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Islamic Islamic FundamentalismFundamentalism

Water ResourcesWater ResourcesThe KurdsThe KurdsIran and Regional Iran and Regional StabilityStability

Middle East in TransitionMiddle East in TransitionIslamic FundamentalismIslamic Fundamentalism

DefinitionsDefinitions Fundamentalism – Originated from Fundamentalism – Originated from

Christianity, refers to people who Christianity, refers to people who believe in the literal interpretation of believe in the literal interpretation of the biblethe bible

Islamic Fundamentalism – those Islamic Fundamentalism – those Muslims who wish to follow a strict, Muslims who wish to follow a strict, traditional interpretation of Islam – traditional interpretation of Islam – distinguishing between Muslim groups distinguishing between Muslim groups based on fundamentalism is misleading based on fundamentalism is misleading because all Muslims believe in the because all Muslims believe in the Koran and the infallible word of God – Koran and the infallible word of God – the level of “strictness” is a defining the level of “strictness” is a defining characteristiccharacteristic


DefinitionsDefinitions Islamist – Muslims who wish to Islamist – Muslims who wish to

follow a strict interpretation of follow a strict interpretation of Islam Islam Moderate Islamists – Generally Moderate Islamists – Generally support the democratic process support the democratic process

Radical Islamists – Advocate the Radical Islamists – Advocate the use of violence and terror to create use of violence and terror to create a government that follows a strict, a government that follows a strict, traditional interpretation of Islam traditional interpretation of Islam


Frustration with the status quo Frustration with the status quo and lack of progress by some and lack of progress by some governments are causing a governments are causing a number of Muslims to turn number of Muslims to turn toward radical Islam for toward radical Islam for solutions solutions

The lines are blurred now on The lines are blurred now on what it means to be a Muslim what it means to be a Muslim and on what constitutes a and on what constitutes a legitimate Islamic governmentlegitimate Islamic government


Case StudiesCase StudiesEgyptEgyptSaudi ArabiaSaudi ArabiaIslamist Militants – Osama Islamist Militants – Osama Bin LadenBin Laden

IraqIraqMiddle Eastern ElectionsMiddle Eastern Elections


EgyptEgyptLong-standing difference of Long-standing difference of opinion and violence between opinion and violence between the radical Islamists and the the radical Islamists and the secular governmentsecular government Resulted in assassination of Resulted in assassination of Anwar SadatAnwar Sadat

Continues with today’s Continues with today’s government of Hosni government of Hosni MubarakMubarak


EgyptEgyptMilitants target government Militants target government officials and tourists in attempts officials and tourists in attempts to destabilize the governmentto destabilize the government1997 – 70 tourists gunned down at 1997 – 70 tourists gunned down at an ancient temple near Luxor – an ancient temple near Luxor – Attack discredited radical Attack discredited radical Islamists, condemned by many Islamists, condemned by many Islamist leaders, and resulted Islamist leaders, and resulted in harsh crackdown by governmentin harsh crackdown by government


EgyptEgypt Government uses torture and Government uses torture and

repression on the militants repression on the militants By 2000 violent opposition to the By 2000 violent opposition to the

government subsides and more government subsides and more moderate Islamists, such as the moderate Islamists, such as the outlawed Muslim Brotherhood, seek to outlawed Muslim Brotherhood, seek to work within the political system to work within the political system to create an Islamic statecreate an Islamic state

In 2000 election, despite government In 2000 election, despite government efforts to discourage their participation, efforts to discourage their participation, candidates tied to the Muslim Brotherhood candidates tied to the Muslim Brotherhood won the second-largest bloc of seats in won the second-largest bloc of seats in parliamentparliament

In 2005 they win a record 20 % of the seatsIn 2005 they win a record 20 % of the seats


EgyptEgypt Militant Islamic groups continue to gain Militant Islamic groups continue to gain

support in the slum areas of Egypt where support in the slum areas of Egypt where poverty and unemployment are poverty and unemployment are widespread widespread

Violent attacks in Egypt have been Violent attacks in Egypt have been largely suppressed through harsh, largely suppressed through harsh, repressive government actions – however, repressive government actions – however, Egyptian militants are active in Egyptian militants are active in international groups such as al Queda – international groups such as al Queda – several Egyptians involved with 9/11 several Egyptians involved with 9/11 attacksattacks

