midterm and finals

8/10/2019 Midterm and Finals

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CHAPTER VRESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A. Research Locale

This discusses the place or setting of the study. It describes in brief the place wherethe study is to be conducted. Only important features which have bearing on the proposedstudy are to be included. It should show the target population.

B. Research Design

This describes the research mode whether it is a true experimental, quasi-experimental design, descriptive or survey research, historical research, qualitative research,ethnographic and other research methods.

Basic Classifications of Research Studies

1. Exploratoryconducted when little is known about the phenomenon of interest;qualitative studies

e.g. Study that examines the needs of family members of a patient who will bereceiving antibiotics at home by IV push method.

2. a. Descriptive- normative - data are gathered by asking questions related to theissue of interest and provides information of the demographic nature ofpopulation (e.g. births, deaths, age, income, sex, IQ, civil status, etc).

b. Descriptive-Correlational - describes the relationship between variables

3.Explanatory Studiessearches for causal explanations and are much more rigorousthan exploratory or descriptive; experimental studies

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

A. Experimental Research Designs- concerned with cause-and-effect relationships

Essential Characteristics of Experimental Research

The basic idea underlying all experimental research is really quite simple: try

something and systematically observe what happens. Formal experiments consists of twoconditions:

1) At least two (but often more) conditions or methods are compared to assessthe effects(s) of particular conditions on treatments (the independentvariable); and

2) The independent variable is directly manipulated by the researcher.


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Example:The study sought to determine which of the two types of blankets, convectiveairflow blanket or conducive water-flow blanket, is more effective in cooling criticallyill patients with fever. Patients were randomly assigned to two types of blankets(independent variable) and measuring the dependent variable (body temperature)twice, before and after the intervention.

Symbolic Representation:R O1 X O2R O1 O2

R= RandomizationO= Observation or measurementX= Treatment or intervention

2. Solomon Four-Group DesignThis involves two experimental groups and two control groups. This design is effectiveto eliminate the possible influence of pre-testing on the results of the study.

GroupData

CollectionBefor

eAfter

Experimental- w/ pretest X XExperimental-w/o pretest X

Controlw/ pretest X XControlw/o pretest X

3. Factorial DesignThis design permits the testing of two or more hypothesis or the manipulation of two or

more independent variables. It does not only determine the main effects but also theinteraction effects (effects resulting from combining treatments).Example:A study will be undertaken in order to compare two therapeutic strategiesfor premature infants: tactile stimulation versus auditory stimulation. At the same time,the researchers are interested in learning if daily amount of stimulation (15, 30 or 45minutes) affects infants progress. The dependent variable is the measure of infantdevelopment based on the weight gain. (2 X 3 design)

AuditoryA1

TactileA2

15 Mins.B1

A1 B1A2 B1

30 mins.B2 A1 B2 A2 B2

45 mins.B3 A1 B3 A2 B3


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4. Randomized Block DesignIn this design there are two factors (independent Variables) but one factor is notexperimentally manipulated. Suppose that you are interested in comparing the effects oftactile versus auditory stimulation for male versus female infants. This is structured as2X2 experiment, with type of stimulation as one factor and gender as the other. Thevariable gender which cannot be manipulated is known as blocking variable.

5. Crossover DesignThis is also known as repeated measures design.This involves the exposure of thesame subjects to more than one experimental treatment.

II. Quasi-Experimental Designs

They are like true experiments, but some characteristics of a true experiment are notmet such as randomization, control, or validity.

1. Nonequivalent Control Group

1.1.Nonequivalent Control Group Pretest-Posttest DesignInvolves an experimental treatment and two groups of subjects observed beforeand after its implementation but no randomization.

Symbolic Representation:O1 X O2O1 O2

1.2.Nonequivalent Control Group Only Posttest DesignSymbolic Representation:

X OO

2. Time Series DesignA quasi-experimental design involving the collection of data over an extended timeperiod, with multiple data collection points both prior and after an intervention. Canforecast short term trends and can be interpreted easily.Example: Customer satisfaction rate, Graduation rates

Symbolic Representation:O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8

III. Pre-Experimental Designs: Is needed because there are many independentvariables (IV) that cannot be manipulated. The researcher investigates condition thatnaturally occur or that have already occurred. The researcher studies how variables arerelated. Example of categorical variables that cannot be manipulated: gender, parentingstyles, learning styles, ethnicity, personality type, drug use, retention in gradeExample of quantitative variable that cannot be manipulated:


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1.1Post-test Design or After only Design

Symbolic Representation:

Timex O (Observation/ Testing/ Survey)

The design is also called as One Shot Survey. This design is used when the study objectiveis to describe a situation/ condition of a study population as it exist, or to describe/determine the characteristics of a population/ respondents. There is no baseline data.

1.2 Pretest- Posttest design or Before- After Survey

Symbolic Representation:

X (Intervention)O1 O2

Observation/ Survey Observation/ Survey 2

(Before X) (After X)

This design is used when the study wants to know the change in characteristics (e.g.knowledge, attitude, practices) of the study population (students, nurses, managers, clients,etc) in a given area. A survey, observation or testing is conducted before an intervention isintroduced (O1). After a period of time the survey, observation, or testing is repeated (O2)and the results of the pretest (before) and the posttest (after) are compared to determinechange/s.For example: Comparing grades prior to gaining the work experience to the grades aftercompleting a semester of work experience.

