The U.S. has the largest number of immigrants, but other developed countries also have relatively large numbers.

Impact of Immigration on the United Impact of Immigration on the United StatesStates

The U.S. population has The U.S. population has been built up through a been built up through a combination of emigration combination of emigration from Africa and England from Africa and England primarily during the primarily during the eighteenth century, from eighteenth century, from Europe primarily during the Europe primarily during the nineteenth century, and nineteenth century, and from Latin America and Asia from Latin America and Asia primarily during the primarily during the twentieth century. twentieth century.

In the twenty-first century, In the twenty-first century, the impact of immigration the impact of immigration varies around the country. varies around the country.

Massive European migration Massive European migration ended with the start of ended with the start of World War I.World War I.

Europe’s Demographic Transition. Europe’s Demographic Transition.

Rapid population growth in Europe fueled Rapid population growth in Europe fueled emigration, especially after 1800. emigration, especially after 1800.

Application of new technologies.. . pushed Application of new technologies.. . pushed much of Europe into stage 2 of the much of Europe into stage 2 of the demographic transition. demographic transition.

To promote more efficient agriculture, some To promote more efficient agriculture, some European governments forced the European governments forced the consolidation of several small farms into larger consolidation of several small farms into larger units. units.

Displaced farmers could choose between Displaced farmers could choose between working in factories in the large cities or working in factories in the large cities or migrating to the United States or another migrating to the United States or another country where farmland was plentiful.country where farmland was plentiful.

Diffusion of European Culture Diffusion of European Culture Europeans frequently Europeans frequently

imposed political imposed political domination on existing domination on existing populations and injected populations and injected their cultural values with their cultural values with little regard for local little regard for local traditions. traditions.

Economies in Africa and Economies in Africa and Asia became based on Asia became based on extracting resources for extracting resources for export to Europe, rather export to Europe, rather than on using those than on using those resources to build local resources to build local industry. industry.

Many of today’s conflicts Many of today’s conflicts in former European in former European colonies result from past colonies result from past practices by European practices by European immigrants.immigrants.

Undocumented Immigration to the Undocumented Immigration to the United States United States

Many people who cannot legally enter the Many people who cannot legally enter the United States are now immigrating illegally, . . . United States are now immigrating illegally, . . . called undocumented immigrants. called undocumented immigrants.

The U.S. Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration The U.S. Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services (BCIS) estimate 7 million Services (BCIS) estimate 7 million undocumented immigrants in the U.S., undocumented immigrants in the U.S., although other estimates are as high as 20 although other estimates are as high as 20 million. million.

The BCIS apprehends more than a million The BCIS apprehends more than a million persons annually trying to cross the southern persons annually trying to cross the southern U.S. border. U.S. border.

Half of the undocumented residents legally Half of the undocumented residents legally enter the country as students or tourists and enter the country as students or tourists and then remain after they are supposed to leave.then remain after they are supposed to leave.

Issue 3: Obstacles to MigrationIssue 3: Obstacles to Migration Immigration policies of host Immigration policies of host

countries countries U.S. quota laws U.S. quota laws Temporary migration for work Temporary migration for work Time-contract workers Time-contract workers Economic migrants or refugees?Economic migrants or refugees?

Cultural problems living in other Cultural problems living in other countries countries U.S. attitudes to immigrants U.S. attitudes to immigrants Attitudes to guest workersAttitudes to guest workers

Brain DrainBrain Drain Other countries charge Other countries charge

that by giving preference that by giving preference to skilled workers, U.S. to skilled workers, U.S. immigration policy now immigration policy now contributes to a brain contributes to a brain drain, which is a large-drain, which is a large-scale emigration by scale emigration by talented people. talented people.

The average immigrant The average immigrant has received more has received more education than the typical education than the typical American: nearly one-American: nearly one-fourth of all legal fourth of all legal immigrants to the United immigrants to the United States have attended States have attended graduate school, graduate school, compared to less than compared to less than one-tenth of native-born one-tenth of native-born Americans.Americans.

Distinguishing between Economic Distinguishing between Economic Migrants and Refugees Migrants and Refugees

It is sometimes difficult It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between to distinguish between migrants seeking migrants seeking economic opportunities economic opportunities and refugees fleeing and refugees fleeing from the persecution of from the persecution of an undemocratic an undemocratic government. government.

The distinction between The distinction between economic migrants and economic migrants and refugees is important, refugees is important, because the United because the United States, Canada, and States, Canada, and Western European Western European countries treat the two countries treat the two groups differently.groups differently.

Emigrants from CubaEmigrants from Cuba Since the 1959 revolution that brought the Since the 1959 revolution that brought the

Communist government of Fidel Castro to power, Communist government of Fidel Castro to power, the U.S. government has regarded emigrants from the U.S. government has regarded emigrants from Cuba as political refugees. Cuba as political refugees.

In the years immediately following the revolution, In the years immediately following the revolution, more than 600,000 Cubans were admitted to the more than 600,000 Cubans were admitted to the United States. United States.

