mif - sticerd · the mif is designed to measure inequality in individual well-being, reflecting the...
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MULTIDIMENSIONAL INEQUALITY FRAMEWORKMIF
RESEARCH PARTNERS ATLANTIC FELLOWS BASED AT
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The Atlantic Fellows for Social and Economic Equity (AFSEE) programme, based at the International Inequalities Institute (III) at the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), is building a catalytic, values-led global community of Fellows who are committed to using collective leadership to work towards social and economic justice for all. Drawing on the insights of academic research, innovative social-change strategies and the Fellows’ own experience and expertise, the Atlantic Fellows for Social and Economic Equity programme is empowering a new generation of change-makers, including practitioners, activists, researchers, policy-makers and campaigners, to work together across disciplines, backgrounds and borders. AFSEE was established in 2017 with a landmark gift from Atlantic Philanthropies, and over the next 20 years will support over 400 Fellows drawn from both the global South and global North. It is one of seven interconnected Atlantic Fellows programmes, which together create a global community to advance fairer, healthier and more inclusive societies.
For further information about the Atlantic Fellows for Social and Economic Equity programme, please contact [email protected] or visit our website afsee.atlanticfellows.org.
AUTHORS
Academics: Abigail McKnight, Pedro Mendes Loureiro, Polly Vizard
Oxfam: Alex Prats, Ana Claver, Claire Kumar
Research assistants: Patricio Espinoza-Lucero, Cara Leavey, Laurie Mompelat
Advisors:Ben Fine, Ricardo Fuentes-Nieva, Naila Kabeer, Chiara Mariotti
PUBLISHED JULY 2019
mailto:[email protected]
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Introduction
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Background
ThisresearchwasmadepossiblebysupportfromtheAtlanticFellowsinSocialandEconomicEquityProgramme,administeredbytheInternationalInequalitiesInstituteattheLondonSchoolofEconomicsandPoliticalScience.Itseekstobridgeacademic,activistandpractitionerperspectiveswiththeaimtoprovideasystematicapproachtoanalysingmultidimensionalinequalityandsupportOxfamintheirambitiontodesignandimplementrelevant,solidandeffectiveprogrammesforthereductionofinequalitiesatnationalandlocallevels.TheMultidimensionalInequalityFrameworkisbeingmadewidelyavailablesothatallseekingtounderstandandtackleinequalitiescanbenefit.
Themainobjectiveoftheprojectwastodeveloparobustandpragmaticinequalityframeworkandtoolkitstoaidanalysts,activistsandpractitioners.Theybuildonthelatestacademicresearchoninequality,itsmeasurementandexistingframeworks,combinedwithpractitioner,activistandpolicyexpertiseheldwithinOxfam,toproduceatheoreticallygroundedyetpracticalframeworkwhichallowsresearchersandpractitionerstotakeasystematicapproachtomeasuringandunderstandinginequalities,anddevisingeffectiveinequalityreductionprogrammesandstrategies.
ThisdocumentoutlinestheMultidimensionalInequalityFrameworkwhichistheoreticallyunderpinnedbySen’scapabilityapproachtoevaluatingthequalityoflife.
Acknowledgements:WeareverygratefultothemanyindividualswhoparticipatedinseminarsattheLSEandinBarcelona,toallwhorespondedtotheinitialconsultationonthefirstdraft,colleaguesinOxfam(particularlyLaraContrerasatOxfamIntermón),CASE(especiallyTaniaBurchardt)andtheIIIattheLSE(principallyRanaZincir-Celal)whogenerouslygavetheirtimeandexpertisetoaidthedevelopmentoftheFramework.
Projectteam:Academics:AbigailMcKnight,Projectlead,AssociateDirectorCASE,LSE([email protected])PedroMendesLoureiro,ResearchOfficer,PhDcandidateSOAS;nowLecturerinLatinAmericanStudiesattheUniversityofCambridge
PollyVizard,AssociateDirectorCASE,LSEPractitioners:ÀlexPrats,Oxfamlead,InequalityLead,OxfamIntermónAnaClaver,Policyadvisor,OxfamIntermónClaireKumar,SeniorConsultantResearchassistants:PatricioEspinoza-Lucero,ResearchAssistant,CASE,LSE;nowanAtlanticFellowCaraLeavey,ResearchAssistant,CASE,LSE;nowatRethinkMentalIllnessLaurieMompelat,ResearchAssistant,CASE,LSE;nowatRunnymedeTrustAdvisors:BenFine,ProfessorofEconomics,SOASRicardoFuentes-Nieva,ExecutiveDirectorOxfamMexicoNailaKabeer,ProfessorofGenderandDevelopment,LSEChiaraMariotti,PolicyAdvisor,OxfamGB
mailto:[email protected]
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Introduction
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TableofContents
Non-technicalintroduction......................................................................................................................................3
Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................4
Understandinginequality.....................................................................................................................................4
Whyaframeworkformeasuringmultidimensionalinequality?........................................................5
Existingmultidimensionalframeworks.........................................................................................................6
Thechoiceoftheoreticalandconceptualfoundation:thecapabilityapproach...........................6
Whatdowemeanbyacapability-basedapproach?.................................................................................7
TheBuildingBlocksoftheCapabilityApproach........................................................................................9
OperationalisingtheCapabilityApproach.................................................................................................10
ApplyingtheCapabilityApproachtomeasuringcapability-inequality........................................11
KeyfeaturesoftheMultidimensionalInequalityFramework..........................................................12
Driversandpolicysolutions.............................................................................................................................14
References.....................................................................................................................................................................15
Domain1.Lifeandhealth:Inequalityinthecapabilitytobealiveandtoliveahealthylife..18
Domain1:Sub-domains,indicatorsandmeasures................................................................................21
Domain2.Physicalandlegalsecurity:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoliveinphysicalsafetyandlegalsecurity......................................................................................................................................................24
Domain2:Sub-domains,indicatorsandmeasures................................................................................28
Domain3.Educationandlearning:Inequalityinthecapabilitytobeknowledgeable,tounderstandandreason,andtohavetheskillstoparticipateinsociety............................................32
Domain3:Sub-domains,indicatorsandmeasures................................................................................35
Domain4.Financialsecurityanddignifiedwork:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoachievefinancialindependenceandsecurity,enjoydignifiedandfairwork,andrecognitionofunpaidworkandcare.............................................................................................................................................37
Domain4:Sub-domains,indicatorsandmeasures................................................................................41
Domain5.Comfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoycomfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions..................................44
Domain5:Sub-domains,indicatorsandmeasures................................................................................48
Domain6.Participation,influenceandvoice:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoparticipateindecision-making,haveavoiceandinfluence..........................................................................................50
Domain6:Sub-domains,indicatorsandmeasures................................................................................53
Domain7.Individual,familyandsociallife:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoyindividual,familyandsociallife,toexpressyourselfandtohaveself-respect.............................55
Domain7:Sub-domains,indicatorsandmeasures................................................................................58
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Non-technicalintroductionTheMultidimensionalInequalityFramework(MIF)providesasystematicapproachtomeasuringandanalysinginequalities,andforidentifyingcausesandpotentialsolutions.IthasbeendevelopedthroughacollaborationbetweenacademicsintheCentreforAnalysisofSocialExclusion(CASE)attheLondonSchoolofEconomicsandtheSchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies(SOAS),andpractitionersinOxfam.
TheMIFisdesignedtomeasureinequalityinindividualwell-being,reflectingthefactthatourliveshavemanyimportantdimensions:ourhealth,ourrelationships,ourabilitytohaveinfluence,ourknowledge,andmanyother.TheMIFoffersasystematicmultidimensionalapproachtoassessinginequalityinthequalityofindividuals’lives.
TheFrameworkdrawsonSen’scapabilityapproachtoprovideaclearmethodologyfortheassessmentofwell-beingthroughexaminingdifferencesinpeople’scapabilitiestolivethekindoflifetheyhavereasontovalue.Thecapabilityapproachrejectsanexclusivefocusonincomeorsubjectivewell-being,definingthequalityofpeople’slivesintermsofasetofvaluablethingsthattheycanbeordo;likebeingphysicallysecureorhavinginfluenceoverdecisionsaffectingtheirlives.
Ourapproachisinnovative,markingadeparturefromthemajorityofpreviousinstantiationsofSen’scapabilityapproachwhichhavetendedtofocusoncapability-deprivation(differencesinratesofdeprivationbetweengroups)ratherthancapability-inequalitywhichencompassesadvantageaswellasdisadvantage.Thedevelopmentofacapability-basedinequalitymeasurementframeworkisanaturalextensiontoworkalreadyundertakeninthisfield,offeringaninnovativeapproachtounderstandingandaddressingmultidimensionalinequality.
Table1:DomainsoftheMultidimensionalInequalityFramework
Domain Shorttitle Sub-titleDomain1 Lifeandhealth Inequalityinthecapabilitytobealiveandtolivea
healthylifeDomain2 Physicalandlegalsecurity Inequalityinthecapabilitytoliveinphysicalsafety
andlegalsecurityDomain3 Educationandlearning Inequalityinthecapabilitytobeknowledgeable,to
understandandreason,andtohavetheskillstoparticipateinsociety
Domain4 Financialsecurityanddignifiedwork Inequalityinthecapabilitytoachievefinancialindependenceandsecurity,enjoydignifiedandfairwork,andrecognitionofunpaidworkandcare
Domain5 Comfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions
Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoycomfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions
Domain6 Participation,influenceandvoice Inequalityinthecapabilitytoparticipateindecision-making,haveavoiceandinfluence
Domain7 Individual,familyandsociallife Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoyindividual,familyandsociallife,toexpressyourselfandtohaveself-respect
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Introduction
TheMultidimensionalInequalityFramework(MIF)providesasystematic,theoretically-underpinnedinstrumentformeasuringandanalysinginequalities,andforidentifyingcausesandpotentialsolutions.Thisbriefintroductionsetsoutthemotivation,thecontextinwhichtheMIFwasdevelopedandprovidesdetailsofitstheoreticalandconceptualfoundations.
TheMIFhasbeendevelopedaspartofacollaborationbetweenacademicsintheCentreforAnalysisofSocialExclusionattheLondonSchoolofEconomicsandtheSchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies(SOAS)(AbigailMcKnightastheacademiclead),andpractitionersinOxfam(ledbyAlexPrats).Itisalsobeingmadeavailableonlinewithtailoredtoolkits,additionalresourcesondriversandcandidatepolicies,andtakingaction.
Understandinginequality
Thestudyofinequalityhaslargelytakenplacewithinsingledimensionssuchasincome,healthandeducation,reflectingthefactthatexpertspredominatelyconcentrateonaparticulardisciplineandfieldofstudy.Themajorityofdiscourseoninequalityhasfocusedoneconomicinequality,particularlyincomeinequality,andourknowledgeofincomeinequalityhasadvancedconsiderablyoverthelastfewdecades.Thishasbeenaidedbyfairlylongtimeseriesofincomedatawhicharenowreadilyavailableforalargenumberofcountries.However,evenwithinthisnarrowfieldithastakensometimetoestablishaclearpictureofthescaleofinequalityandwhetherinequalityhasbeenincreasingornot,withincountries,betweencountriesandacrosstheworld.Thisisbecausethestudyofinequalityisnotanexactsciencecombiningbothpositive(establishingthefacts)andnormative(involvingvaluejudgementsaboutfairness)aspects.Normativeaspectsareinfluencedbypositiveaspectsthroughthechoiceofinequalitymeasures,judgementonthetypesofinequalityweshouldbeconcernedaboutandwhatconstituteshigh,lowand‘acceptable’levelsofinequality.