1.3Static Group Comparison

Symbolic Representation:Time

Experimental Group X O1

Control Group O2

In the static group design, there are two groups involved, an experimental and a controlgroup. The experimental group receives or is exposed to the intervention/ treatment (x).This is followed by a measurement (O1), the result of the measurement/ observation from acontrol group (O2) that did not receive the intervention. The random process, however,

was not used in the assignment of subjects to the experimental and control group (indicatedby a broken line).

Validity of Experimental Designs

In experimental studies, as well as in other types of research, the researcher isinterested in controlling extraneous variables, those variables that the researcher is not ableto control, or does not choose to control and that may influence the results of a study.


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Internal Validityrefers to the extent to which it is possible to make an inferencethat the independent variable is truly causing or influencing the dependent variable and thatthe relationship between the two is not the spurious effect of an extraneous variable.

External Validity- refers to the generalizability of the research findings to othersettings or samples.

Threats to Internal Validity1. History this refers to the occurrence of external events that take place concurrently

with the independent variable that can affect the dependent variable.2. Selectionencompasses biases resulting from preexisting differences between groups.3. Maturationrefers to the processes occurring within subjects during the course of the

study as a result of the passage of time rather than as a result of a treatment orindependent variable. (e.g. physical growth, emotional maturity, fatigue, etc)

4. Testingrefers to the effects of taking pretest of subjects performance on a posttest.5. Instrumentation reflects changes in measuring instruments or methods of

measurement between two points of data collection.

6. Mortalitythe threat that arises from differential attrition in groups being compared.

Threats to External Validity1. Expectancy Effects. Subjects may behave in a particular manner largely because they

are aware of their participation in a study (Hawthorne Effect/Reactive Effect).2. Novelty Effects. When a treatment is new, subjects and research agents alike might

alter their behavior in various ways. People may be either enthusiastic or skeptical aboutnew methods of doing things.

3. Interaction of History and Treatment Effect. The results may reflect the impact of thetreatment and some other events external to the study.

4. Experimenter Effect. Subjects behavior may be affected by characteristics of theresearchers.

5. Measurement Effects. Researchers collect a considerable amount of data in moststudies, such as pretest information, background data, etc. The results may not apply toanother group of people who are not also exposed to the same data collectionprocedures.

6. Halo Effect. Tendency of a researcher to rate subjects high or low because ofimpression

7. Specificity of variables concerned with extent to which the variables of the study areadequately described and operationally defined.

8. Multiple treatment Interference. Due to multiple spurious variable that were taken bythe respondents.

III. NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

III.A. Survey Method. It is a research method in which data are gathered by askingquestions related to the issue of interest. This is also known as Descriptive-NormativeSurvey and provides information of the demographic nature of population (e.g. births,deaths, age, income, sex, IQ, civil status, etc). It is a systematic and organizedcollection, analysis, and reporting of primary data.


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The statistical tools to be used in this type of research are descriptive statistics offrequencies, proportions, or percentages, means, standard deviations.

Three major characteristics that all surveys possess:- Information is collected from a group of people in order to describe some

aspects or characteristics of the population of which that group is a part.- The main way in which the information is collected is through asking questions

by the members of the group constitute the data of the study.- Information is collected from a sample rather than from every member of the

population.Purpose of Conducting Surveys- Describe the characteristics of a population. Population as a whole is rarely

studied. Instead, a carefully selected sample of respondents is surveyed and adescription of the population is inferred from what is found out about thesample.

Major Types of Surveys

1. Cross-sectional survey-collects information from a sample that has been drawnfrom a predetermined population. Census- when an entire population is surveyed

Studies a phenomena as it occurs at one time; examines current attitudes, beliefs,practices, measure needs, problem or assess large scale data.

Compares 2 or more groups to investigate possible developmental differences orrelationships.

Example: A study is conducted on the amount of nursing care a patient receives oncertain days according to categorization of needs and problems.

2. Longitudinal survey- collects information at different points in time in order tostudy changes over time. Longitudinal studies are often used in psychology to studydevelopmental trends across the life span, and in sociologyto study life eventsthroughout lifetimes or generations.

Forms/ Characteristics:1.1 Trend Studies. In trend studies, different samples from the same

population are surveyed at different points in time. The researcher wouldthen examine and compare responses from year to year to see if anytrend is apparent.

Example: Performance pay among nurse educator and nursing studentoutcomes from different schools

1.2 Prospective. A specific population taken from the sample population is

followed over a period of time whose number does not change over thecourse of the study.

Example: What will happen to cancer patients who are discharge fromthe hospital after six months?

1.3 Panel studies. The researcher selects a sample right at the beginningof the study and surveys the same individuals at different times duringthe course of the survey.

Example: Nurses turnover
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1.4 Retrospective studies. Collect data after event.Example: Patients notes were examined for information in relation to a

specific treatment and recovery.

Prospective and Panel studies are both a Cohort studies meaning a study that focuses ona group of people who share a common characteristic or experience within a defined period(e.g., are born, are exposed to a drug or vaccine or pollutant, or undergo a certain medicalprocedure).

Steps in Survey Research1. Problem Definition2. Formulating hypotheses3. Identification of target population - Targeting4. Mode of data collection5. Selection of the Sample6. Preparation of the instrument7. Preparation of the cover letter

8. Training of interviewers9. Data gathering10.Processing and analyzing data collected11.Writing and publishing the report

Mode of Data Collection- Direct administration to a groupthe instrument is administered to

all members of the group at the same time and usually in the sameplace.

- Mail survey the questionnaire is sent to each individual in thesample by mail with a request that it be completed and thenreturned in a given date.