A second flood of Cuban emigrants reached the A second flood of Cuban emigrants reached the United States in 1980, when Fidel Castro suddenly United States in 1980, when Fidel Castro suddenly decided to permit political prisoners, criminals, and decided to permit political prisoners, criminals, and mental patients to leave the country.mental patients to leave the country.

Emigrants from Haiti Emigrants from Haiti Shortly after the 1980 Mariel boatlift from Shortly after the 1980 Mariel boatlift from

Cuba, several thousand Haitians also sailed Cuba, several thousand Haitians also sailed in small vessels for the United States. in small vessels for the United States.

Claiming that they had migrated for Claiming that they had migrated for economic advancement,. . . U.S. economic advancement,. . . U.S. immigration officials would not let the immigration officials would not let the Haitian boat people stay. Haitian boat people stay.

The Haitians brought a lawsuit. The Haitians brought a lawsuit. The government settled the case by The government settled the case by

agreeing to admit the Haitians. agreeing to admit the Haitians. After a 1991 coup that replaced Haiti’s After a 1991 coup that replaced Haiti’s

elected president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, elected president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, thousands of Haitians fled their country.. . thousands of Haitians fled their country.. . but the U.S. State Department decided that but the U.S. State Department decided that most left Haiti for economic rather than most left Haiti for economic rather than political reasons. political reasons.

The United States invaded Haiti in 1994 to The United States invaded Haiti in 1994 to reinstate Aristide as president. reinstate Aristide as president.

Many Haitians still try to migrate to the Many Haitians still try to migrate to the United States.United States.

Migration of Vietnamese Boat PeopleMigration of Vietnamese Boat People

Fig. 3-11: Many Vietnamese fled by sea as refugees after the war with the U.S. ended in 1975. Later boat people were often considered economic migrants.

Cultural Problems Living in Other Cultural Problems Living in Other Countries Countries

For many For many immigrants, immigrants, admission to admission to another country another country does not end their does not end their problems. problems. Politicians exploit Politicians exploit immigrants as immigrants as scapegoats for scapegoats for local economic local economic problems.problems.

U.S. Attitudes toward Immigrants U.S. Attitudes toward Immigrants

Americans have always regarded Americans have always regarded new arrivals with suspicion but new arrivals with suspicion but tempered their dislike during the tempered their dislike during the nineteenth century because nineteenth century because immigrants helped to settle the immigrants helped to settle the frontier and extend U.S. control frontier and extend U.S. control across the continent. across the continent.

Opposition to immigration Opposition to immigration intensified when the majority of intensified when the majority of immigrants ceased to come from immigrants ceased to come from Northern and Western Europe. Northern and Western Europe.

More recently, hostile citizens in More recently, hostile citizens in California and other states have California and other states have voted to deny undocumented voted to deny undocumented immigrants access to most public immigrants access to most public services, such as schools, day-care services, such as schools, day-care centers, and health clinics.centers, and health clinics.

Attitudes toward Guest Workers Attitudes toward Guest Workers In Europe, many guest workers In Europe, many guest workers

suffer from poor social suffer from poor social conditions. conditions. Both guest workers and their Both guest workers and their

host countries regard the host countries regard the arrangement as temporary. arrangement as temporary.

In reality, however, many guest In reality, however, many guest workers remain indefinitely, workers remain indefinitely, especially if they are joined by especially if they are joined by other family members. other family members.

As a result of lower economic As a result of lower economic growth rates, Middle Eastern and growth rates, Middle Eastern and Western European countries Western European countries have reduced the number of have reduced the number of guest workers in recent years. guest workers in recent years.

Political parties that support Political parties that support restrictions on immigration have restrictions on immigration have gained support in France, gained support in France, Germany, and other European Germany, and other European countries, and attacks by local countries, and attacks by local citizens on immigrants have citizens on immigrants have increased.increased.

Issue 4: Migration within a Issue 4: Migration within a CountryCountry

Migration between regions of a Migration between regions of a country country Migration between regions within the U.S. Migration between regions within the U.S. Migration between regions in other countriesMigration between regions in other countries

Migration within one region Migration within one region Rural-urban migration Rural-urban migration Urban-suburban migration Urban-suburban migration Migration from metropolitan to non-Migration from metropolitan to non-

metropolitan regionsmetropolitan regions

Migration Inside the US Migration Inside the US In the United In the United

States, States, interregional interregional migration was migration was more prevalent in more prevalent in the past, when the past, when most people were most people were farmers. farmers.

The most famous The most famous example of large-example of large-scale internal scale internal migration is the migration is the opening of the opening of the American West.American West.

Population, Migration and BrazilPopulation, Migration and Brazil Most Brazilians live in a Most Brazilians live in a

string of large cities near string of large cities near the Atlantic Coast. the Atlantic Coast.

To increase the To increase the attractiveness of the attractiveness of the interior, the government interior, the government moved its capital in 1960 moved its capital in 1960 from Rio to a newly built from Rio to a newly built city called Brasilia.city called Brasilia.