Recentanalysisoftheglobalpictureofincomeinequalitytrendsunderlinestheimportanceofbeingclearabouthowweunderstandandmeasureinequality,asdifferentmeasuresshowcontrastingtrendsbothintermsofglobalinequality,andbetweenandwithincountries(Niño-Zarazña,RoopeandTarp,2017).Thisdetailedanalysisshowsthatrelativeglobalincomeinequality(measuredby,forexample,therelativeGiniordecileratios)declinedsubstantially1975-2010,mainlydrivenbyincomegrowthinChinaandIndia,butabsoluteincomeinequality(measuredby,forexample,thestandarddeviationandtheabsoluteGini)increasedconsiderablyoverthesameperiod.Insomeregionsoftheworld,inequalitytrendsassessedagainstthesetwoconceptsofinequalitymovedinthesamedirection(forexample,increasinginNorthAmericaanddecreasingintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica)butdivergedinotherregionsoverthesameperiod(forexample,inLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,EastAsiaandPacificrelativeinequalitydeclinedbutabsoluteinequalityincreased).Withinregionsthereisalsoconsiderableheterogeneitybetweencountriesinincomeinequalitytrends,evenwhenassessedusingthesamemeasure.Recentresearchhasshownthatalthoughrelativeincomeinequalityhasbeenontheriseinmanyrichandmiddle-incomecountriesoverthelastthreetofourdecades,thetimingandtheextentofanyincreasevariedsignificantlybetweencountries(Salverdaetal.,2014;Nolanetal.,2014;OECD,2008).
Thisexampleshowsthatevenwhenmeasuringinequalitywithinasingledimensionthereareimportantdifferencesbetweenmeasuresparticularlyintermsofhowchangesinincomesaffectinequalityestimates.Itisthereforeworthwhilespendingalittletimeclarifyingwhatformsof
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incomeinequalitydifferentmeasurescapture.Measurescanbebroadlydividedintothreeclasses:relativeinequalitymeasures,absoluteinequalitymeasuresand‘centrist’measures.Relativeinequalitymeasuresshownoincreaseininequalityifeveryone’sincomeincreasesproportionatelybythesameamount,forexampleeveryone’sincomedoubles.However,theabsolutedifferencebetweenpeople’sincomeswillhaveincreasedandabsoluteinequalitymeasureswillcomputeanincreaseininequality.Incontrast,absolutemeasuresofinequalitywillshownoincreaseininequalityifeveryone’sincomeincreasesbyafixedamount,sayby$100.However,relativeinequalitydeclinesas$100increaseisagreaterproportionateincreaseforthoseonalowincomethanforthoseonahighincome.Wemightbeinterestedinbothformsofinequalityandacompromisecanbefoundinso-called‘centristmeasures’whicharesensitivetobothtypesofchangesinincome(forexample,theintermediateGiniortheKrtscha).
Althoughwearefacedwithamixedpictureofincomeinequalitytrends,evidencesuggeststhatwhiletheuseofdifferentmeasuresofinequalitycanbeusedselectivelytopaintaparticularpicturewithinsomecountries,overdifferenttimeperiodsoracrosstheworld,peopleexpressconcernanddistasteforinequalityinallitsforms.Thereisnowenoughevidenceofincreasinginequality(beitabsoluteorrelative)toleadtoagrowingconcernabouttheharmfuleffectsofinequalityonsocieties.Aconsensusisemergingacrossanumberofhighprofileinternationalorganisationsandhighlyregardedexpertsthatmoreneedstobedonetohaltthistrend,toensurethatthebenefitsoffuturegrowtharesharedmoreequallyandthatsolutionsarefoundtolimitanyharmfulimpact(see,forexample,Stiglitz,2012;Oxfam,2014;Piketty2014;Atkinson,2015;OECD,2015;WorldBank,2016;IMF,2017).
Whyaframeworkformeasuringmultidimensionalinequality?
Thereisagrowingrecognitionthatinequalityandpovertyarebetterunderstoodasmultidimensionalconcepts.Althoughanincomepovertylineremainsauseful,short-hand,wayofidentifyingindividualsatriskofpoverty,anincomemeasureisinsufficienttopickuphowindividuals’deprivationvariesacrosskeyaspectsoftheirlives.Thishasledtothedevelopmentofmultidimensionalpovertymeasures,suchastheGlobalMultidimensionalPovertyIndex(AlkireandFoster,2011,seemorebelow),andmaterialdeprivationmeasures(forexample,theEU’smeasurewhichpicksuptheinabilitytoaffordsomeitemsconsideredbymostpeopletobedesirableorevennecessarytoleadanadequatelife),tocomplementincome-onlymeasures.
Whenusingmultidimensionalmeasures,oneapproachistosimplycomputehowmanypeopleorhouseholdsareclassifiedasdeprivedaccordingtothresholdssetineachdimension.Thisapproachwouldleadtoanumberofpovertyestimatesunlessthesamenumberofindividualswereclassifiedasdeprivedinalldimensions.Alternatively,individualsorhouseholdscouldbeclassifiedassufferingfrommultipledeprivationormaterialdeprivationiftheyaredeprivedinanumberofdimensions.Forexample,theEUmeasurestherateofseverematerialdeprivationastheproportionofpeoplelivinginhouseholdsthatcannotaffordatleastfouritemsfromalistofnineitems(includingnotbeingabletoaffordtopayhousingcosts,buyacar,ownatelephone,aweek’sholidayawayfromhome).Anotherapproachistoproduceasingleindexfromsummingdeprivationindicatorsacrossanumberofdomainsormeasures.TheglobalMultidimensionalPovertyIndex(MPI),developedbyAlkireandFosterattheOxfordPovertyandHumanDevelopmentInitiative(OPHI),isanexampleofthisapproach(AlkireandFoster,2011).TheMPIisdesignedtocapturethedeprivationsthateachpersonfacesatthesametimewithrespecttoeducation,healthandlivingstandards(muchliketheHumanDevelopmentIndex–seebelow).
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Therearetwoindicatorsforeducationandforhealthandsixforlivingstandards.Eachindicatorisassignedaweightsothateachdimensionsisworthone-thirdintheoverallweighting.
Theseapproachesaredataintensiveastheyrequireaccesstodatasourceswhichcollectinformationacrossthedifferentdimensionsforarepresentativesampleofindividualsorhouseholds.Indicesalsorequireassignmentofweightsforthedifferentmeasuresincludedinanyindex.
Theconceptthatweareinterestedinisindividualwell-beingwhichisinherentlymultidimensional.Ifwepausemomentarilytoevaluatethequalityofourownlivesitisimmediatelyapparentthatmanydimensionsofourlivesareimportanttous:ourhealth,ourrelationships,oursafety,ourabilitytomakedecisionsonmattersthatareimportanttous,ourreputationaswellasmanyotherdimensionsincludingfinancialsecurity.TheMIFoffersasystematicmultidimensionalapproachtoassessinginequalityinthequalityofindividuals’lives.Fortheoverallassessmentofinequalitywearesuggestingadashboardapproachratherthanacompositeindex.Withanextensiveandvariedselectionofmeasures,carefulanalysisisrequiredtomakeaninformedassessmentofinequality.
Existingmultidimensionalframeworks
Anumberofmultidimensionalsocialindicatorframeworkshavebeendevelopedinrecentyears.Theseinclude:
• theUNHumanDevelopmentIndexwhichsummarisesaverageachievementinkeydimensionsofhumandevelopment:alongandhealthylife,beingknowledgeableandhavingadecentstandardofliving;
• theUNSustainableDevelopmentGoalsaresupplementedbyanindicatorframeworkformeasuringandmonitoringprogresstowardsreachingthe2030goals;
• theUK’sOfficeforNationalStatisticshasdevelopedamultidimensionalsetofindicatorsformeasuringandmonitoringNationalWell-being,;
• tomonitortheimplementationoftheEuropeanPillarofSocialRightsprogressismeasuredin12areaswithinthreedomainsthroughaseriesofindicators;
• theOECD’sBetterLifeIndexcovers11topicsintheareasofmateriallivingconditionsandqualityoflife;and,
• theWorldEconomicForumhasdevelopedanInclusiveDevelopmentIndexwhichcontainsthreepillarsand12keyperformanceindicatorstoassessinclusiveeconomicperformance.
Onthewholetheseframeworksarenottheoreticallygroundedandhavebeendevelopedwithaspecificpurposeinmind,whichincludeaspectsofpovertyandinequalitybutarenotgeneralmultidimensionalinequalityframeworks.Withoutastrongtheoreticallyfoundationanyframeworkcanappeartosimplycompriseanarbitrarylistofinequalityindicatorsandmeasures.
Thechoiceoftheoreticalandconceptualfoundation:thecapabilityapproach
TheMultidimensionalInequalityFrameworkdrawsonSen’scapabilityapproach(Sen,1993)toprovideaclearmethodologyforassessinginequalitiesinindividualwell-being.Thisprovidesafocustoexaminingdifferencesinpeople’scapabilitiestolivethekindoflifetheyhavereasontovalue.Itisdefinedintermsofasetofvaluablethingsthatpeoplecanbeordo;likebeingphysicallysecureorhavinginfluenceoverdecisionsaffectingtheirlives.Itoffersasystematicapproachtoassessingthequalityoflifeweleadandwhatwecanorcannotdo,andcanorcannotbe.
http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-index-hdihttps://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/Global%20Indicator%20Framework_A.RES.71.313%20Annex.pdfhttps://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/wellbeing/articles/measuringnationalwellbeing/2015-09-29https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/european-pillar-of-social-rights/indicatorshttp://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/#/11111111111https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-inclusive-development-index-2018
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Acleartheoreticalunderpinningfacilitatesthesystematiccaptureofthecomplexnatureofinequality,whichcantakemanydifferentforms.Ourapproachisinnovative,markingadeparturefromthemajorityofpreviousinstantiationsofSen’scapabilityapproachwhichhavetendedtofocusoncapability-deprivation(measuringdifferencesinratesofdeprivationbetweengroups)ratherthancapability-inequalitywhichencompassesadvantageaswellasdisadvantage.Italsorepresentsanimportantdeparturefromotherinequalityframeworkswhichtendtosimplyassessoutcomeswithoutanyconsiderationoffactorsthatconstrainchoice.Thedevelopmentofacapability-basedinequalitymeasurementframeworkisanaturalextensiontoworkalreadyundertakeninthisfield,offeringanewandinnovativeapproachtounderstandingandaddressingmultidimensionalinequality.
Whatdowemeanbyacapability-basedapproach?
WebelievethatastrongtheoreticalfoundationisimportantforthecredibilityoftheFramework.However,thisdoesnotmeanthatadeepunderstandingofthetheorybehindtheapproachisnecessaryforitspracticalapplication.TheMIF,alongwiththeonlinestep-by-stepuserguides,havebeendesignedsothattheFrameworkcanbeusedwitheasebyspecialistsandnon-specialists.Forthoseinterestedinlearningabitmoreaboutthetheorybehindtheconceptualbasishereweprovideabriefintroductiontotheapproach.
AmartyaSenisaworldrenownedeconomistandphilosopher.In1998hewasawardedtheNobelPrizeinEconomicsforhiscontributiontowelfareeconomics.Inabodyofwork,Senoutlinesthecapabilityapproach;anevaluativeframeworkwhichcanbeusedtoassessindividualwell-being(keyreferencesinclude:Sen,1979;1985;1987;1992;1993;1999).Senfoundexistingframeworkswantingeitherduetonarrowfocusorbecauseofthelackofrecognitionforwhatreallymattersintermsofhowindividualsevaluateandvaluethequalityoftheirlives.Insteadoffocusingexclusivelyoneconomicmeansorsubjectivewell-being,thecapabilityapproachfocusesonthequalityoflifethatindividualsmanagetoliveandthefreedomtheyhavetochoosethekindoflifetheyhavereasontovalue,intermsofthevaluablethingstheycandoorbe.Forexample,beingadequatelynourished,beingfreefromavoidablediseases,beingabletotakepartinthelifeofthecommunityandhavingself-respect(Sen,1999,p.199).
Twokeyconceptsinthecapabilityapproachare‘capabilities’and‘functionings’.Sendescribescapabilitiesas“notionsoffreedom,inthepositivesense:whatrealopportunitiesyouhaveregardingthelifeyoumaylead”anddefinesafunctioningasanachievement,whereasacapabilityistheabilitytoachieve(Sen,1987:p.36).‘Functionings’arewhataperson‘managestodoorbe’(Sen,1985).Whilethelanguageofthecapabilityapproachcanbeabitmystifyingfortheuninitiated,insimpletermscapabilitiescanbelikenedtosubstantiveopportunitiesandfunctioningstoobservedoutcomes.Thereismoretoeachconcept,butthisoffersausefulstartingpoint.