The question now is whether the militant The question now is whether the militant groups will continue making headway in groups will continue making headway in the democratic process or will they by the democratic process or will they by shut out by the government forcing them shut out by the government forcing them to return to more violent means of to return to more violent means of gaining recognition and supportgaining recognition and support


Saudi ArabiaSaudi Arabia Birthplace of Islam and the location of Birthplace of Islam and the location of

Islam’s holiest sites, Mecca and MedinaIslam’s holiest sites, Mecca and Medina Since its creation in 1932, Saudi Arabia Since its creation in 1932, Saudi Arabia

has been ruled by the al-Saud family – a has been ruled by the al-Saud family – a MonarchyMonarchy

Saudi Arabia officially practices a strict Saudi Arabia officially practices a strict form of Islam known as Wahhabismform of Islam known as Wahhabism

Its laws are based on the Sharia, the Its laws are based on the Sharia, the sacred law of Islam – Sharia comes sacred law of Islam – Sharia comes from interpretations of the Koran by from interpretations of the Koran by religious eldersreligious elders

The church/clerics heavily influence social The church/clerics heavily influence social practices and daily life in Saudi Arabia practices and daily life in Saudi Arabia and with the government, have and with the government, have significant clout throughout the Muslim significant clout throughout the Muslim world world


Saudi ArabiaSaudi Arabia Despite the strict Islamist nature of the Despite the strict Islamist nature of the

country, for decades they have been one country, for decades they have been one of the most important U.S. allies in the of the most important U.S. allies in the Middle East – strong economic, military, Middle East – strong economic, military, and political relationsand political relations World’s largest exporter of oilWorld’s largest exporter of oil Third-largest exporter of oil to the U.S.Third-largest exporter of oil to the U.S. Primary staging ground for the 1991 Persian Primary staging ground for the 1991 Persian

Gulf War, 2003 Second Persian Gulf War and Gulf War, 2003 Second Persian Gulf War and throughout the 1990s and up until 2003 a throughout the 1990s and up until 2003 a primary staging and operating location for primary staging and operating location for U.S. forces in the regionU.S. forces in the region

By the end of 2003 virtually all U.S. troops By the end of 2003 virtually all U.S. troops were withdrawn from the country to prevent were withdrawn from the country to prevent Islamic extremists from using their presence Islamic extremists from using their presence as a rallying cry against the governmentas a rallying cry against the government


Saudi ArabiaSaudi Arabia Understanding Saudi politics and Understanding Saudi politics and

society helps us understand radical society helps us understand radical IslamIslam Schools are run by radical Muslim Schools are run by radical Muslim

clerics – focus heavily on religious clerics – focus heavily on religious studies and often promote anti-studies and often promote anti-Americanism and support to individuals Americanism and support to individuals like Osama bin Ladenlike Osama bin Laden

Government supports thousands of Government supports thousands of Islamic schools and charities around the Islamic schools and charities around the world that promote radical Islamworld that promote radical Islam

Saudi press has often been strongly anti-Saudi press has often been strongly anti-AmericanAmerican


Saudi ArabiaSaudi Arabia Understanding Saudi politics and society Understanding Saudi politics and society

helps us understand radical Islamhelps us understand radical Islam Because of the Saudi’s governmental relations Because of the Saudi’s governmental relations

with the U.S. and its suppression of political with the U.S. and its suppression of political freedoms and its perceived failure to provide freedoms and its perceived failure to provide economic security for their large young economic security for their large young population, many ordinary Saudis see the population, many ordinary Saudis see the monarchy as corrupt and morally bankrupt – monarchy as corrupt and morally bankrupt – they turn to radical Islam and target the they turn to radical Islam and target the government and its U.S. backers verbally and government and its U.S. backers verbally and physicallyphysically

15 of 19 hijackers involved in 9/11 were Saudi 15 of 19 hijackers involved in 9/11 were Saudi and starting in 2003 the Saudi government has and starting in 2003 the Saudi government has come under an increasing number of terrorist come under an increasing number of terrorist attacksattacks


Cross-national Islamist MilitantsCross-national Islamist Militants Radical Islamist groups whose actions Radical Islamist groups whose actions

cross state borders – relationship cross state borders – relationship between groups is unclearbetween groups is unclear