- Telephone surveys the researcher asks questions of therespondents over the telephone

- Personal interview the researcher conducts a face-to-faceinterview with the respondents.

Selection of Sample

The subject to be surveyed should be selected from the population ofinterest. Researchers must ensure, however, that the subjects they intend toquestion possess the information the researcher wants to obtain and they will bewilling to answer these questions. Individuals who possess the necessary

information but who are uninterested in the topic of the survey are unlikely torespond. Accordingly, it is often a good idea for researchers to conductpreliminary inquiry about the potential respondents to assess their receptivity

Preparation of the Instrument

Types of instrumentsQuestionnaireself-administered by the respondents


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Interview Scheduleadministered verbally by trained researchers

III.B. Correlational Studies. Correlational research is also called descriptiveresearch. It describes the degree to which two or more quantitative variables are related,and it does so by use of a correlation coefficient. This is also known as Descriptive-Correlational Survey. It investigates possible positive or negative relationship amongvariables without trying to influence those variables. It cannot determine the cause ofrelationship but can suggest them.

The statistical tools to be used in this type of research are correlation andassociation measures, such as Pearson r, rho, chi-square, etc.

Purposes of Correlational Research- helps explain important human behavior- predict likely outcomes

For example: Relationship between body image perceptions of post-partum

African-American women and their weight.

III.C. CausalComparative Research (CCR). It is a research method whichallows researchers to investigate the possibility of accusable relationship among variablesthat can not, as in experimental research, be manipulated. It attempts to determine thecause or consequences of differences that already exist between and among groups ofindividuals. As a result it is sometimes viewed along with correlational research. CCR isimplemented as ex post factor(after the fact) manner/ Case control studies.For example: Cigarette smoking and lung cancer

HPV Exposure and cervical cancerChildrens behavior confronting health practitioners

This is also known as Descriptive-Comparative Survey, wherein the statistical tools to beused are t-test for independent samples, f-test, z-test, chi-square, ANOVA.

IIII.D. Causal- Explanatory. Going beyond a topic or providing a picture of acertain issue or phenomena. They are built on exploratory and descriptive research to goon to identify the reasons why something occurred or happened. Answering the `why'questions involves developing causal explanations.For example: People are more likely to be apprehended and convicted of crimes,

Gender affects choice of field of training which in turn affectsoccupationaloptions, which are linked to opportunities for promotion, which in turn affectincome level

IV. Evaluation Studies. This is directed towards making decisions about theeffectiveness or desirability of a program with the purpose of making judgment aboutalternatives in decision making situations . It is also conducted to assess performanceoutcome or impact of a set of variables on another one. This design considers an adequatetime span to pinpoint the effects accurately of a certain program, activity, curriculum andetc.

Evaluation Models:


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1. Objective Based Model2. IPO Model ( Input, Process, Outcome)3. CIPP Model ( Context, Input, Process, Product)4. DEM Model ( Discrepancy Evaluation Model)5. Kerrigan Model6. ABCD Model

For Example: Botika sa Barangay: A CIPP ModelAn Evaluative study of Takakura Composting

V. Exploratory Studies. Is undertaken to gather initial data patterns orcharacteristics of variables in a situation where studies have not been done orminimal data are available to establish significant pattern or relationship of variablesin a specific scope. In this study, the statement of hypothesis is not presentbecause one of the purpose of this study is to recommend possible hypothesis whichcan be tested in the future studies- explore a new topic or issue in order to learnabout it with the purpose of formulating more precise questions that future research

can answer.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Qualitative Research. Research studies that investigate the quality ofrelationship, activities, situations or materials are frequently referred to as qualitativeresearch.

Greater emphasis is on holistic description that is describing in detail all of what goeson in a particular activity or situation rather than on comparing the effects of a particulartreatment (as in experimental research), say, or on describing the attitude or behavior ofpeople (as in survey research).

General Characteristics

1. The natural setting is the direct source of data, and the researcher is the keyinstrument in qualitative research.

1. Data are collected in the form of words, or pictures rather than numbers/frominterview transcripts, field notes, photographs, audio recordings, videotapes,diaries, personal comments, memos, official records, etc.

2. Concerned with process as well as product (in how things occur e.g. how peopleinteract with each other, how certain kinds of questions are answered.

3. Analyze data inductively (logically). -Researchers are constructing a picture thattakes shape as they collect and examine the parts.

4. How people make sense of their lives is the major concern. Researchers doeshis or her best to capture the thinking of the participants from the participants

5. Perspective (as opposed to the researcher merely reporting what he or shethinks) as accurately as possible.


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Steps in Qualitative Research

1. Identification of the phenomenon to be studied.For example, a researcher wishes to conduct a study to investigate the

interaction between minority and non-minority students in an inner city high school.The phenomenon of interest is student interaction.

2. Identification of the participants in the studyThe participants are the samples of the study (purposive sample).

3. Generation of hypothesesHypothesis not posed at the beginning, instead, they emerge from the data

as the study progresses.

4. Data Collection.There is no treatment in a qualitative study, nor is there any manipulation of

subjects. Collection of data is on-going.

5. Data AnalysisInvolves synthesizing the information the researcher obtains from various

sources (e.g. observations, interviews, document analysis) into a coherentdescription of what he or she has observed or otherwise discovered.

6. Drawing conclusionsConclusions are drawn continuously throughout the course of the study.

Qualitative researchers tend to formulate their interpretations as they go along.