Thecapabilityapproachcallsforamultidimensionalapproachtounderstandingindividualwell-being.Itrejectstheexclusivefocusonsubjectivemeasuresofwell-being(utility)oroneconomicresources(opulence).Althoughtheseapproachesarewidelyused,theyareseentohaveanumberoffundamentalweaknesses.
Oneoftheproblemsassociatedwithexclusivelyusingsubjectivemeasuresofwell-being(happinessorlifesatisfaction)toassessindividualwelfare,isthatsubjectiveassessmentscanbeaffectedbyexpectationsandpreferencesbeingadaptedbyexperience,andshapedbysocialand
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/economic-sciences/1998/sen/biographical/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/economic-sciences/1998/sen/biographical/
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culturalnorms.Forexample,overtimepeoplecanbecomeaccustomedtolivingonalowincome,orbeinginpoorhealthand,asaresult,expectations,andaspirationsfor,lifecanbeparedback.Similarly,aprivilegedupbringingcanleavepeopledisappointedwithwhattheymanagetoachieveintheirownlives.Senillustratestheinfluenceofnormsusingtheexampleofhowperceptionsofrelativeneedsofdifferentmembersofthefamilyrelatetosocialinfluence(forexample,amagnificationoftheneedsofamaleheadofhouseholdorunderplayingtheneedsoffemalehouseholdmembers),andhowtheseperceptionsleadtodifferentsubjectiveassessmentsof,forexample,theirownhealth,assessmentswhichconflictwithmedicalevidence(Sen,1999).ItisnotthatSenrejectshappinessasavaluableaspectofwell-being,hesimplysuggeststhatifitisconsideredimportantitshouldbeincludedasoneofanumberofaspectsinanyassessmentofwell-being(Sen,1985).
Therearealsoshortcomingsassociatedwithfocusingsolelyoneconomicresources(opulence)duetothefailuretocapturehowindividuals’needsandnon-economicresourcesdiffer,affectingindividuals’abilitytoconvertresourcesintovaluableoutcomes.Economicresourceslargelyprovidea‘meanstoanend’anditisthe‘end’whichweareinterestedin.“Thevalueofthelivingstandardliesintheliving,andnotinthepossessingofcommodities,whichhasderivateandvaryingrelevance”(Sen,1987,p.25),and“oursuccessinthematerialworldisoftenjudgedbyouropulence;butdespitethat,commoditiesarenotmorethanmeanstoanend”(Sen,1987,p.16).
Theabilitytoconvertresourcesandcommoditiesintovaluableoutcomescanbeaffectedbyarangeoffactors.Conversioncanoccuratdifferentratesdependingonvarious“conversionfactors”.Sensuggestsanumberofconversionfactorswhicharetypicallygroupedintothreemaincategories.Dang(2014)andRobeyns(2017)provideillustrativeexamplesofconversionfactorsineachcategory.Theseare:(a)personalconversionfactors(suchaspersonalcharacteristics:physicalandmentalaspects(forexample,disabilities),ageandgender);(b)socialconversionfactors(suchassocialinstitutions,socialnorms(gender,religious,cultural,moral),traditionsandthebehaviourofothers(sexism,homophobia,racism,etc.),and;(c)environmentalconversionfactors(includingclimate,pollution,deforestation,etc.).Thesefactorsinfluencetheconversionratefromindividualresourcesintofunctionings(outcomeorachievement)andcapabilities(realopportunitiesorpositivefreedoms)(Dang,2014,p.462).Conversionfactorsandconversionrateshavenotalwaysbeentreatedsystematicallyinthecapabilityliteraturebutthereareinterestingandinformativeattemptstodefineandmeasurethem(see,forexample,Chiappero-MartinettiandSalardi,2008;Comim,QizilbashandAlkire,2001;BrandoliniandD'Alessio,1998).ForthepurposesoftheMIF,conversionfactorsplayanimportantroleintheidentificationofinequalitydriversandcandidatepolicies,whichareavailableintheonlinetoolkits.
Anotherimportantaspectischoice.Whilespecialimportanceisgiventotheactuallifestylechosen,theavailabilityofotheroptionshasvaluetoo(Sen,1992).Senstressesthatitisimportanttobeabletodistinguishbetweenoutcomesthatariseduetolackofchoice(limitingcapabilities)fromthosewhicharechosen(theneedtobeabletodistinguishbetweenchoosingnottoworkfrominvoluntaryunemployment);recognisingthatbeingan‘author’ofyourownlifehasintrinsicvalue.ThemostcitedexamplethatSendescribesisthedifferencebetweenapersonchoosingtofastonreligiousgroundsandapersonwhoisstarvingasaresultoffamine.Ineachcase,measuredsimplyintermsofobservedoutcomesatapointintime,neitherpersonisreceivingnourishmentbutintheformercase,thisisaresultofchoicewhileinthelattercasenochoiceisavailable.Ideallywewouldwanttobeabletodistinguishbetweenthesetwocasesinevaluatingindividualwelfare.Choiceis
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assumedtohaveintrinsicvaluewherethechoiceisbetweenvalued(andachievable)alternatives.SenillustratesthisthroughanexamplewherepersonXenjoyshigherwelfarewhentheyaregivenachoicebetweenAandBandchooseA,thanthecasewheretheyhadnochoiceandonlyAwasavailable;eventhoughinbothcasespersonXendsupwithA(Sen,1992).
TheBuildingBlocksoftheCapabilityApproach
InCommoditiesandCapabilities(Sen,1985,pp.7-9),Senusesaseriesofsimpleequationstoformallysetouttherelationshipbetweenacommodityset,acapabilitysetandachievedfunctionings.Oneissuewiththestaticequationapproachisthatthedynamicnatureofcapabilitiesisnotrecognised.Analternativeapproachistouseaseriesofequationsoradiagram.Figure1presentsonewayofrepresentingthecapabilityapproachasaflowdiagram.Thetypicalstartingpointistoconsideranindividual’s‘commodityset’whichismadeupofresourcesintheformofgoodsandservices(someofwhichcannotbetradedintheconventionalsense).Thecommoditysetisnotrandomlygeneratedasitisaffectedbyendowments(suchasinnateability)andentitlements(whichcanbesetthroughlegislationandshapedbysocialandculturalnormswhichmay,forexample,setentitlementswithinfamiliesandcommunities).Agivencommoditysetcanbeconvertedintoacapabilitysetwitharangeoffactorsinfluencingtheconversionrate(personal,socialandenvironmental).
Fromthesubstantiveopportunitiesrepresentedbyagivencapabilityset,individualschoose/achieveanobservedsetoffunctions(functionings)–whatindividualsactuallydoandare(physicallysecure,well-nourished,ingoodhealth,enjoyingasociallife,etc.).Choiceandagencycanbecurtailed,narrowingthepossiblesetof“beings”and“doings”thatanindividualcanachievefromanygivencapabilityset.Themodelisdynamicsothatinthenexttimeperiod(t=2)achievedfunctioningsintheinitialperiodcandirectlyaffecttheavailablecommodityset(forexample,beingfinanciallysecure,achievinghighesteem,beingingoodhealth).
Notethatthisisastylizedrepresentationanditispossibleforsomecapabilitiestobeinthesetwithouttheneedforcommodities–forexample,behaviourofotherscanaffectthecapabilitytoachievehighesteem;illnessmyspreadfromonepersontoanother.
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Figure1:StylizedDynamicModeloftheCapabilityApproachBuildingBlocks
Althoughthecapabilityapproachisinherentlyanassessmentofindividualwell-being,anexpandingbodyofliteratureaddressestherolethatcollectiveactioncanplayinprocessesofcapabilityexpansion.Socialmovements,humanrightscampaigns,socialactiontopromotegroupidentity,recognitionandequality,includinggenderequalityandindigenouspeople’sstruggles,civilsocietyandNGOcampaigns,grass-rootsactionandself-helpinitiativescanbecriticalinfluencesonthecapabilitiesthataresecuredforindividualsandgroups.Aswehaveshown,thecapabilityapproachputsemphasisontheconceptofagencyaswellasthatofwell-being,andprocessesofcapabilityexpansionoftenoccurwhendisadvantagedpeoplecometogetherandactasagroup.Indeed,insomecontexts,collectivegroupactionofthistypemaybenecessaryinordertosecureandexpandcapabilities(Ibrahim2006,2017,Robeyns2017a,pp.99-103).
OperationalisingtheCapabilityApproach
OneofthemainchallengesinrelationtooperationalisingthecapabilityapproachisthatthereisnodefinitivelistofcapabilitiesandSengoestosomelengthexplainingwhyafixedlistisnotdesirable(Sen,2004).However,hedoesgivesomeguidanceonhowcapabilitylistsshouldbederivedandinhismanywritingshemakesreferencetoanumberofkeycapabilitieswhichheclearlyconsidersarevitalforwell-being(beingwell-nourished,physicallysecure,mobile,etc.).Othershaveattemptedtoconstructafixedlistofcapabilities.OneofthebestknownisNussbaum’swhoproposesaphilosophically-derivedcapabilitylistthatiscomprehensiveinthesensethatitaimstocaptureallcentralandvaluablecapabilities(Nussbaum,2003).
Thereisalsoawidedebateonwhethercapabilitiescanbemeasured(see,forexample,Sugden,1993),withmoreagreementonthefeasibilitytomeasure‘functionings’(seeBurchardtandVizard(2011)foradiscussionofthisliterature).Althoughthesechallengeswereinitiallyseenasbarriers
FUNCTIONINGSachieved functions (what you actually do or are)
AGENCY AND CHOICE
CAPABILITY SETreal opportunities in terms of what you can do or be
Entitlements Endowments
CONVERSION FACTORS
(t=2)COMMODITY SETresources (t=1)
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tooperationalisation,considerableprogresshasbeenmadeandtherearenowexamplesofsuccessfulpracticalapplications(seeDang(2014)forarecentreviewofquantitativeapplications,orComimetal.,2010).
ExamplesoflargescaleoperationalisationofthecapabilityapproachincludetheUnitedNations’HumanDevelopmentIndex(HDI)whichwasdesignedtocapturecapabilitiesinthreedomains(alongandhealthylife,beingknowledgeableandhavingadecentstandardofliving).Theindexwascreatedtoemphasizethatpeopleandtheircapabilitiesshouldbetheultimatecriteriaforassessingthedevelopmentofacountry,noteconomicgrowthalone(UNDP,1990).TheHDIhasbeenusedasabasisforanalysisintheUN’sannualHumanDevelopmentReportssincethe1990sandfrom2010aninequality-adjustedHumanDevelopmentIndex(IHDI)hasbeenpublished.
AnotherexampleistheEqualityMeasurementFramework(EMF).TheEMFisaframeworkforequalitymonitoring(seeBurchardtandVizard,2011)whichhasbeenextendedtocoverchildren(Cleryetal.,2014)andinthecontextofhumanrights(Vizard,2012).TheframeworkshavebeenusedbytheBritishEqualityandHumanRightsCommissionasabasisforequalityandhumanrightsmonitoring(Alkireetal(2009),Candleretal(2011),EHRC(2011,2015),VizardandSpeed(2015))andhavenowbeenreplacedbyasingleframework(EHRC,2017).TheEMFwasdevelopedthroughfirstidentifyinga‘minimumcore’capabilitylistderivedfromtheinternationalhumanrightsframework.Thiswasfollowedbyadeliberativeexercisetorefine,expandandorientatethelist.
Inadditiontothelargescaleexamples,researchershavesuccessfullyoperationalisedthecapabilityapproachtoassesswell-being.InterestedreaderscouldusefullystartbyexploringarticlespublishedintheJournalofHumanDevelopmentandCapabilities.
ApplyingtheCapabilityApproachtomeasuringcapability-inequality
Afurtherchallengewefaceisthatwewanttodesignacapability-inequalityframeworkwhileSen’scapabilityapproachhasbeenmainlyusedtomeasurecapability-deprivation;whetherornotindividualsachievebasiccapabilitiesorminimumfunctioningandhowratesdifferbetweenpopulationgroups,suchasdifferencesbetweenmenandwomen.Thesearesometimesreferredtoas‘horizontalinequality’andStewart(2016)providesausefuldiscussionontheimportanceofanalysingandaddressinghorizontalinequalities,andKabeer(2016)discussesthechallengesofanalysingintersectinginequalities.Weareconcernedwiththeseformsofinequalitybutwearealsointerestedinthevarianceincapabilities,suchasdistinguishingbetweenpeoplewhohavegreaterandlessercapabilitytoinfluenceotherpeople,concentrationofproductiveresources,orsocialgradientsinlifeexpectancy,orunequalaccesstothetopjobs,whichcanbethoughtofasformsof‘verticalinequality’.