Actions by these groups have made it Actions by these groups have made it clear that they must be confronted and clear that they must be confronted and dealt with through a “war on terrorism”dealt with through a “war on terrorism”

A main target in the “war on terrorism” A main target in the “war on terrorism” is the al Qaeda network led by wealthy is the al Qaeda network led by wealthy Saudi, Osama bin Laden – seeks to unify Saudi, Osama bin Laden – seeks to unify radical Islamists in pursuit of a “jihad” radical Islamists in pursuit of a “jihad” against Western powers and their against Western powers and their Middle Eastern allies Middle Eastern allies


Bin Laden was the mastermind Bin Laden was the mastermind and/or financial backer for at least and/or financial backer for at least 4 attacks on the U.S. or U.S. 4 attacks on the U.S. or U.S. interests:interests: 1993 bombing of the World Trade 1993 bombing of the World Trade

Center in New York CityCenter in New York City 1996 bombing of an American military 1996 bombing of an American military

facility in Dhahran, Saudi Arabiafacility in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia 1998 bombings of U.S. embassies in 1998 bombings of U.S. embassies in

Kenya and Tanzania Kenya and Tanzania 2000 bombing of the USS Cole in 2000 bombing of the USS Cole in

Yemen Yemen 17 Killed


Following 9/11 Bin Laden Following 9/11 Bin Laden took refuge behind the al took refuge behind the al Queda backed government Queda backed government in Afghanistan – in Afghanistan – prompted the U.S. prompted the U.S. led attack on led attack on Afghanistan and the Afghanistan and the continuing search for bin Ladencontinuing search for bin Laden

Important point to remember – Important point to remember – Islamist groups are not attacking Islamist groups are not attacking Western targets for the purpose of Western targets for the purpose of defeating them militarily or to defeating them militarily or to occupy their countries, they are occupy their countries, they are doing it to try and drive the Western doing it to try and drive the Western presence out of the Middle Eastpresence out of the Middle East

Middle East in TransitionMiddle East in Transition Islamic FundamentalismIslamic Fundamentalism

IraqIraq Since 2003, the presence of U.S. Since 2003, the presence of U.S.

military forces in Iraq has drawn military forces in Iraq has drawn militant Islamist to Iraq from all over militant Islamist to Iraq from all over the world – estimates are that up to the world – estimates are that up to 2,000 of the 20,000 insurgents in Iraq 2,000 of the 20,000 insurgents in Iraq are foreign fightersare foreign fighters

In the past, local Iraqi insurgents In the past, local Iraqi insurgents viewed the foreign Islamist militants viewed the foreign Islamist militants as adversaries; however, they have now as adversaries; however, they have now found common cause in trying to found common cause in trying to disrupt U.S. attempts at democratic disrupt U.S. attempts at democratic nation buildingnation building


In many cases, the popularity of In many cases, the popularity of Islamist groups is boosted by their Islamist groups is boosted by their extensive social welfare programs – extensive social welfare programs – they provide health, education, and they provide health, education, and other social services to local other social services to local communitiescommunities

For these reasons the Islamist For these reasons the Islamist groups are frequently seen as groups are frequently seen as preferable to the secular preferable to the secular governments which are perceived as governments which are perceived as corrupt, neglectful, and oppressivecorrupt, neglectful, and oppressive


Islamist election victories have Islamist election victories have raised a dilemma for the U.S. – raised a dilemma for the U.S. – to to respect democracy the U.S. must respect democracy the U.S. must accept the rise of groups accept the rise of groups opposed to its interestsopposed to its interests U.S. has labeled some of these U.S. has labeled some of these

groups, such as Hamas and groups, such as Hamas and Hezbollah, as terrorist Hezbollah, as terrorist organizations - the U.S. supports organizations - the U.S. supports the democratic process while the democratic process while refusing to deal with terroristsrefusing to deal with terrorists

Middle East in TransitionMiddle East in Transition Water ResourcesWater Resources

Competition over Competition over water resourceswater resources is is another potential source of another potential source of conflictconflict – – 5%5% of the world’s population and of the world’s population and only only 1%1% of the world’s water of the world’s water

As with their arguments over land, As with their arguments over land, Israel and its Arab neighbors have Israel and its Arab neighbors have a long history of a long history of competition competition over over water resources – when original water resources – when original ZionistZionist planners mapped out their planners mapped out their intended homeland they included intended homeland they included major major water resourceswater resources