Techniques in Qualitative Research

1. Observationknowing how people act or how things look.The degree of observer participation can vary considerably ranging

on a continuum from complete participant to complete observer.a. Complete participanthis identity is not known to any of the individuals

being observed.b. Participants as observer he participates fully in the activities in the

group being studied, but also makes it clear that he is doing researchc. Observer as Participants identifies herself straight off as a researcher,

but makes no pretense of actually being a member of the group she isobserving.

d. Complete observerresearcher observes the activities of a group without

in any way becoming a participant in those activities.2. Interviewingcheck the accuracy ofto verify or refutethe impression he

or she has gained through observations. The purpose of interviewing peopleis to find out what is on their mindwhat they think or how they feel aboutsomething. In qualitative research, the use of five ws (what, where, when,who, why) and one h (how) is very necessary.

Four types of interview:


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Structured and semi-structured are verbal questionnaires. They are designedto elicit specific answers on the part of the respondents.

Informal interviews tend to resemble casual observations. Probably themost difficult of all interviews to do well.

Retrospective interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or informal.Retrospective interview tries to get a respondent to recall and thenreconstruct from memory something that has happened in the past.

Interview Behavior1. Respect the culture being studied.2. Respect the individual being interviewed3. Be natural.4. Ask the same questions in different ways during the interview.5. Ask the interviewee to repeat an answer or statement when there is

some doubt about the completeness of the remark.6. Control the flow of communication

7. Learn how to wait.

3. Document Analysis- the analysis of the written or visual contents of a document. The job ofdocument analysis is to define as precisely the possible aspects of a documentscontents that researcher wants to investigate and then formulating relevantcategories that are so explicit that another researcher who uses them to examinethe same material would find essentially the same proportion of topics emphasizedor ignored.

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS:

1. Ethnographic Researchpaint a portrait of a school or classroom (or any othereducational setting) in as thorough, accurate and vivid a manner as possible so that otherscan also truly see that school or that classroom and its participants and what they do.

- is particularly appropriate to behaviors that are kept understood by observingthem within their natural settings.

- The limitation is that it is highly dependent on the particular researchersobservations, and since numerical data are rarely provided, there is usually noway to check the validity of the researchers conclusions.

- Major advantage of the ethnographic approach is that it study people in theirnatural habitat in order to see things that otherwise might not even be

anticipated.- combines participant observation and many of the characteristics of non-participantobservation studies in an attempt to obtain as holistic a picture as possible of aparticular society, group, institution, setting or situation.

Emphasis is on documenting, or portraying the everyday experiences ofindividuals by observing and interviewing and continual on-going participantobservation of a situation. Researchers try to capture as much of what is going on


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as they can the whole picture, H.R. Bernard described the process briefly, butwell:

It involves establishing rapport in a new community; leaning to act so thatpeople go about their business as usual when you show up; and removing yourselfeveryday from cultural immersion so you can intellectualize what youve learned; putit into perspective, and write about it convincingly. If you are a successful participantobserver you will know when to laugh at what your informants think is funny; andwhen informants laugh at what you say, it will be because you meant it to be a

joke.

An example of a question that might be investigated through ethnographic researchwould be the following: What are the experiences of people with multiple chemicalsensitivity?

Field Notes

The quality of the field notes checks on the accuracy of an ethnographersobservations. Field notes notes researchers take n the field. They are the researcherswritten account of what they hear, see, experience, and think in the course of collecting andreflecting on their data.

Field notes can be distinguished from three other types of writing:

Field jottingsrefer to quick notes about something the researcher wantsto write all about later.

Field diary a personal statement of the researchers feelings, opinionsand perceptions about others with whom the researcher levels in contact during thecourse of his or her work.

Field logsort of running account of how researchers plan to spend their

time compared to how they actually spend it.

Field notes consist of two kinds of materials:

1. Descriptive field notesattempt to describe the setting, the people and whatthey do according to what the researchers observes. They include like portrait ofthe subjects, reconstruction of dialogue, description of the physical setting, accountsof particular events, depiction of activities and the observers behavior.2. Reflective field notespresent more of what the researcher himself or herselfis thinking about as he or she observes. They include reflections on analysis,reflections on methods, reflections on ethical dilemmas and conflicts, reflectionson the observers frame of mind and powers of clarification.

2. Grounded Theory is an approach to collecting and analyzing qualitative data thataims to develop theories and theoretical propositions grounded in real-world observations.

Glasses and Strauss (generation of explanatory theory linking related concepts) Strauss and Corbin ( Full conceptual description)

This focuses on the discoveries of a basic social psychological problems that a defined groupof people experiences.


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Types:1. Substantive Theory. Grounded in data on a specific substantive topic.2. Grounded formal theory. A higher, more abstract level of theory based on

substantive grounded theory studies.

For Example: (1) The experience of caring for a woman with high-risk pregnancy, duringwhich the theory of Newman (1986) is developed, with the nurse and the client as partnersin a relationship of care, characterize by negotiation, reciprocity, and empowerment.

(2) Cutting Back After A Heart Attack,(3) Stepfather Families: Integration Around Child Discipline.

3. Phenomenology is an approach to discovering the meaning of peoples lifeexperiences. It asks the questions: What is the essence of this phenomenon asexperienced by these people and what does it mean?

Two types:3.1. Descriptive Phenomenology. It describes human experience, basing

on the philosophy of Husserl

Steps:a. Bracketing refers to the process of identifying and holding in abeyance

preconceived beliefs and opinions about the phenomenon under study.b. Intuiting researchers remain open to the meanings attributed to the

phenomenon by those who have experienced it.c. Analyzing- extracting significant statements and making sense of the meanings

of the phenomenond. Describing when the researcher comes to understand and define the

phenomenon.