Thisisnotthefirsttimethatexpertshaveconsideredhowthecapabilityapproachcanbeusedtoassessinequality.Robeyns(2017b)makesthecasethatthecapabilityapproachcanbeusedtoidentify“toomuch”aswellas“toolittle”.Whereindividualshavemoreresourcesthanareneeded,Robeynsoutlinesthemoralpositionthattheseindividualshave“toomuch”.Concentrationofincomeandwealthcanhaveanegativebearingonotherindividuals’capabilities;forexample,wheremoney‘buys’power,orlimitstheopportunitiesofothers.Robeyns(2017a)suggeststhatitispossibletoconceptualisea“richesline”toidentify“therich”,tocomplementthewell-establishedconceptofapovertyline.BurchardtandHickarguethatthecapabilityapproachcouldbeemployedtoprovidearicherunderstandingofinequality,andof‘advantage’inparticular,noting
https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/publication-download/measurement-framework-equality-and-human-rights
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that“Sen’searlyessay[Sen,1979]onthecapabilityapproachwasentitled‘Equalityofwhat?’,not‘Povertyofwhat?’,yetmuchofwhatfollowed,includingcontributionsbySenhimself,focusedontheextenttowhichpeopleareabletoenjoybasiccapabilities”(BurchardtandHick,2017,p.4).
Thereisnoreasonwhyattentionshouldberestrictedtoexaminingdisadvantageasthesameassessmentofwell-beingcanbeappliedacrossanydistribution.BurchardtandHick(2017)explainhowtheconceptofcapability-inequalitycanberenderedconsistentwiththenatureofinequalityaswetendtounderstandit,extendingbeyondunequaldistributionsofincomeandwealthtoinequalitiesinthecapabilitiesenjoyedacrossarangeofcriticalareasoflife.Othershavealsomadethecasethatthecapabilityapproachcanbeusedtoexploreinequalities.Forexample,Therborn(2013)drawsinspirationfromthecapabilityapproachtomakethecasethatweshouldbeconcernedwithmorethaneconomicinequalitiesandthatinequalitiesbetweenandwithingroupscan(andhave)variouslymovedinoppositedirectionsacrosstimeandplace,andbyhorizontalandverticaldimensions.
Afocusoncapability-inequalityallowsustoanalyseandcovercertaindimensionsthatafocusoncapability-povertydoesnot.Forexample,lackofpoweramongtheleastwell-offcansignalaformofcapability-povertybutconcentrationofpoweramongasmallelitewouldbemissedwithsuchafocus.Inaddition,wideningtheconceptofcapabilitytoincludeinequalityandadvantageintroducesthepossibilitythatthesetofcapabilitiescouldincludethosethatharmotherpeople,particularlytheabilitytoexercisecontroloverothers.Forexample,advantagecanbesecuredthroughexploitingotherpeople’slabour,manipulationofpoliticalandlegalsystemsandthroughthreatsofviolence.SomehavearguedthatcapabilitiesthatharmothersdonotbelonginthesetbutSenrejectsthenotionthatcapabilitiesarebydefinitiongoodcapabilities,oronlythosethatarenotharmfultoothers(Sen,2009).
Fromapracticalpointofview,empiricalmeasurementofcapability-inequalityratherthancapability-povertythrowsupadditionalchallenges.Measuresofeconomicinequality(forexample,earnings,income,wealth,andconsumption)arenowwell-established,withrecogniseddifferencesinthestrengthsandweaknessesofeachinequalitymeasure,andthetypesofinequalitythattheycapture.Themeasurementofinequalityofnon-economicdimensionsofwell-beingislessdevelopedalthoughadvancesarebeingmade(see,forexample,CowellandFlachaire,2017)andmeasuresarenowfairlywelldevelopedforeducationandhealth.Thisisanactiveareaofresearchandweexpectsignificantadvancestobemadeinthenearfuture.
KeyfeaturesoftheMultidimensionalInequalityFramework
TheMultidimensionalInequalityFrameworkisstructuredaroundsevenlifedomains,reflectingcorecapabilitiescriticaltowell-being.Eachdomainisdescribedbyashort-titleandasub-titlewhichprovidesabitmoreinformationonthecapabilitiescoveredineachdomain(Table1).FulldetailsoftheMIFcanbefoundinthefinalpartofthispaper.Inthissectionwedescribethemainfeaturesandhowtheyrelatetothetheoreticalfoundation.
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Introduction
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Table1:DomainsoftheMultidimensionalInequalityFramework
Domain Shorttitle Sub-titleDomain1 Lifeandhealth Inequalityinthecapabilitytobealiveandtolivea
healthylifeDomain2 Physicalandlegalsecurity Inequalityinthecapabilitytoliveinphysicalsafety
andlegalsecurityDomain3 Educationandlearning Inequalityinthecapabilitytobeknowledgeable,to
understandandreason,andtohavetheskillstoparticipateinsociety
Domain4 Financialsecurityanddignifiedwork
Inequalityinthecapabilitytoachievefinancialindependenceandsecurity,enjoydignifiedandfairwork,andrecognitionofunpaidworkandcare
Domain5 Comfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions
Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoycomfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions
Domain6 Participation,influenceandvoice
Inequalityinthecapabilitytoparticipateindecision-making,haveavoiceandinfluence
Domain7 Individual,familyandsociallife
Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoyindividual,familyandsociallife,toexpressyourselfandtohaveself-respect
TheselectionofdomainswasinformeddirectlybydedicatedresearchduringthecourseofthisprojectwhichbuiltonworkundertakeninthedevelopmentoftheEMF(whichhasitsrootsintheinternationalhumanrightsframework),andtookintoaccountthepracticalneedsofOxfam.Withineachofthedomainsaseriesofsub-domainshavebeenidentifiedandwithineachsub-domain,thereareanumberofinequalityindicatorsandinequalitymeasureswhichcanbeusedtomeasureandmonitormultidimensionalinequality.TheMIFisflexibleandeasilyadaptedtodifferentcontext,inkeepingwithSen’sviewthatanycapabilitylistshouldnotbedefinitivebutadaptedtodifferentcontextanduses.Itisnotenvisagedthatallofthemeasureswillbeapplicableineverycountrysetting.Thetoolkits,whichareavailableintheonlineversion,provideadviceandtipsonhowtheMIFcanbemodifiedfordifferentsettings(aprocesswerefertoas“Countrification”).
Theselectionofsub-domains,inequalityindicatorsandinequalitymeasuresreflectkeyaspectsofcapability-inequalitythattheMIFisdesignedtocapture.Themeasuresarepredominatelyindividuals’achievedoutcomes(functionings)ratherthanthefullsetofsubstantiveopportunities(capabilities)thatindividualswereabletochoosebetween;althoughsomemeasuresareincludedtotrytoilluminatecriticalaspectsofcapability-inequalities.Theselectionincludesinequalitymeasuresthathelptoidentify:
(a)wherechoicehasbeenconstrained;
(b)evidenceofharmfulcapabilitiesthatcanconstrainthechoiceofothers;
(c)autonomy;
(d)treatmentbyothers;
(e)thenotionthatitispossibletohavetoomuchaswellastoolittle.
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AnumberofdifferenttypesofinequalityarecapturedintheMIF.Measuresofinequalitywithineachdomainincludeacombinationof:differencesinprevalenceofadvantageanddisadvantagebetweengroups(forexample,victimsofviolencebygenderorpercentageofprivatelyeducatedinthetopprofessions);socio-economicgradients(forexample,healthylifeexpectancybysocialclassoreducationalattainmentbyfamilyincome);ordinalinequalitymeasureswhereoutcomesareratedonanordinalscale(forexample,lifesatisfactionorsubjectivegeneralhealthstatus);dispersionmeasures(relativeandabsoluteincomeinequalityorinequalityinlifeexpectancy);measuresofconcentration(top1%shareofprivatewealthholdings).Theindividualoutcomemeasuresincludesubjectiveaswellasobjectivemeasuresofinequality,includingmeasuresofeconomicresourcesandsubjectivewell-being.Asshownearlier,comparisonbetweensubjectiveandobjectivemeasurescanhelptohighlightwherecapabilitieshavebeenconstrained.
Intheonlineversion,themeasuresareaccompaniedbytailoredadviceonwhichbreakdownsshouldbeconsideredtomeasuredifferencesbetweengroups.Ingeneralterms,wesuggestthat,whereinformationisavailable,measuresshouldbebrokendownbygender,agegroup,socialclass/caste,ethnicgroupanddisabilitystatus.
Driversandpolicysolutions
Inthissectionwebrieflydescribetheworkwehavebeendoingonidentifyingmaindrivercategoriesandcandidatepolicies.Thedetailisnotpresentedherebutisavailableonourwebsites.AnotheroriginalfeatureoftheMIFisthatwehaveoperationalisedwhatarereferredtoas‘conversionfactors’inthecapabilityapproach,toguidetheidentificationofinequalitydriversineachdomain.Thesearefactorswhichcanincreaseinequalitiesbyconstrainingcapabilitiesforsomeindividualsorgroupsandenhancingandexpandingcapabilitiesforothers.Forexample,socialandculturalnormswhichfavourboy’seducationovergirl’scandriveinequalitiesineducationattainmentbetweenmenandwomen,andcontributetogenderinequalitiesinotherdomainssuchashealth,financialindependenceandlegalsecurity.Corruptionmaydriveinequalitiesinlegalsecurity,politicalinfluenceandfinancialsecurity.Inadequateinvestmentsinsecurityinpoorneighbourhoodscandriveinequalitiesinphysicalsecurityandpersonalsafety.Weakdesignandimplementationofinstitutionalandpolicyframeworkscanleadtodiscriminationanddriveinequalitiesinemployment,self-confidenceandself-esteem,physicalsecurity,educationandhealth.Weaklabourmarketinstitutionscandrivewageinequalityleadingtohighratesofpayformanagersandexecutivesandextremelowpayforlowskilledworkers.
Theidentificationofmaindrivercategoriesisprovidedasaguideandsupportedbyasetofguidingquestionsforanalysisandotherresourcesforeachcategory.ThefirststepshouldalwaysbetoapplytheMIF,measureandanalyseinequalitieswithinyourcountryorregion.Theidentificationofinequalitydriverscanbeapproachedthroughavarietyofmethodsusingthemaindrivercategoriesandguidingquestionsasameansto:1)conductevidencereview;2)conductorcommissionnewresearch;3)organisebrainstormingsessionsandroundtableswithexperts.Policymakersandpoliticalactorscanbeincludedinthisprocesstobuildconsensusandpromotebuy-in.Toaidthisprocess,guidingquestionsareaccompaniedbyaselectionofdriverindicatorswhichcanalsobeusedtoassistwiththeidentificationofdrivers.
Followingtheidentificationofdrivers,thenextstepisthecriticalstageoffindingpolicysolutions.Foreachofthemaindrivercategoriesaselectionofcandidatepolicieshavebeensuggested.ThisinformationisavailableintheonlineversionoftheMIF.
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References
Alkire,S.,andFoster,J.E.(2011).‘Understandingsandmisunderstandingsofmultidimensionalpovertymeasurement’,JournalofEconomicInequality,9,289-314.
Alkire,S.,Bastagli,F.,Burchardt,T.,Clark,D.,Holder,H.,Ibrahim,S.,Munoz,M.,Terrazas,P.,Tsang,T.,andVizard,P.(2009)DevelopingtheEqualityMeasurementFramework:selectingtheindicators,EqualityandHumanRightsCommission,https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/equality-measurement-framework
Atkinson,A.B.(2015).Inequality:Whatcanbedone?Cambridge,Massachusetts:HarvardUniversityPress.
Brandolini,A.,andD'Alessio,G.(1998).‘Measuringwell-beinginthefunctioningspace’,Bancad'ItaliaRome.