Over the years Israel and its Arab Over the years Israel and its Arab neighbors have participated in neighbors have participated in complex complex negotiationsnegotiations over shared water over shared water resources – with growing populations resources – with growing populations the existing the existing ground ground and and surface surface water water resources are not resources are not sufficientsufficient to meet to meet demanddemand

Israel currently obtains water from the Israel currently obtains water from the Jordan and Yarmuk rivers and Jordan and Yarmuk rivers and distributes it to the entire country and distributes it to the entire country and from deep well aquifers which are from deep well aquifers which are unfortunately being depleted and unfortunately being depleted and contaminated by sea water contaminated by sea water


One downside of Israel controlling the One downside of Israel controlling the water supply, since 1967, Palestinians water supply, since 1967, Palestinians in the Occupied Territories have faced in the Occupied Territories have faced severe water severe water restrictionsrestrictions The Palestinians argue that Israel is The Palestinians argue that Israel is

exploitingexploiting these resources for their own these resources for their own countries needs and for the Israeli countries needs and for the Israeli settlementssettlements in the Occupied Territories in the Occupied Territories

Statistically, Israeli settlers have available Statistically, Israeli settlers have available and use and use 55 times more water than the times more water than the PalestiniansPalestinians

This imbalance suggests that any lasting This imbalance suggests that any lasting peace planpeace plan will have to address balanced will have to address balanced water resourceswater resources


In another area, Turkey, Iraq, and Syria In another area, Turkey, Iraq, and Syria share water from the share water from the Euphrates Euphrates River and River and Turkey and Iraq share water from the Turkey and Iraq share water from the TigrisTigris River River Turkey has developed a $32 billion plan for a Turkey has developed a $32 billion plan for a

series of dams called the series of dams called the Southeastern Southeastern Anatolia ProjectAnatolia Project along the along the Tigris-EuphratesTigris-Euphrates river - large and multifaceted development river - large and multifaceted development project that includes extensive irrigation project that includes extensive irrigation systems and electricity productionsystems and electricity production

Tensions exist between the countries because Tensions exist between the countries because the dams the dams regulateregulate the flow of water to the flow of water to downstream downstream countries countries – long-standing – long-standing political divisionspolitical divisions have kept the countries have kept the countries from developing a from developing a regional planregional plan


A number of efforts to address the A number of efforts to address the water concerns have been taken – water concerns have been taken – governments have tried to improve governments have tried to improve water collectionwater collection and distribution and distribution Some have worked to Some have worked to cooperatecooperate better better

with their neighborswith their neighbors Saudi Arabia even considered towing Saudi Arabia even considered towing

icebergsicebergs from Antarctica from Antarctica Another possibility comes from Another possibility comes from

desalination desalination technology – technology – IsraelIsrael leads the leads the world in this area and has plants located world in this area and has plants located throughout the Persian Gulfthroughout the Persian Gulf

Funded by the tremendous Funded by the tremendous oil wealthoil wealth in the in the areaarea

Middle East in TransitionMiddle East in Transition The Kurds The Kurds

Another important regional issue is the Another important regional issue is the future of the Kurds – an ethnic group future of the Kurds – an ethnic group that lives primarily in that lives primarily in Iran, Iraq, and Iran, Iraq, and TurkeyTurkey

The Kurds have never had their own The Kurds have never had their own nation-state; however, they have nation-state; however, they have struggled for years to create one - struggled for years to create one - KurdistanKurdistan Kurdish separatists have used politicsKurdish separatists have used politics Resorted to violenceResorted to violence Iran, Iraq, and Turkey have refused to Iran, Iraq, and Turkey have refused to

consider Kurdish independence and all three consider Kurdish independence and all three have at times brutally repressed the Kurdshave at times brutally repressed the Kurds

KurdistanKurdistan


Efforts to create an independent Efforts to create an independent Kurdish state have been slowed by Kurdish state have been slowed by several internal and external factorsseveral internal and external factors Mid-1990s competing Kurdish factions led Mid-1990s competing Kurdish factions led

to open warfare – one side asked for help to open warfare – one side asked for help from Saddam Hussein and was offset by from Saddam Hussein and was offset by U.S. airstrikes – resulted in divided control U.S. airstrikes – resulted in divided control by the two factionsby the two factions