3.2. Interpretative Phenomenology. Emphasize on interpreting andunderstanding experience, not just describing I, based on the philosophy ofHeideggar: Heideggerian hermeneutics, bracketing does not occur, utilizessupplementary data sources: text, artistic expression

Ten Themes:1. Naturalistic2. Inductive3. Holistic4. Thick description5. Personal contact

6. Dynamic7. Unique case selection8. Context sensitivity9. Empathic10.Flexible design


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(2) Benigno Aquino, A Portrait of a True Filipino

Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research

1. Using variety of instrument to collect these data.2. Checking one informants description of something3. Learning to understand, and where appropriate, speak the vocabulary of the group

being studied.4. Writing down the questions they ask (in addition to the answers they receive to these

questions).5. Recording their own thoughts as they go about their observations and interviews.6. Documenting the bases for inferences they make.7. Describing the context in which questions are asked and situations are observed.8. Using audio-tapes and videotapes when possible and appropriate.9. Drawing conclusions based on ones understanding of the situation.10.Interviewing individuals more than once.11.Observing the setting or situation of interest over a period of time.

Generalization in Qualitative Research

A generalizationstatement or claim of some sort that applies to more than oneindividual, object or situation. Thus, when a researcher makes statement, based on areview of literature; that there is negative correlation between age and amount of interestin school (older children are less interested in school than younger children) he or she ismaking a generalization.

In quantitative research, the researcher generalizes from the sample underinvestigation to the population of interest. Note that it is the researcher who does thegeneralizing. He or she is likely to suggest to practitioners that the findings are of value andcan (sometimes they say should be applied in their situations).

In quantitative studies, on the other hand, the researcher may also generalize, but itis more likely that any generalizing to be done will be by interested practitioners beindividuals who are in situations similar to the ones investigated by the researcher. It is thepractitioner, rather than the researcher, who judges the applicability of the researchersfindings and conclusions, who determines whether the research findings fit his or hersituation.

C. POPULATION SAMPLING

This describes the target population and the sample frame. It specifies the samplingtechnique to be used and how the sample size will be determined.

Population (or universe). The entire set of individuals (or objects) having somecommon characteristics.

Sample. A subset of population selected to participate in the study.


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30 percent of the target population (more on sample size in amoment)

(3) Using a table of random numbers, she then randomly selects 30percent from each strata of the population, which results in 66 female(30 percent of 219) and 44 male (30 percent of 416) students beingselected from these subgroups. The proportion of males and femalesis the same in both the population and sample40 and 60 percent.

3. Systematic random sampling - this is suitable when we have a list of nameof the universe of population and the names are numbered consecutively.This is done by determining first the sample needed in a given universe.Once the sample is set, the person which will represent the sample aredetermined. Let us assume that the total universe is 5,000 and we decide toget 10 % sample. This means that we have to get 500 respondents. To getthe sample, we should divide 5,000 by 500 which is 10. Our first samplethen should be drawn at random from the numbers 1 to 10, then we get

every 10th

. For example, if our first sample is 5 we get every 10th

person inthe list, e.g. 15, 25, and 35 and so on until we get 500.

4. Cluster sampling the population is grouped into clusters or small unitscomposed of population elements, and a number of these population clustersis chosen either by simple random sampling or by systematic sampling with arandom start. For example, the superintendent of Cebu Division,Department of Education wants to obtain some idea of how elementaryschools, and there are 50 schools distributed over a large area. Instead ofrandomly selecting a sample of teachers from every school, therefore, hedecides to interview all the teachers in selected schools. Each school, then,constitutes a cluster. The superintendent assigns a number to each schooland then uses a table of random numbers to select 10 schools (20 percent ofthe population). All the teachers in the selected schools then constitute thesample.

5. Multi-stage - used when there is no detailed or accurate listing of units(frame) available. Sampling is done in stages. The population elements aregrouped into hierarchy of units and sampling is done successively.Example: Socio-economic characteristics of Philippine Rural Households.First Stage: 10 provinces maybe chosen out of the total provinces in the

country.Second Stage: 10 municipalities maybe chosen from the 10 provinces.

Third Stage: Sample barrios are to be chosen from a list of barrios in eachof the sample municipalities.

Fourth Stage: Sample households will then be chosen.Note: Sample units in the different stages are chosen using the simple random sampling

technique.


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Kinds of Non-Probability Sampling1. Convenience Sampling a process of getting a sample who (conveniently) are available

for study.1.1.Accidental Sampling - selection of most readily available people for a

particular study

1.2.Snowball Sampling or Network Samplingthe selection of participantsthrough referrals from earlier participants

Example : A researcher might decide to study the third grade classes at nearbyelementary school because the principal asks for help in evaluatingthe effectiveness of a new spelling textbook.

2. Purposive the researcher use their judgment to select a sample which they believe,based on prior information, will provide the data they need.

Example: The President wants to know how his junior faculty feel about a newpromotion policy, which he has recently introduced. He selects asample of 30 from the total faculty of 1000. To talk to these

faculty are chosen on the basis of the following criteria: havetaught for less than 5 years, they are non-tenured, etc.

3. Quota Samplingthe researcher identifies population strata and determines how manyparticipants are needed from each stratum.

Prepared By:

Tonette M. Villanueva RN, MNResearch Instructor


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D. DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

This describes the specific type of research instrument to be used such asquestionnaires, checklists, questionnaire-checklists, structured or unstructured interviews,teacher-made tests, standardized instruments which are adopted or borrowed withpermission from authors or from other sources.