Burchardt,T.andHick,R.(2017).‘InequalityandtheCapabilityApproach’,CASEpaper201,CentreforAnalysisofSocialExclusion,LondonSchoolofEconomics.
Burchardt,T.andVizard,P.(2011).‘‘Operationalizing’theCapabilityApproachasaBasisforEqualityandHumanRightsMonitoringinTwenty-first-centuryBritain’,JournalofHumanDevelopmentandCapabilities,12(1):91-119.
Candler,J.,Holder,H.,HosaliS.,Payne,A.M.,Tsang,T.,andVizard,P.(2011).TheHumanRightsMeasurementFramework:PrototypePanels,IndicatorSetandEvidenceBase,EHRCResearchreport81.
Chiappero-Martinetti,E.andSalardi,P.(2008).‘Well-beingprocessandconversionfactors:anestimation’HDCP-IRCWorkingPaperSeries03/2008HumanDevelopment,CapabilityandPovertyInternationalResearchCentre.
ClearyC.,TsangT.,andVizardP.(2014).‘TheChildren’sMeasurementFramework:anewindicator-basedtoolformonitoringchildren’sequalityandhumanrights’,ChildIndicatorsResearch,7(2):321–349.
Comim,F.,Qizilbash,M.,andAlkire,S.(2010).TheCapabilityApproach:Concepts,MeasuresandApplications,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Cowell,F.A.,andFlachaire,E.(2017).‘InequalitywithOrdinalData’,Economica,84,290-321.
Dang,A.(2014).‘AmartyaSen'sCapabilityApproach:AFrameworkforWell-BeingEvaluationandPolicyAnalysis?’,ReviewofSocialEconomy,72(4):460-484,DOI:10.1080/00346764.2014.958903
EHRC[EqualityandHumanRightsCommission](2011).HowfairisBritain?Equality,humanrightsandgoodrelationsin2010:TheFirstTriennialReview.London:EqualityandHumanRightsCommission.
EHRC[EqualityandHumanRightsCommission](2015).IsBritainfairer?Thestateofequalityandhumanrights2015.London:TheStationeryOffice.
EHRC[EqualityandHumanRightsCommission](2017).MeasurementFrameworkforEqualityandHumanRights,https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/publication-download/measurement-framework-equality-and-human-rights
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Introduction
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Ibrahim,S.(2006).‘FromIndividualtoCollectiveCapabilities:TheCapabilityApproachasaConceptualFrameworkforSelf-help’,JournalofHumanDevelopment,7(3):397-416,DOI:10.1080/14649880600815982.
IbrahimS.(2017).‘HowtoBuildCollectiveCapabilities:The3C-ModelforGrassroots-LedDevelopment’,JournalofHumanDevelopmentandCapabilities,18(2):197-222,DOI:10.1080/19452829.2016.1270918.
IMF[InternationalMonetaryFund](2017).IMFFiscalMonitor:TacklingInequality,InternationalMonetaryFund,http://www.imf.org/en/Publications/FM/Issues/2017/10/05/fiscal-monitor-october-2017
Kabeer,N.(2016).‘Leavingnoonebehind:thechallengeofintersectinginequalities’,inISSC,IDSandUNESCO,WorldSocialScienceReport2016,ChallengingInequalities:PathwaystoaJustWorld,UNESCOPublishing,Paris.
Niño-Zarazña,M.,Roope,L.,andTarp,F.(2016).‘Globalinequality:relativelylower,absolutelyhigher’,ReviewofIncomeandWealth,63(4):661-684.
Nolan,B.,Salverda,W.,Checchi,D.,Marx,I.,McKnight,A.,Tóth,I.G.,andvandeWerfhorst,H.G.(eds)(2014).ChangingInequalitiesandSocietalImpactsinRichCountries:ThirtyCountries’Experiences.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
Nussbaum,M.C.(2003).‘Capabilitiesasfundamentalentitlements:Senandglobaljustice’,FeministEconomics,9(2-3):33-59.
OECD[OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment](2015).InItTogether:WhyLessInequalityBenefitsAll,Paris:OECDPublishing.
OECD[OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment](2008).Growingunequal?IncomedistributionandpovertyinOECDcountries.Paris:OECDPublishing.
Oxfam(2016).AnEconomyforthe1%:Howprivilegeandpowerintheeconomydriveextremeinequalityandhowthiscanbestopped.OxfamBriefingPaper210.Availableat:https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/file_attachments/bp210-economy-one-percent-tax-havens-180116-en_0.pdf
Oxfam(2014).Evenitup:Timetoendextremeinequality.Availableat:https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/file_attachments/cr-even-it-up-extreme-inequality-291014-en.pdf
Piketty,T.(2014).Capitalinthetwenty-firstcentury.Cambridge,MA:TheBelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress.
Robeyns,I.(2017a).Wellbeing,FreedomandSocialJustice:TheCapabilityApproachRe-Examined.https://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/682/
Robeyns,I.(2017b).‘HavingTooMuch’,inJ.KnightandM.Schwartzberg(eds.)NOMOSLVI:Wealth.YearbookoftheAmericanSocietyforPoliticalandLegalPhilosophy,NewYorkUniversityPress.
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Salverda,W.,Nolan,B.,Checchi,D.,Marx,I.,McKnight,A.,Tóth,I.G.,andH.G.vandeWerfhorst(eds)(2014).ChangingInequalitiesandSocietalImpactsinRichCountries:AnalyticalandComparativePerspectives.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
Sen,A.K.(1979).‘EqualityofWhat?’TheTannerLectureonHumanValues,deliveredatStanfordUniversity.
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Sen,A.K.(1992).InequalityReexamined,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
Sen,A.K.(1993).‘CapabilityandWell-being’,inNussbaum,M.andSen,A.(ed)TheQualityofLife,Oxford:ClarendonPress.
Sen,A.K.(1999).DevelopmentAsFreedom,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
Sen,A.K.(2004).‘Capabilities,Lists,andPublicReason:ContinuingtheConversation’,FeministEconomics,10(3):77–80.
Sen,A.K.(2009).TheIdeaofJustice,London:AllenLane.
Stewart,F.(2016).‘Horizontalinequalities’,inISSC,IDSandUNESCO,WorldSocialScienceReport2016,ChallengingInequalities:PathwaystoaJustWorld,UNESCOPublishing,Paris.
Stiglitz,J.(2012).Thepriceofinequality:howtoday’sdividedsocietyendangersourfuture,NewYork:W.W.NortonandCo.
Sugden,R.(1993).‘Welfare,Resources,andCapabilities:AReviewofInequalityReexaminedbyAmartyaSen’,JournalofEconomicLiterature,31,194762.
Therborn,G.(2013).TheKillingFieldsofInequality,Cambridge:PolityPress.
UNDP[UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme](1990).HumanDevelopmentReport1990:ConceptandMeasurementofHumanDevelopment,UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme,http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr1990
Vizard,P.(2012).'EvaluatingComplianceusingQuantitativeMethodsandIndicators:LessonsfromtheHumanRightsMeasurementFramework',NordicJournalofHumanRightsSpecialIssue-QuantifyingHumanRights,3(12):30.
Vizard,P.andSpeed,L.(2015).‘ExaminingmultidimensionalinequalityanddeprivationinBritainusingthecapabilityapproach’,SpecialissueonCapabilityApproachandMultidimensionalWell-beinginHigh-incomeCountries,ForumforSocialEconomics,45(2-3):139-169.
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http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr1990https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0958-3_ch1
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Domain1.Lifeandhealth:Inequalityinthecapabilitytobealiveandtoliveahealthylife
Thelifeandhealthdomaincoversthecapabilitytobealive,toenjoylongevityandavoidprematuredeath.Inequalitymeasurescapturedifferencesinmortalityriskwhichmaybeduetodifferencesinexposuretodangeroussituations,lifestylefactorsanddifferencesinmedicaltreatment.Italsocaptureskeyhealthinequalitiesacrossphysicalandmentalhealthoutcomes.
Inrelationtoinequalityinprematuredeath,thisdomaincoversinstancesofdeathfromviolationsandinfringementsofpeople’ssafetyandsecuritybyindividuals,organisationsandthestate.Itincludesdeathfromnon-naturalcausesininstitutions(policecustody,prisons,carehomes,etc.)andasaresultofwar,conflictandprotest.Italsoincludesmeasuresthatcaptureunequalexposuretodeathasaresultofnaturaldisasters,climatechangeandotherenvironmentalfactors.
Oneofthemaincausesofprematuredeathisdisease.Inequalitiesexistduetodifferencesinexposure,lifestylefactorsanddifferencesinmedicaltreatment.Measuresareincludedforcommunicableandnon-communicablediseasemortality,withdifferencesinmortalityratescomputedacrosspopulationsub-groups.
Sub-domains:
1.A:Avoidprematuremortalitythroughdisease,neglect,injuryorsuicide
1.B:Beprotectedfrombeingkilledormurdered
1.C:Beprotectedfromnaturaldisastersandnon-naturalcausesofmortality
1.D:Achievethehighestpossiblestandardofgeneralhealth
1.E:Enjoygoodmentalhealth
1.F:Havegoodsexualandreproductivehealth
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Domain1:Lifeandhealth
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Forcedmigrationputssomepeopleatmuchgreaterriskofmortalityduringperiodsofflightandtransit.Thefailureofthestateinprotectingasylumseekers,refugeesandothersfacingforcedmigration(dueto,forexample,flood,famine,conflictorotherdisasters)canputsomeindividualsatmuchgreaterriskofmortality.Theinternationalcommunityhasaroletoplayhereandmanyactorshavearesponsibilityforkeepingsuchindividualssafe.
Gang-relatedhomicides,deathsresultingfrom‘terrorist’activityandsuspecteddeathsreportedas‘disappearances’arealsoincludedinthisdomain.AllegationsdatacollectedbyNGOscanbeusedtosupplementorreplaceofficialstatisticsorestimatessurveydatawhereofficialsourcesareknowntobeunreliable.
Thereareanumberofmeasuresdesignedtopick-upkeygenderinequalities:maternalmortality,livebirths,suicide,homicideanddomestichomicide.Fromaninequalityperspectivethereareimportantfactorsaffectingdifferencesbetweenmenandwomen:“Genderbiasesinpower,resources,entitlements,normsandvalues,andthewayinwhichorganizationsarestructuredandprogrammesarerundamagethehealthofmillionsofgirlsandwomen.Thepositionofwomeninsocietyisalsoassociatedwithchildhealthandsurvival–ofboysandgirls.”(WHO,2008).
Thehealthoutcomesincludedinthisdomainmakereferencetokeycapabilitiesrelatedtolivingalongandhealthylife.Theseincludeoverallsummarymeasuresofhealthylifeexpectancy,objectiveandsubjectivemeasuresofhealthstatus.Thecapabilitytoliveahealthylifeisaffectedbybiological,physicalandmentalfactors,economicresourcesandsocialconditionsintheenvironment,andtheirinteraction(Venkatapuram,2011).Unequaldistributionsofthesefactorsplayanimportantroleinshapinghealthinequalities(Marmot,2016).Peopleneedtobenefitequallyfromaccesstoqualityhealthservices,medicaladvancesinthetreatmentofdisease,shouldtheneedarise,andbeprotectedfromcommunicablediseases.Womenneedtoreceivetherighttreatmentandprotectionduringpregnancy,childbirthandinthepost-natalperiod.Thetreatmentandprotectionofchildren,particularlyduringthefirstfiveyearsoflife,isacriticalelement.
Medicaladvanceshavemadeconsiderableprogressinimprovinghealthoutcomesthroughthepreventionandtreatmentofdiseasesandthroughadvancesintraumaandneonatalcare.Thishascontributedtoincreasesinaveragelifeexpectancyinmanycountriesbuttheseadditionalyearsoflifearenotalwayshealthyandinequalitiesinhealthoutcomesremainhigh(McKnightandCowell,2014).Inaddition,thecostofmedicaladvancesandnewtreatmentsandtechnologiesputtheseoutofthereachofmany;contributingfurthertohealthinequalities.Also,someaspectsofhealth(forexample,mentalhealth)havenotreceivedthesamelevelofattentionorinvestmentandnewtypesofepidemic,suchasobesity,areontherise.