Mid to late-1990s – Turkish military attack Mid to late-1990s – Turkish military attack Kurdish rebel forces in Iraq and Syria – Kurdish rebel forces in Iraq and Syria – Syrians expel Kurds and Kurdish leader Syrians expel Kurds and Kurdish leader captured by Turkish agents in Kenya, captured by Turkish agents in Kenya, results in protests all over the worldresults in protests all over the world


In late 2002, following the In late 2002, following the overthrow of Saddam Hussein, overthrow of Saddam Hussein, Turkey became concerned that Turkey became concerned that the Iraqi Kurds would fight for the Iraqi Kurds would fight for an independent state in Northern an independent state in Northern Iraq and that Turkish Kurds Iraq and that Turkish Kurds would join the struggle to create would join the struggle to create a larger, independent Kurdistan a larger, independent Kurdistan – the U.S. sought to allay – the U.S. sought to allay Turkish fears by guaranteeing to Turkish fears by guaranteeing to protect Iraq’s territorial integrityprotect Iraq’s territorial integrity


Since 2002 the Iraqi Kurds have worked to Since 2002 the Iraqi Kurds have worked to establish their place in a post-Saddam Iraqestablish their place in a post-Saddam Iraq Based on the political realities, an independent Based on the political realities, an independent

Kurdistan is not currently possible – better to Kurdistan is not currently possible – better to use democracy and gain a place in the new use democracy and gain a place in the new governmentgovernment

Kurdish leader Jalal Talibani named president Kurdish leader Jalal Talibani named president in 2005 making him the first Kurdish head of in 2005 making him the first Kurdish head of state in a predominantly Arab countrystate in a predominantly Arab country

Iraqi Kurds have also worked to create a truly Iraqi Kurds have also worked to create a truly autonomous Kurdish territory; however, control autonomous Kurdish territory; however, control over oil reserves has sparked a fierce over oil reserves has sparked a fierce conflict between the Kurds and other ethnic conflict between the Kurds and other ethnic groups living in northern Iraqgroups living in northern Iraq


Since 2004 the Turkish government Since 2004 the Turkish government has been increasingly concerned with has been increasingly concerned with the autonomous Kurdish region in the autonomous Kurdish region in northern Iraqnorthern Iraq Claim they are supporting the Kurdish Claim they are supporting the Kurdish

Workers Party called the Kongra-Gel Workers Party called the Kongra-Gel June 2004 the Kongra-Gel ended a cease-June 2004 the Kongra-Gel ended a cease-

fire dating back to 1999 – launched fire dating back to 1999 – launched attacks into Turkey from northern Iraqattacks into Turkey from northern Iraq

Under pressure from the European Under pressure from the European Union (EU) Turkey has initiated Union (EU) Turkey has initiated reforms to protect the human rights reforms to protect the human rights and minority interests of the Kurds – and minority interests of the Kurds – Turkey wants to join the EUTurkey wants to join the EU

Middle East in TransitionMiddle East in Transition Iran and Regional StabilityIran and Regional Stability

Up until 1979, Iran was a major ally of the Up until 1979, Iran was a major ally of the U.S. – being allied to the U.S. gave the U.S. – being allied to the U.S. gave the U.S. a way to offset Soviet influence and U.S. a way to offset Soviet influence and help protect the area from possible Soviet help protect the area from possible Soviet incursion incursion

In 1979 the Ayatollah Khomeini led a In 1979 the Ayatollah Khomeini led a radical Islamic radical Islamic revolutionrevolution that deposed that deposed the Shah – since then states throughout the Shah – since then states throughout the Middle East have been the Middle East have been concernedconcerned about Iran’s Islamic about Iran’s Islamic radicalismradicalism The concern about Iran’s efforts to The concern about Iran’s efforts to exportexport it it

Islamist radicalism was a major reason why Islamist radicalism was a major reason why many supported many supported IraqIraq in the 1980-88 Iran – in the 1980-88 Iran – Iraq War Iraq War


After the Iran – Iraq War, Arab After the Iran – Iraq War, Arab states remained concerned about states remained concerned about Iran’s large Iran’s large military expendituresmilitary expenditures in purchasing weapons from in purchasing weapons from Russia, China and North KoreaRussia, China and North Korea