Each part of the instrument should be explained in detail and what bits ofinformation will be derived.

The establishment of validity and reliability should be explained and only expertsshould be chosen to validate such instruments.


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Data Gathering Instruments and Their Characteristics

1. Questionnaire list of planned, written questions indicating response to eachquestion.Classification:

a. Yes or No Typeanswerable by yes or nob. Recognition Typechecking or underlining the best answerc. Coding Typeassigning of numbers to names, answers to questions, and other

data Ex. BS = 1 MA/MS = 2 Ed.D./Ph.D. = 3d. Completion Typefilling the blankse. Subjective Typegiving opinion about eventsf. Combination Typeyes or no, completion, subjective, etc.

Preparation of the Instrument

Appearance of the instrument is very important (in the case of self-administered) tothe overall success of the study. It should be attractive and not too long and the questionshould be easy to answer as possible. The questions in a survey, andthe way they are asked, are of crucial importance.

Wording the Questions-Questions must be simple, direct and familiar to all the respondents (No highly

technical terms)- Is the meaning of the question clear and as specific as possible? (Note:

Not just because you know what you want to say doesnt mean that your respondents will.- Is the questions double barreled?

Poor: Do you think the service you received from the motor vehicleslicensing bureau was courteous and efficient?

Better: Do you think the service you receive from the motor vehicleslicensing bureau was courteous?

- Is the question leading or loaded? (Loaded question is one that presumes apast action or attitude by the respondent)

- Is the question short and direct to the point?

Formatting the Answers: Types

1. Informational Format

How much money do you think that Pres. Clinton spends everyyear to provide police protection for its citizens?

____a. less than P100 per person a year____b. P100 or more but less than P200 a person per year____c. P200 or more but less than P300 a person per year____d. P300 or more a person per year

2. Simple Yes/No Format


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Do you think that Pres. Clinton should decrease the amountof money it spends each year on city parks?

____a. Yes ____b. No

3. Forced Choice FormatPres. Clinton must cut back on services. Would you prefer acutback in police services or fire department services?

____a. Police services ____b. Fire department services

4. Scaling FormatLikert: Pres. Clinton is spending too much money to provide housing for

the elderly.___a. strongly agree___b. agree___c. not sure___d. disagree

___e. strongly disagree

Semantic Differential (bipolar)Nurse Practitioner

Competent 5 4 3 2 1 incompetent5. Ballot Format

Please put an X next to the service you feel is the biggest waste ofmoney:

____a. police____b. fire department____c. parks and recreation____d. garbage collection____e. housing for the elderly

6. Ranking FormatOf these services, which do you think is the most important for the

city to provide? Which do you think is the second most important?And so on.

____ Police____ Fire Department____ Parks and Recreation____ Garbage Collection____ Housing for the Elderly

Pilot testing the Questionnaire

Pilot testingtrying sample respondents to verify the appropriateness of theinstrument. Pre-test reveal ambiguities, poorly worded questions, questions that arenot understood and unclear choice and can also indicate whether theinstrumentation to the respondents are clear.


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Other Classification: Closed and Open FormExample of Closed form:

Why did you choose to do your graduate work at SLSCST? Kindly indicatethree reasons in order of importance.

Reasons Ranka. Convenience of transportation __________b. Advice of a friend __________c. Reputation of institution __________d. Expense factor __________e. Scholarship aide __________f. Others (kindly specify)_____________________ __________

Example of Open form:State the reasons why you chose to take your graduate work at SLSCST.

2. Observationdirect means of studying people.Observation should be:

a. specificb. systematicc. qualitatived. noted at oncee. needs expertisef. checked and substantiated

Recording Observationa. check listb. rating scalequalitative descriptionc. score cardcombination of score card and rating scale

3. Intervieworal type of questionnaire or use of interview schedule.a. Unstructuredwhen researchers proceed without preconceived view of the

content or flow of information to be gathered.b. Semi-structured an interview in which the researcher has listed topics to cover

rather than specific questions to ask.

c.

Structured - the researcher determines response categories in advanced. Focus Group an interview with a group of individuals assembled to answerquestions on a topic.

4. Psychological Testdescribing a sample of certain aspects of human behavior of twoor more persons.Classification

a. Performance test and paper-and-pencil testsb. Teacher-made test and standardized tests (essay, completion, selection type)


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5. Library Technique - preparation of a working bibliography.

Criteria For Selecting Instruments:1. Administrability2. Validity3. Reliability

E. STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA

This part explains the statistical test to be used in the treatment or analysis of data.If the research instrument includes options which are scaled, how each scale will beweighed, its interval and class limits should be explained.

CHAPTER VIRESEARCH IMPLEMENTATION

Survey Research Implementation

Let us assume you have already made up your mind to use the personal interviewtechnique in gathering your data.

Say, you also have prepared your interview schedule.

What to do next?


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Decide who will do the job.- own organization?- Contract research organization? If own organization, then

- Plan field operations.- Field work- Clean up.

PLANNING FIELD OPERATIONSThe phase of the project during which the researchers make contact with the

respondents, administer the instruments, record the data and return the data forprocessing.

The four common aspects of planning field operations include:1. time schedules2. budgets3. personnel, and

4. performance measurement

1. Time Schedules the purpose is to accomplish the job in reasonable time and costwithout sacrificing accuracy.

- specify when the project is to begin and end- sequence of activities within this time frame- estimate number of days to complete- determine overlapping activities.