TheWorldHealthOrganisation(WHO)viewshealthinequitiesasavoidableinequalitiesinhealthbetweengroupsofpeoplewithinandbetweencountries.“Theseinequitiesarisefrominequalitieswithinandbetweensocieties.Socialandeconomicconditionsandtheireffectsonpeople’slivesdeterminetheirriskofillnessandtheactionstakentopreventthembecomingillortreatillnesswhenitoccurs.”(WHO,2008).
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Referencesandselectedreadings
Bartley,M.(2016).HealthInequality:AnIntroductiontoConcepts,TheoriesandMethods,PolityPress.
Marmot,M.(2016).TheHealthGap:TheChallengeofanUnequalWorld,Bloomsbury.
McKnight,A.andCowell,F.(2014)‘SocialImpacts:Health,HousingandIntergenerationalMobility’inSalverda,W.,Nolan,B.,Checchi,D.,Marx,I.,McKnight,A.,Tóth,I.G.,andH.G.vandeWerfhorst(eds)(2014)ChangingInequalitiesandSocietalImpactsinRichCountries:AnalyticalandComparativePerspectives,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
Spinakis,A.,Anastasiou,G.,Panousis,V.,Spiliopoulos,K.,Palaiologou,S.,andYfantopoulos,J.(2011).ExpertReviewandProposalsforMeasurementofHealthInequalitiesintheEuropeanUnion–FullReport.Luxembourg:EuropeanCommissionDirectorateGeneralforHealthandConsumers.
Venkatapuram,S.(2011).HealthJustice:AnArgumentfromtheCapabilitiesApproach,PolityPress.
WHO(2013).HandbookonHealthInequalityMonitoringwithaspecialfocusonlow-andmiddle-incomecountries.Luxembourg.
Measurementconsiderations
Manyoftheinequalitymeasuresinthisdomaincompareincidenceratesbetweenpopulationsub-groups.Forexample,livebirthsbygender,homicideratesbyagegroup,prevalenceofkeydiseases(suchasmalaria)bysexandage,ratesofobesitybysocio-economicgroup.Somemeasureordinalinequalitysuchasinequalityinself-reportedcurrenthealthstatus,andsomemeasureinequalityincontinuousvariablessuchasinequalityinmentalhealthscoreandinequalityinlifeexpectancy.
Thereisgenerallygoodqualitydataavailablefortheinequalitymeasuresincludedinthisdomain.ThisishelpedthroughanoverlapwithindicatorsthatformpartofUNSDGmonitoring.ThemappingbetweentheUNSDGindicatorsandMIFinequalitymeasurescanbefoundintheonlineversionoftheMIF.Inaddition,theworkoftheWHOhasalsohelpedtofacilitateaccesstogoodqualitydataonhealthandlifeinequalities.
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Domain1:Lifeandhealth
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Domain1:Sub-domains,indicatorsandmeasures
Sub-domain1.A:Avoidprematuremortalitythroughdisease,neglect,injuryorsuicide
Indicator1.1:Inequalityinlifeexpectancy
Measure1.1.1:Livebirthsbygender
Measure1.1.2:Perinatal,infantandunder5mortalityrates
Measure1.1.3:Inequalityinage-mortalityrates
Measure1.1.4:Periodlifeexpectancyatbirth,andages20,65and80
Indicator1.2:Specific-causemortalityrates
Measure1.2.1:Mortalityratesduetothetop5communicablediseases(countryspecific–e.g.influenza,HIV,malaria,tuberculosis,hepatitis)
Measure1.2.2:Mortalityratesduetothetop5non-communicablediseases(countryspecific–e.g.cardiovasculardisease,cancer,diabetes,chronicrespiratorydisease,hypertension,diseaserelatedtodietandnutrition)
Measure1.2.3:Maternalmortalityratio-thenumberofmaternaldeathsduringayearper100,000livebirths
Measure1.2.4:Mortalityrateattributedtounsafewater,unsafesanitationandlackofhygiene
Measure1.2.5:Age-standardizeddeathrateattributabletoairpollution(per100,000)
Measure1.2.6:Deathratedueto:(a)roadtrafficaccidentinjuries;(b)otherunintentionalinjuries
Measure1.2.7:Suicidemortalityrate
Sub-domain1.B:Beprotectedfrombeingkilledormurdered
Indicator1.3:Homicide
Measure1.3.1:Homiciderate
Measure1.3.2:Domestichomiciderate(withseparatereportingofrelationshipofvictimtoprincipalsuspect,includingpartnerhomicide)
Measure1.3.3:Raciallymotivated,religiouslymotivatedandhomophobichomiciderate
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Domain1:Lifeandhealth
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Sub-domain1.C:Beprotectedfromnaturaldisastersandnon-naturalcausesofmortality
Indicator1.4:Deathfromnaturaldisasters
Measure1.5.1:Deathsfromnaturaldisasters–earthquakes;volcaniceruptions;flood;fire;famine;draught;hurricane(typhoon/cyclone)
Indicator1.5:Deathratesfromnon-naturalcausesofmortality
Measure1.5.1:Deathsfromnon-naturalcausesduringorfollowingpolicecustody
Measure1.5.2:Deathsinprisons:(a)fromnon-naturalcauses;(b)self-inflicted
Measure1.5.3:Deathsfromnon-naturalcausesforpeopleresidentinhealthorsocialcareestablishments
Measure1.5.4:Deathsfromtortureandpoliticaloppression(Guidance–oktouseallegationsdatacollectedbyNGOs)
Measure1.5.5:Civiliandeathsasaresultofwar,conflict,unrestandprotest(Guidance-includesdisappearances–oktouseallegationsdatacollectedbyNGOs)
Sub-domain1.D:Achievethehighestpossiblestandardofgeneralhealth
Indicator1.6:Subjectiveevaluationofcurrenthealthstatusandtreatment
Measure1.6.1:Percentagewhoreportpoorcurrenthealthstatus
Measure1.6.2:Inequalityinself-reportedcurrenthealthstatus
Measure1.6.3:Percentagewhoaretreatedwithdignityandrespectinhealthtreatment
Indicator1.7:Prevalenceofkeydiseasesassociatedwithdeprivationandlowincome
Measure1.7.1:Prevalenceofnewinfectionsamonguninfectedpopulation,bysex,ageandkeypopulations:
(a)NumberofnewHIVinfectionsper1,000uninfectedpopulation;(b)Tuberculosisincidenceper100,000population;(c)Malariaincidenceper1,000population;(d)HepatitisBincidenceper100,000population
Measure1.7.2:Percentagerequiringinterventionsagainstneglectedtropicaldiseases
Indicator1.8:Healthylife
Measure1.8.1:Inequalityinhealthylifeexpectancy
Measure1.8.2:Prevalenceof:(a)Stuntinginyoungchildren;(b)undernourishment
Measure1.8.3:Ratesofobesity/PrevalenceofTypeIIdiabetes
Measure1.8.4:Percentagediagnosedwitheatingdisorders
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Domain1:Lifeandhealth
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Measure1.8.5:Ratesof:(a)alcoholism;(b)drugaddiction;(c)tobaccouse
Measure1.8.6:Prevalenceofasthma
Measure1.8.7:Percentagewhoreportparticipationinsport/physicalactivityonregularbasis
Indicator1.9:Limitingillnessanddisability
Measure1.9.1:Percentagewhoreportalong-standinghealthproblemordisabilitythatsubstantiallylimitstheirabilitytocarryoutnormalday-to-dayactivities
Sub-domain1.E:Enjoygoodmentalhealth
Indicator1.10:Mentalhealth
Measure1.10.1:Percentagewhoreportpoormentalhealthandwell-being
Measure1.10.2:Inequalityinmentalhealthscore
Sub-domain1.F:Havegoodsexualandreproductivehealth
Indicator1.11:Sexualandreproductivehealth
Measure1.11.1:Ratesofsexuallytransmittedinfections
Measure1.11.2:Percentageofwomenwithunmetneedforfamilyplanning
Measure1.11.3:Percentageofwomenwhohavegivenbirthinthelastfiveyearshavingdeliveryattendedbyaqualifiedhealthprofessional
Measure1.11.4:Percentageofwomenwhohavegivenbirthinthelastfiveyearswhoweregiventhechoiceofwheretogivebirthandbirthingmethod
Measure1.11.5:Percentageofwomeninthelastfiveyearswhohaveundergoneanunofficial,unregulatedabortion(agestandardisedrateper1,000womenaged15-44)
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Domain2:Physicalandlegalsecurity
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Domain2.Physicalandlegalsecurity:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoliveinphysicalsafetyandlegalsecurity
Thisdomaincoversthekeyelementsofphysicalsecuritythroughindicatorsandmeasuresthathighlightabsenceofphysicalsecurityaswellassubjectivemeasuresreportingindividuals’senseofphysicalsecurityandsafety.Toavoidinequalitiesinlegalsecurity,peopleneedtobeprotectedandtreatedequallyandfairlybythelaw.Thisdomaincoversinequalitiesintreatmentbeforethelawandwithincriminaloradministrativesystems.
Thedomaincoversbothobjectiveandsubjectivemeasuresofphysicalsecurity.Objectivemeasuresincludereportsoftheexperienceofphysicalviolencewhereincidentsaremeasuredinhouseholdsurveysaswellaspolicerecordedcrimesfromofficialstatistics.Specialattentionisgiventoviolenceagainstwomen(physical,sexualandpsychological).Inrecenttimesconsiderableprogresshasbeenmadeincollectingdataonthesetypesofviolence(WHO,2005).Subjectivemeasuresincludewhetherpeoplefeelphysicallysecureathome,intheirneighbourhoodandtheextenttowhichpeopleworryaboutphysicalattacks.Thesemeasuresareimportantforcapturingpeople’sactualexperiencesofviolenceandinsecurityandcanhelptoovercomesomeofthe
Sub-domains:
2.A:Befreefromviolenceincludingsexualandgender-basedviolence,domesticviolenceandviolencebasedonwhoyouare
2.B:Befreefromidentitybasedviolenceandhatecrimes
2.C:Befreefromcruel,inhumanordegradingtreatmentorpunishment
2.D:Livewithoutfearofhumiliation,harassment,orabusebasedonwhoyouare;feelabletogooutandtousepublicspacessafelyandsecurelywithoutfear
2.E:Knowyouwillbetreatedwithequality,fairnessandnon-discriminationbeforethelaw,withinthecriminaloradministrativesystems;includingtheabsenceofcorruption
2.F:Havefairandhumaneconditionsofdetention
2.G:Havethehumanrighttoidentity,name,genderandnationality
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Domain2:Physicalandlegalsecurity
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problemsrelatingtounder-reportingofcrimestothepolice;particularlysomeformsofphysicalviolencesuchasdomesticviolence,sexualassault,rapeandviolenceperpetratedagainstchildren.
Thephysicalmistreatmentofthoselivingininstitutions(carehomes,hospitals,etc.),includingthoseindetention(prison,securehospitals,policecustody)areidentifiedseparately,highlightingthespecialcircumstancesandvulnerabilityofpeopleinthesesituations.Thebehaviourofothersplaysanimportantroleinthecapabilityapproachasitcanbothconstrainaswellasenhanceindividuals’capabilities.
Otherformsofphysicalandpsychologicalviolationinfluencingpeople’scapabilitytobeandfeelphysicallysecureinclude:theincidenceoftortureandotherformsofinhumanordegradingtreatmentorpunishment,femalegenitalmutilation,harassment,kidnap,‘disappearance’,humantraffickingandarbitrarydetention.EvidenceintheformofreportedincidenceofthesetypesofcrimescollectedbyNGOsmaybeusedandcangiveamoreaccuratepicturethanofficialstatisticsinsomecountries.
Thelegalsystem,whichincludesthelawitselfaswellasbroaderlegalinstitutionsandpublicadministration,shouldtreatallmembersofthepopulationequallyandwithoutdiscrimination.Legalsecurityinmanysettingsisnotonlyinfluencedbyformallegalmechanismssuchasthestatejudiciary,anddifferentbranchesoftheformallegalsystem(constitutionallaw,domesticlaw,internationallaw,customarylaw,civillaw,etc.)butalsobybroaderlegalarrangementsandinstitutions(thequasi-legalsystem,forexample,complaintsmechanisms,tribunalsandombudsmen)andinformallegalsystems(forexample,theformalandinformalenforcementofreligiouscodessuchasSharialawandotherinformallegalcodes,customsandpractices).Asaresult,thisdomainisbroadlyconceptualisedinordertoincorporatethesedifferentfactors.