The Arab countries, Israel, and The Arab countries, Israel, and much of the rest of the world are much of the rest of the world are also concerned about Iran’s also concerned about Iran’s development of development of nuclearnuclear capabilities, even though Iran capabilities, even though Iran insists it is only insists it is only peacefulpeaceful in nature in nature


In 1997, liberal Muslim Cleric In 1997, liberal Muslim Cleric Muhammad Muhammad KhatamiKhatami became Iran’s President with became Iran’s President with 70%70% of the vote – during his swearing-in of the vote – during his swearing-in ceremony, he called for a ceremony, he called for a “dialogue of “dialogue of civilization”civilization” to improve relations with the to improve relations with the WestWest

Unfortunately, Khatami’s efforts to Unfortunately, Khatami’s efforts to implement reform were regularly blocked implement reform were regularly blocked by the country’s powerful by the country’s powerful conservative conservative Muslim clericsMuslim clerics or Guardian Council – used or Guardian Council – used its power to its power to annulannul laws, laws, closeclose proreform proreform newspapers, newspapers, imprisonimprison journalists, and journalists, and blockblock reformist politicians from reformist politicians from running for officerunning for office


Frustration with the slow pace of Frustration with the slow pace of reform grew, especially among the reform grew, especially among the Iranian youthIranian youth, leading to increasingly , leading to increasingly bold bold protests protests and growing and growing disillusionmentdisillusionment – many called for – many called for Khatami’s resignationKhatami’s resignation

In the fall of 2001, relations between the In the fall of 2001, relations between the U.S. and Iran U.S. and Iran improvedimproved when Iran when Iran became an became an ally ally in the effort to overthrow in the effort to overthrow the the TalibanTaliban regime in Afghanistan – this regime in Afghanistan – this relationship broke down in 2002 when relationship broke down in 2002 when President Bush labeled Iran as President Bush labeled Iran as part of an part of an “Axis of Evil” “Axis of Evil” and accused and accused them of pursuing nuclear weapons them of pursuing nuclear weapons and exporting terrorismand exporting terrorism


In 2004 the situation in Iran took a In 2004 the situation in Iran took a decided turn for the worse from a decided turn for the worse from a U.S. perspective - as Iranian U.S. perspective - as Iranian parliamentary electionsparliamentary electionsneared in early 2004, the neared in early 2004, the GuardianGuardianCouncilCouncil banned nearly banned nearly one-thirdone-third of the candidates running for office,of the candidates running for office,many of whom were reformersmany of whom were reformers Many Iranians became angered or Many Iranians became angered or

indifferentindifferent about Iranian politics – about Iranian politics – voter turnout was low and Iran’s voter turnout was low and Iran’s conservativesconservatives easily took control of easily took control of parliamentparliament

Ahmad Jannati


In 2005, the socially conservative In 2005, the socially conservative Mahmoud Mahmoud AhmadinejadAhmadinejad was elected President giving the was elected President giving the conservative faction full control of Iran and conservative faction full control of Iran and making the prospect of better relations with the making the prospect of better relations with the west highly unlikelywest highly unlikely

In 2005-06, Iran continued its efforts to enrich In 2005-06, Iran continued its efforts to enrich uranium and has led to a significant uranium and has led to a significant confrontationconfrontation with the U.S., other Western with the U.S., other Western states and the U.N.states and the U.N. When President Ahmadinejad announced that Iran had When President Ahmadinejad announced that Iran had

successfully successfully enrichedenriched uranium, President Bush stated uranium, President Bush stated “all options were on the table” in dealing with Iran’s “all options were on the table” in dealing with Iran’s nuclear program, including nuclear program, including military actionmilitary action

In January 2007, the U.N. Security Council voted In January 2007, the U.N. Security Council voted unanimously to impose economic sanctions on Iran – unanimously to impose economic sanctions on Iran – an embargo on nuclear technology and freezing of an embargo on nuclear technology and freezing of assets of certain Iranian companies and individuals – assets of certain Iranian companies and individuals – Iran condemns the action and refuses to halt their Iran condemns the action and refuses to halt their uranium enrichment programuranium enrichment program

Middle East in TransitionMiddle East in Transition The Persian Gulf WarThe Persian Gulf War

QuestioQuestionsns

middle east in transition other middle eastern issues

Documents

bible islamic fundamentalism

bible fundamentalism

middle eastern issues

literal interpretation

number of muslims

regional stability slide

defining characteristic

use of violence