2. Budgetassignment of costs to specific activities identified in the schedule. Themain cost categories may include:

I. Personal services- Salaries and wages- Honoraria/Professional fees- SSS/GSIA contribution- Others

II. Maintenance and operating expenses- Travel- Supplies and materials- Others

III. Capital outlay- New equipment- Repair of old equipment

3. Personnelthe success of the field operation depends on the quality of thepersonnel to execute the plan. Determine a) who are to be hired, b) what skillsare required, and c) training needed to meet the skills requirement


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4. Performance measurementnecessary to make sure the survey is on scheduleand within its budget. Too often only the number of interviews to be completedis the only measure specified in the study. Other measures are:

Most research exceed their initial budgets due to:- changes in design- poor time scheduling- inaccurate budget estimate

Preparatory Activities and Field Work

Initial steps in the field work normally starts during the pre testing of the surveyinstruments.

1. Pre-testing normally done to detect some deficiencies in the instrument andthe extent of the training required by the interviewer

2. Evaluate pre test results

3. Finalize the survey forms4. Select interviewersa difficult task.

what job qualification? from what geographic location is further training needed?

5. Training of interviewersto establish a high degree of commonality in the datacollection process. May include coverage as:

purpose of the study how to carry out sampling plan approaching respondents establishing rapport

@ recording the respondents@ ending the session@ editing the instrument

Training must be conducted by the supervisor in person and if possible followed byactual supervision during the initial stage of the interview proper.

Before going to the field, however, other preparatory activities must have beenalready accomplished such as;

- prior arrangements and communications to cooperating agencies ifany

- letter of introductions and permits from concerned local government

units.- Sufficient copies of the final version of the instrument.

In most instances, making arrangements, securing permits and othercommunications are done also in the pre testing stage to cut cost.

6. Interviewingremember your job is to collect accurate and complete data. Thismust be done carefully and delicately. Interviewer must be receptive of thefeelings and mood of the respondents and establish effective relationships.


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good groomingindication of persons attitude andorientation.

always be pleasant and be patient the more the respondents and interviewer have a common, the

greater the opportunity for rapport familiarize the instrument, practice, conversational style. do not rephrase questions that might alter its meaning, hence

response. ask the question in its sequence. use neutral probing techniques to motivate respondents to answer

difficult questions, clarify or explain or provide focus.

Sample techniques:Repeating the question,

An expectant pause,Repeating the reply while recording,Reassure the respondent if hesitant,

Neutral questions like anything else?What do you mean? Why? How?

provide logical reason for collecting personal data record the data as required for accurate interpretation of

the encoders.


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CHAPTER VIIPRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

BASIC FEATURES, FORMAT AND STYLE

A research report is a written account describing original results. Its function is notonly to relay findings but also to link those findings directly to a theoretical model or to oneor more empirically testable hypotheses. A research report is often organized using theIMRAD format. IMRAD is an acronym which stands for Introduction, Methods, Results andDiscussion. The logic of IMRAD can be defined in question form:

What question (problem) was studied?The answer is the Introduction.How was the problem studied?The answer is the Methods.What were the findings?The answer is the Results.What do these findings mean?The answer is the Discussion.

Using this approach, a report would have these components:

1. Title Page2. Abstract3. Introduction4. Methods

Subjects or ParticipantsApparatusDesignProcedure

5. Results6. Discussion7. References8. Other Sections (Tables, Figure Captions, Figures)

WRITING THE ABSTRACT

The abstract must be short because it should give a summary of your research. Anabstract should briefly:

Give the research problem and/or main objective of the research (this usually comesfirst).

Indicate the methodology used.

Present the main findings.

Present the main conclusions.

Common Problems

Too long. If your abstract is too long it may be rejected. Abstracts are often too longbecause people tend to count their words (remember that you can use yourword processing program to do this) and make their abstracts too detailed.


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Too much detail. Abstracts too long often have unnecessary details. The abstract is not theplace for detailed explanations of methodology or for details about the context ofyour research problem because y-ou simply do not have the space to presentanything but the main points of your research.

Too short. Shorter is not necessarily better. If your word limit is 200 words but you onlywrite 95, you probably have not written in sufficient detail. You should reviewyour abstract and see where you could usefully give more explanationremember that in many cases readers whether to read the rest of your researchfrom looking at the abstract.

Failure to include important information. You need to be careful to cover the points listedabove. Often people do not cover all of them because they spend too longexplaining, for example, the methodology and do not have enough space topresent their conclusion.

PRESENTING THE RESULTS

Purpose: to present the results and make them meaningful to the reader.

What the Results section include:

Statement of results: the results are presented in a format that is accessibletot he reader (e.g. in a graph, table, diagram, or written text).

Explanatory text: all graphs, tables, diagrams, etc. should be accompanied bytext that guides the readers attention to significant results. The text makes theresults meaningful by pointing out the most important results, simplifying theresults (e.g. nearly half instead of 48.9 %), highlighting significant trends orrelationships (e.g. the rate of oxygenation decreases as the temperaturedecreases), and perhaps commenting on whether certain results were expectedor unexpected.

Common Problem

The text includes too much detail that simply repeats data presented in graphs,tables, etc. without making the results meaningful.

Solution: remember that tables, etc. are used to present a lot of information efficiently,but that your job is to direct the readers attention to significant parts of this information.

Organization

There are two basic ways of organizing the results: Presenting all the results, then giving a discussion (perhaps in different section). Presenting part of the results then giving a discussion, presenting another part

then giving a discussion, etc.