Thisdomaincapturesnotjusttheextenttowhichsomeindividualsaredisadvantagedbythelegalsystembutalsohowsomeadvantagedpeoplecanreceivepreferentialtreatment.Thismaybethroughthenature,scopeandrangeofbehavioursthatarecriminalised;disproportionatepowerandinfluenceinthesettingoflawsandhowlawsareenforced;howthosefoundguiltyofcommittingacrimearepunished(beingletoffwithoutchargeorthroughmorelenientsentences).Economicresourcesoftenplayakeyroleindeterminingaccesstojusticeandinequalitiesinlegaljustice.Thereissomeevidencethatincreasinginequalityhasbeenlinkedtoincreasesinsometypesofcrime(HaganandPeterson,1995;Rufrancos,etal.,2013),canunderminetheruleoflaw(Stiglitz,2012)andleadtoincreasesforpunitivepunishmentinsomecountries(Côté-Lussier,2016).Insomecountriesandcontextsthejudicialandlegalsystemcanbeweak,underdevelopedandbiased.Inothercountries,thedomesticlegalsystemisatoddswithinternationallyrecognisedhumanrights.Highqualitylegalrepresentationiscostlyandoftenfaroutofthereachofthemajority,andinsomecountriesreformingthelegalsystem,particularlyinrelationtolegalaid,isresultinginlessratherthanmoreaccesstojustice.Anumberofinequalitymeasuresareincludedtocapturetheseformsofinequality.
Thelegaltreatmentofchildrenintermsofparentalrights,rightsofchildrenandthetreatmentofminorsbeforethelawareallimportantaspectsoflegalsecurity.TheprinciplesdevelopedinthecontextoftheUNConventionontheRightsoftheChildprovideimportanceguidanceforbalancingtherightsofparentsontheonehand,andtherightsofthechild,togetherwiththeneedforlegalspecialprotectionofthechild,ontheother.
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Domain2:Physicalandlegalsecurity
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Measurementconsiderations
Thedevelopmentofinequalityindicatorsandtheirinterpretationofmeasuresofinequalityinthisdomaincanbecomplicatedbythefactthatsomeofthemeasuresrelatetoillegal,covertandconcealedactivities,forexample,torturebythestateandhumantrafficking.Thisincreasestheneedtotriangulatethroughtheuseofmultiplesources(forexample,inthecontextoftorture,usingNGOandhumanrightsallegationsdata).
Intermsofinequalityinphysicalsecurityandpersonalsafety,mostoftheindicatorsprovidemeasuresonwhetherornotindividualshaveexperiencedaformofphysicalviolence,maltreatmentorintimidation(includingbullyingandidentity-basedviolence).Inequalitymeasuresadoptedtypicallyquantifydifferencesintheincidenceofphysicalviolenceandmaltreatmentbetweenpopulationsub-groupscoveringthemainareasofviolentcrime,sexualanddomesticviolence,hatecrimes,cruelty,physicalpunishmentanddegradingtreatment.Ifpossible,andwhereappropriate,measuresofinequalityshouldincludebreakdownsforkeypopulationgroups.Ifinformationonthenumberofincidentsisavailablethiscanbeusedtocomputeaninequalitymeasuretocapturerepeatvictimisation,whichisoftenanimportantfeatureof,forexample,domesticandsexualviolence.
Whereinformationisavailableasanordinalscale(forexample,forperceptionsofsafetyavailablefromsurveyswhereindividualsindicatewhethertheyfeel:verysafe/quitesafe/notsafe/veryunsafe),anordinalinequalitymeasurecanbecomputed.
Insomecountriesitwillbeimportanttoincorporatequasi-legalsystems:villagecouncilsetc.;roleofeldersandreligious‘courts’andlaws.
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Referencesandselectedreadings
Côté-Lussier,C.(2016).“HowRisingSocialInequalityMayBeFuelingPublicDemandsforIncreasinglyHarshCriminalJusticePolicies.”LSEUSAPPBlog.
Diprose,R.(2007).‘Safetyandsecurity:Aproposalforinternationallycomparableindicatorsofviolence’.OPHIWorkingPaper1,UniversityofOxford.
Hagan,J.,andPeterson,R.D.(eds.)(1995).CrimeandInequality.Stanford,California:StanfordUniversityPress.
Lacey,N.,andSoskiceD.(2015).‘Crime,punishmentandsegregationintheUnitedStates:Theparadoxoflocaldemocracy’.PunishmentandSociety.17(4):454–481
Rufrancos,H.G.,Power,M.,Pickett,K,E.andWilkinson,R.(2013).‘IncomeInequalityandCrime:AReviewandExplanationoftheTime–seriesEvidence’,SociologyandCriminology-OpenAccess.
Stiglitz,J.(2012).‘JusticeforAll?HowInequalityisErodingtheRuleofLaw’,inThePriceofInequality,AllenLane.
Vizard,P.(2012).'EvaluatingComplianceusingQuantitativeMethodsandIndicators:LessonsfromtheHumanRightsMeasurementFramework',NordicJournalofHumanRightsSpecialIssue-QuantifyingHumanRights,3(12):30,239–278.
Vizard,P.,andSpeed,L.(2015)‘ExaminingmultidimensionalinequalityanddeprivationinBritainusingthecapabilityapproach’,SpecialissueonCapabilityApproachandMultidimensionalWell-beinginHigh-incomeCountries’,ForumforSocialEconomics,45(2-3):139-169,DOI:10.1080/07360932.2014.997267
WHO[WorldHealthOrganisation](2005).WHOmulti-countrystudyonwomen'shealthanddomesticviolenceagainstwomen,http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/9241593512/en/
http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/9241593512/en/http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/usappblog/2016/01/28/how-rising-social-inequality-may-be-fueling-public-demands-for-increasingly-harsh-criminal-justice-policies/http://www.ophi.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/OPHI_wp01.pdf
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Domain2:Sub-domains,indicatorsandmeasures
Sub-domain2.A:Befreefromviolenceincludingsexualandgender-basedviolence,domesticviolenceandviolencebasedonwhoyouare
Indicator2.1:Violentcrime
Measure2.1.1:Percentageofpopulationsubjectedtophysical,psychologicalorsexualviolenceintheprevious12months,withseparatereportingofphysicalassault,rapeandassaultbypenetration(includingattempts)andothersexualviolence,andbygenderandage
Measure2.1.2:Percentageofever-partneredwomenandgirlsaged15yearsandoldersubjectedtophysical,sexualorpsychologicalviolencebyacurrentorformerintimatepartnerintheprevious12months,byformofviolence,andbyage
Measure2.1.3:Percentageofwomenandgirlsaged15yearsandoldersubjectedtosexualviolencebypersonsotherthananintimatepartnerintheprevious12months,byageandplaceofoccurrence
Measure2.1.4:Percentageofchildrenaged0-17yearswhoexperiencedanyphysicalpunishmentand/orpsychologicalaggressionbycaregiversinthepastmonth
Measure2.1.5:Percentageofchildrenaged0-15yearswhoexperiencedanysexualviolenceintheprevious12months
Sub-domain2.B:Befreefromidentifybasedviolenceandhatecrimes
Indicator2.2:Hatecrime
Measure2.2.1:Percentagethatarevictimsofhatecrimeby:(a)race;(b)religion;(c)genderidentity;(d)overall
Sub-domain2.C:Befreefromcruel,inhumanordegradingtreatmentorpunishment
Indicator2.3:Bodilyandpsychologicalintegrity,andphysicalsecurity
Measure2.3.1:Percentageofgirlsandwomenaged15-49yearswhohaveundergonefemalegenitalmutilation/cutting,byage
Measure2.3.2:Percentageofpopulationvictimofphysical,psychologicalorsexualharassment,bysex,age,disabilitystatusandplaceofoccurrence,intheprevious12months
Measure2.3.3:Numberofvictimsofhumantraffickingper100,000population,bysex,ageandformofexploitation(Guidance-cansupplementthroughuseofdatacollectedbyNGOsandhumanrightsbodies)
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Domain2:Physicalandlegalsecurity
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Measure2.3.4:Numberofverifiedcasesofkidnapping,enforceddisappearance,arbitrarydetentionandtortureofjournalists,associatedmediapersonnel,tradeunionistsandhumanrightsadvocatesintheprevious12months(Guidance-cansupplementthroughuseofallegationsdatacollectedbyNGOsandhumanrightsbodies)
Indicator2.4:Physicalsecurityforpeopleresidentordetainedinpublicandprivateinstitutions
Measure2.4.1:Ratesofphysicalassaultsin:policedetention;prison;refugeecamps;immigrationdetentioncentres;childreninresidentialcare;youngoffenderinstitutions;mentalhealthinstitutions
Measure2.4.2:Ratesofelderabuseandotherabuseofthenon-privatehouseholdpopulation
Sub-domain2.D:Livewithoutfearofhumiliation,harassment,orabusebasedonwhoyouare;feelabletogooutandtousepublicspacessafelyandsecurelywithoutfear
Indicator2.5:Fearforpersonalsafety
Measure2.5.1:Percentagethatfeelveryunsafeorunsafebeingaloneathomeand/orinlocalarea(duringthedayandafterdark)
Measure2.5.2:Percentagethatfeelveryworried/worriedaboutphysicalattack,sexualassault,intimidationandacquisitivecrime
Measure2.5.3:Percentageconcernedabouttheirpersonalsafetyusingpublictransport(duringthedayandafterdark)
Measure2.5.4:Percentagepayingforsecurity:(a)forpersonalprotection;(b)securityguardsprotectingprivateproperty;(c)toliveingatedcommunities
Sub-domain2.E:Knowyouwillbetreatedwithequality,fairnessandnon-discriminationbeforethelaw,withinthecriminaloradministrativesystems;includingtheabsenceofcorruption
Indicator2.6:Equaltreatmentbythepoliceandthelegalsystem
Measure2.6.1:Percentageofpopulationaged16+byage,sexandkeypopulations,whothepolicehave:(a)stoppedonfootorinvehicles;(b)stoppedandsearched;(c)conductedunannouncedproperty/dwellingsearch
Measure2.6.2:Percentagewhoareconfidentthatthecriminaljusticesystem(police,courts,prisonandprobationservice):(a)meetstheneedsofvictims;(b)respectstherightsofthoseaccusedofanoffenceandtreatsthemfairly
Measure2.6.3:Shareofthepopulationwhobelievethatthepublicadministrationmakefairandimpartialdecisions
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Indicator2.7:Offencesreportedandbroughttojustice:Rape,domesticviolenceandhatecrime
Measure2.7.1:Numberofcasesofrapeestimatedfrompopulationsurveysources,comparedwiththenumberofcasesreportedtoandrecordedbythepolice,andthenumberoflegalcasessuccessfullyprosecuted
Measure2.7.2:Numberofcasesofdomesticviolenceestimatedfrompopulationsurveysources,comparedwiththenumberofcasesreportedtoandrecordedbythepolice,andthenumberoflegalcasessuccessfullyprosecuted
Measure2.7.3:Numberofcasesofhatecrimeestimatedfrompopulationsurveysources,comparedwiththenumberofcasesreportedtoandrecordedbythepolice,andthenumberoflegalcasessuccessfullyprosecutedby:(a)race;(b)religion;(c)genderidentity;(d)overall
Indicator2.8:Fairandequaltreatmentwithinthelegalsystem
Measure2.8.1:Percentageofthepopulationwhobelievethatpoorpeoplearetreatedworsebythepolice
Measure2.8.2:Percentageofthepopulationwhobelievethatthepolicemakefairandimpartialdecisions
Measure2.8.3:Perceptionofhowfairthecourtsaretomajorityversusminorityrace/ethnicgroup
Measure2.8.4:Trustinthecriminaljusticesystem:(a)trustincourts’proceduralfairnessandtrustintheircompetence;(b)trustinthepolice
Measure2.8.5:Perceptionsofjudicialandpolicecorruptions:(a)howoftenthepolicetakebribes;(b)howoftenjudgestakebribes
Measure2.8.6:Sentencingdisparities:evidencebygender,race/ethnicgroup,economicorsocialstatus
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Sub-domain2.F:Havefairandhumaneconditionsofdetention
Indicator2.9:Detention:Numbers,physicalconditionsandrightsofdetainees
Measure2.9.1:Detentionnumbersandconditionsinprisons(includesprisonpopulationnumbers,lifesentences,numbersfacingadeathpenaltyandprisonconditionssuchasovercrowding,sanitationandvisitingrights)
Measure2.9.2:Detentionandconditionsinotherestablishments:(a)Youngoffenderinstitutions;(b)Securehospitals;(c)Immigrationcentres;(d)Militaryprisons;(e)Housearrest
Measure2.9.3:Percentageofthepopulationheldwithoutcharge
Sub-domain2.G:Havethehumanrighttoidentity,name,genderandnationality
Indicator2.10:Enjoyrighttoidentity,name,genderandnationality
Measure2.10.1:Percentageofchildrenunder5yearsofagewhosebirthshavebeenregisteredwithacivilauthority,byage
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Domain3:Educationandlearning
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Domain3.Educationandlearning:Inequalityinthecapabilitytobeknowledgeable,tounderstandandreason,andtohavetheskillstoparticipateinsociety
Thecapabilitytobeknowledgeable,tounderstandandreason,andtohavetheskillstoparticipateinsocietyisacriticallifedomain.Thecapabilitytofunctionasaknowledgeablelearnerisbothimportantinitsownrightbutalsocontributestotheexpansionandequalityofcapabilitiesinotherspheresoflife.