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WRITING THE DISCUSSION

Purpose: To comment on and explain the results.

What the discussion section includes:1. Explanation of results: the writer comments on whether or not the results were

expected, and presents explanations for the results, particularly for those thatare unexpected or unsatisfactory.

2. References to previous research: comparison of the results with those reportedin the literature, or use of the literature to support a claim, hypothesis ordeduction.

Deduction: a claim for how the results can be applied more generally (aconclusion based on reasoning from the results, e.g. we fed fish a new feed, allthe fish gained weight, therefore the new feed causes the fish to gain weight).

Hypothesis: a more general claim or possible conclusion arising from the results

(which will be proved or disproved in later research).

Common Problem: The discussion does not discuss; instead it simply supplies more detailabout the results obtained.

Solution: Remember that the discussion should explain the results.

Organization:

There are two basic ways of organizing the results and discussion:1. Presenting all the results, then giving a discussion (perhaps in a different

section).2. Presenting part of the results then giving a discussion, presenting another part

then giving a discussion, etc. The method of organization you use will dependon the quantity and type of results you obtain from your research. You shouldlook for a method of presentation that makes the information and and ideas youare presenting as clear as possible to the reader.

CONCLUSION

Purpose: To give summary of

What was learned (this usually comes first)What remains to be learned (directions for future research)

The shortcomings of what was done (evaluation)

The benefits, advantages, applications, etc. of the research(breakthroughs)

Recommendations


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Common Problems

Too long. The conclusion section should be short. Often the conclusion section is as littleas 2.5% of an entire piece of published research.

Too much detail. Conclusions that are too long have unnecessary detail. The conclusionsection is not the place for details about your methodology or results. Although you shouldgive a summary of what was learned from your research, this summary should be shortsince the emphasis in the conclusions section is on the implications, evaluations, etc. thatyou make.

Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues. Whereas in the introduction yourtask was to move from general (your field) to specific (your research), in the concludingsection your task is to move from specific (your research) back to general (your field, howthe research will affect the world). In other words, in the conclusion you should put yourresearch in context.

Failure to reveal the complexities of a conclusion or a situation. Negative aspects of yourresearch should not be ignored. Problems, drawback, etc. can be included in summary inyour conclusion section as a way of qualifying your conclusions (i.e. pointing out thenegative aspects, even if they are outweighed by the positive aspects).

Lack of a concise summary of what was learned. In order to be able to discuss how yourresearch fits back into your field of study (and the world at large) you need to summarize itvery briefly. Often the summary is only a few sentences.

Failure to match the objectives of the research. Often research objectives change while theresearch is being carried out. This is not a problem unless you forget to go back andrewrite your original objectives in your introduction so that accurately reflect what you weretrying to accomplish in your research (not what you thought you might accomplish whenyou began).

Example

Here is an example of an objective and conclusion that do not match:

Objective: The main objective of this study was to assess the impact of road building onvillages on rural communities.

Conclusion: The model produced in this study can accurately predict the social andeconomic impact of road building on villages in northern Laos.

If we rewrite the objective to match what we actually did (we developed a model), itwill fit the conclusion:

Rewritten Objective: The main objective of this study was to develop a model to predict thesocial and economic impact of road building on rural communities.


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Bibliography

This should include all materials used and reviewed by the researcher, such asbooks, magazines, periodicals, journals, theses, dissertations (published or unpublished),monographs, speeches, modules, web page or internet and many more.

In the choice of bibliographic materials, the following should be considered:1. Relatedness to the research problem2. Inclusion of recent publications

WRITING THE REFERENCES OR LITERATURE CITEDOR BIBLIOGRAPHY SECTION

1. All the authors and articles that are used in the study, i.e., in the whole text or body ofthe manuscript (from the proposal stage to report writing stage) must be given duecredit by listing them completely under this section.

2. These reference materials must be classified according to types in this order: Books,Periodicals, and Unpublished Materials.

3. These should be arranged alphabetically, with the senior author as reference.4. Each classification of materials has different format.5. For Books, the following information are needed

Last name, initials. Year. Title of Book (italicized) or Title of Book(underlined). Edition number, if there is. Address of Publication: PublicationCompany.

If the succeeding list contains the same author(s), do this way:

_______________. Year. Title of Book (italicized) or Title of Book(underlined). Edition number, if there is. Address of Publication: Publication

Company.6. For Periodicals this format is followed:

Last name, initials. Title of Article. Name of Periodical or Name of Periodical.Volume (number: pages where article was taken). Month, year of publication.

7. For Unpublished Materials, the format below is followed:

Last name, initials. Year. Title of Thesis or Dissertation. UnpublishedUndergraduate, Masters Thesis, or Dissertation. Name of College orUniversity, Address.


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Burns, Nancy & Susan K. Grove. 1995. Understanding Nursing Research. Philadelphia: W.B.Saunders Company.

David, Fely P. 2002. Understanding and Doing Research: A Handbook for Beginners. IloiloCity: Panorama Printing, Inc.

Macnee, Carol L. 2004. Understanding Nursing Research. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams &Wilkins.

Nieswiadomy, Nora.2002. Fundamentals of Nursing Research.

Polit, Denise and Bernadette Hungler. 1999. Nursing Research: Principles and Methods. 7thEdition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Polit, Denise and Cheryl Tatano Beck. 2004. Nursing Research: Principles and Methods. 7 thEdition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Wilson, Holly Skodol. 1990. Research in Nursing. 2ndEd. New York: Addison-WesleyPublishing Co., Inc.

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