Thecapabilityapproachmotivatesustolookbeyondsimplehumancapitalstylemeasuresofeducationoutcomesasitrecognisesthatknowledgebestowsarangeofnon-pecuniarybenefits.Forexample,ayearofschoolingisaproblematicunitformeasuringeducation,asitdoesnotreflectthequalityorcontentofwhatwaslearntinthatyear(FerreiraandGignoux,2013).Thisdomainalsocapturesoutcomeswhichreflecttheextenttowhichindividualsarefulfilledandstimulatedintellectually,includingbeingcreative.Expandingeducationalcapabilitycanenhancethequalityoflifeforindividualsbyenablingthemtoparticipateinactivitiessuchasreadingabookorenjoyinganartexhibition,whichbrings‘intrinsicpleasure’(OECD,2011).
Thisdomaincoversinequalitiesineducationcapabilitiesoverthelife-course,fromearlydevelopmentthroughtoadulthood,throughproxymeasuresofparticipation,accessand
Sub-domains:
3.A:Attainthehighestpossiblestandardofknowledge,understandingandreasoningthroughaccesstoeducation,trainingandlifelonglearningthatmeetsindividualneeds
3.B:Evidenceoffinancialconstraintslimitingattainmentandunequalaccesstoeliteeducationopportunities
3.C:Accessinformationandtechnologynecessarytoparticipateinsociety
3.D:Developcriticalthinking,activeandglobalcitizenship,knowledgeandunderstandingofhumanrights
3.E:Betreatedwithdignityandrespectineducationandlearningestablishments
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Domain3:Educationandlearning
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attainment(achievedfunctionings)andknowledge.Thedomainincludesmeasuresofbasicskillsandlowlevelsofeducationalattainment(includinglackofeducationalqualifications)butalsomeasuresofhighattainment,unequalaccesstoeliteeducationopportunities,andinformationandcommunicationtechnologyskills.
Thedomaincoversthepreparednessofyoungchildrensettoentertheformaleducationsystemtomeasuredifferencesbetweenchildrenintermsoftheirpositiontobenefitfullyandequallyfromformalschooling.Researchhasaffirmedthesignificanceofearlychildhooddevelopmentforfuturehealth,behaviourandlearning(ShonkoffandRicther,2013).Theearlyyearsarecriticalasthebraindevelopsmostrapidlyinthefirstfewyearsofachild’slife.Nurturingcare,aswellasadequatenutritionandasafeenvironment,areallnecessaryelementsthatallowforhealthycognitivedevelopment,andcontributetotheschoolreadinessofyoungchildren.
Theunequaltreatmentofpupilswithinschools,includingbullyingfromotherchildrenandilltreatmentbyteacherscanbeimportantdeterminantsofeducationoutcomesandsuchexperiencescanhavealongtermnegativeimpactonattitudestolearningandoutcomesinadulthood(WolkeandLereya,2015).Thedomainalsolooksbeyondschoolingtoincludelifelonglearningandknowledgerequiredtoparticipateinsociety;includingtechnologicalskills;skillsrelatedtoaccessinginformationheldontheinternetandtheskillstodistinguishbetweeninformationofdifferingquality.
Thecapabilityapproachrecogniseshumandiversitybothintermsofresources(thismaybeinnateability)andintermsofdiversityintastesandpreferences,andindividualchoice(Sen,1992).Wearealsointerestedinunderstandingeducationandlearninginequalitieswhicharedrivenbydifferencesintheabilityofindividualstoconvertresourcesintooutcomesratherthansimplylookingatinequalitiesinoutcomes.
Autonomytochoose(agency)ismorecomplexinthisthaninmanyotherdomainsasparentstypicallymakechoicesonbehalfoftheirchildren.AsWalker(2006)notes,educationplaysacriticalroleinthedevelopmentofadultcapabilitiesacrossanumberofspheres.Thisthereforeprovidessomeconflictbetweenvaluingchildren’sfreedomtochoosewhetherornottoattendschoolandthefreedomstheywillhaveintheiradultlives;achildmay,giventhechoice,decidenottoattendschoolwithoutfullycomprehendingthatthiswillreducetheiropportunitiesinadultlifeandleadtorestrictedfutureindividualfreedomsandagency.Furthermore,improvingeducationwithinsocietyalsofacilitatesgreaterdemocracyandenablesdisadvantagedgroupsto'increasetheirabilitytoresistinequalitiesandgetafairerdealinandthrougheducation'(VaughanandWalker,2012).
Measurementconsiderations
Inequalitiesinthisdomainincludedifferencesinattainmentbetweengroups-age,gender,ethnicity,religion,indigenouspeople,childreninvulnerablesituations–aswellasfamilybackground.Inequalityisalsoassessedthroughmeasuresofoverallinequalityineducationalattainment,ordinalinequalitymeasuresbasedonhighestlevelofeducationalattainmentandevidenceofelitism.
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Referencesandselectedreadings
Antoninis,M.,Delprato,M.andBenavot,A.(2016).‘Inequalityineducation:Thechallengeofmeasurement’,inISSC,IDSandUNESCO,WorldSocialScienceReport2016,ChallengingInequalities:PathwaystoaJustWorld,UNESCOPublishing,Paris.
Ferreira,F.H.G.,andGignoux,J.(2013).‘TheMeasurementofEducationalInequality:AchievementandOpportunity’,TheWorldBankEconomicReview,28(2):210-246.DOI:10.1093/wber/lht004
OECD(2011).EducationataGlance2011,Paris:OECD.https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/education-at-a-glance-2011_eag-2011-en
Shonkoff,J.P.,andRicther,L.(2013).‘Thepowerfulreachofearlychildhooddevelopment:ascience-basedfoundationforsoundinvestment’,inBritto,P.R.,Engle,P.L.,Super,C.S.(eds.)HandbookofEarlyChildhoodDevelopmentResearchanditsImpactonGlobalPolicy.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1-23
Vaughan,R.,andWalker,M.(2012).‘Capabilities,valuesandeducationpolicy’,JournalofHumanDevelopmentandCapabilities,13(3):495-512
Walker,M.(2006).‘Towardsacapability-basedtheoryofsocialjusticeforeducationpolicy-making’,JournalofEducationPolicy,21(2):163-185.
Wolff,J.,andDe-Shalit,A.(2007).Disadvantage,NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
Wolke,D.,andLereya,S.T.(2015).‘Long-termeffectsofbullying’,ArchivesofDiseaseinChildhood,100(9):879–885.http://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2014-306667
https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/education-at-a-glance-2011_eag-2011-enhttps://adc.bmj.com/content/100/9/879
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Domain3:Educationandlearning
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Domain3:Sub-domains,indicatorsandmeasures
Sub-domain3.A:Attainthehighestpossiblestandardofknowledge,understandingandreasoningthroughaccesstoeducation,trainingandlifelonglearningthatmeetsindividualneeds
Indicator3.1:Basicskills
Measure3.1.1:Percentageofpeopleofworkingageachievingfunctionalliteracyandnumeracyskills
Measure3.1.2:Inequalityinmathsandreadingskills(measuredbyage15)
Measure3.1.3:Percentageofchildrenunder5yearsofagewhoaredevelopmentallyontrackinlearning
Indicator3.2:Educationalattainmentandschooling
Measure3.2.1:Percentageofeachagegroupcompleting:(a)primaryeducation;(b)secondaryeducation;(c)furthereducationoryouthtraining;(d)highereducation
Measure3.2.2:Inequalityineducationalattainment(ISCED20110-8levels)forpopulationaged25+years(yearsofschoolingifattainmentismissing)
Measure3.2.3:Educationalattainmentbyfamilybackground
Measure3.2.4:Percentageof16-18yearoldsnotineducation,employmentortraining
Indicator3.3:Participationinlifelonglearning
Measure3.3.1:Percentageofpopulationaged25+yearswhohaveparticipatedinformalorinformallearninginlast12months
Sub-domain3.B:Evidenceoffinancialconstraintslimitingattainmentandunequalaccesstoeliteeducationopportunities
Indicator3.4:Evidenceofeducationelitism
Measure3.4.1:Percentageofyoungpeopleunabletopursuefurtherorhighereducationduetofinancialconstraints
Measure3.4.2:Percentageofsecondaryschoolpopulationattendingprivatefee-payingschools
Measure3.4.3:Evidenceofunequalaccesstoprestigiouseducationinstitutionsduetodiscriminatoryadmissionsproceduresbygender,race/ethnicity,socio-economicstatus
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Domain3:Educationandlearning
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Sub-domain3.C:Accessinformationandtechnologynecessarytoparticipateinsociety
Indicator3.5:Useoftheinternetandtechnology
Measure3.5.1:Percentageofpopulationwhohaveusedtheinternetforanypurposewithinthelast3months,byage
Measure3.5.2:Percentageofyouthandadultswithinformationandcommunicationstechnology(ICT)skills,bytypeofskill
Sub-domain3.D:Developcriticalthinking,activeandglobalcitizenship,knowledgeandunderstandingofhumanrights
Indicator3.6:Criticalthinkingandawarenessofrights
Measure3.6.1:Percentagewhohaveknowledgeandunderstandingofhumanrightsandconsumerrights,etc.,through:(a)inclusiononschoolcurriculum;(b)campaigns,literatureandpublicevents
Sub-domain3.E:Betreatedwithdignityandrespectineducationandlearningestablishments
Indicator3.7:Treatmentineducationandlearningestablishments
Measure3.7.1:Percentageofthoseattendingwhosaytheyare:(a)treatedwithrespectatschoolorcollege;(b)haveexperiencedbullyingorviolenceataneducationalestablishment
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Domain4:Financialsecurityanddignifiedwork
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Domain4.Financialsecurityanddignifiedwork:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoachievefinancialindependenceandsecurity,enjoydignifiedandfairwork,andrecognitionofunpaidworkandcare
Thecapabilitytobefinanciallysecureandenjoyfinancialindependenceisanimportantelementofwell-being.Inaddition,economicinequalitiesplayakeyroleinshapinginequalitiesinotherlifedomains.Measuresincludeincomeandwealthinequality,ratesofpovertyandmaterialdeprivation,incomeinsecurityandfinancialresilience,includingmeasuresdesignedtocaptureadvantageaswellasdisadvantage.Thisdomainalsocoversaspectsofwork;animportantelementofwell-beingnotjustbecauseitprovidesanincomebutbecauseworkerscanenjoyarangeofnon-pecuniarybenefits.Inequalitiesincludedifferencesinworkingconditionsandunequalaccesstothetopjobs.
Manyhavearguedforexaminingeconomicinequalitiesalongsidearange