microelectronics and ic technology
TRANSCRIPT
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
March 21, 2015
Dave A. AnasPERCDC
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
istory
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History of EE: Transistor
Base
Collector
Emitter
J. Bardeen,W. Brattain and W. Shockley, 1939-1947
BC
E
BJT
G
D
S
MOSFET
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History of EE: IntegrationJack S. Kilby (1958)Resistor
Capacitor
Inductor
Diode
Transistor
Monolithic (one piece) circuits: built forma silicon substrate
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Today’s Chips: Moore’s Law
Gordon Moore, 1965
Number of transistor per square inchdoubles
approximatelyevery18 months
Implications
Cost per device halves every 18 monthsMore transistors on the same area, more complexand powerful chips
Future chips are very hard to design!!!Fabrication cost is becoming prohibitive
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Today’s Chips: An Example
300mm wafer, 90nmP4 2.4 Ghz, 1.5V, 131mm2
90nm transistor (Intel)
Hair size (1024px)
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Signals: Analog vs. Digital
t
f(t)
t
g(t)
Analog: Analogous to some physical quantity
Digital: can be represented using a finite number of digits
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Example of Analog Signal
Properties:Dynamic range: maxV – minV
Frequency: number of cycles in one second
V o l t
a g e ( µ V )
Time (s)
A (440Hz) piano key stroke
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Analog Circuits
It is an electronic subsystem whichoperates entirely on analog signals
Amplifieri(t) o(t)
o(t) =K i(t)
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Digital Circuits
It is an electronic subsystem whichoperates entirely on numbers (using, forinstance, binary representation)
1-bit Adder
a
b
sum
carry
a b sum carry
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 01 1 0 1
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Encoding of Digital Signals
We use binary digits Two values: 0 ,1
Positional system
Encoded by two voltage levels +1.5 V → 1 ,0 V → 0
+1.5 V
+1.5 V0 V
5 → 101+1.5 V
0 V
threshold
0
1
noise margin
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Why Digital?
Digital signals areeasy and cheap tostore
Digital signals areinsensible to noise
Boolean algebra can be used torepresent, manipulate, minimize logicfunctions
Digital signal processing is easier andrelatively less expensive than analogsignal processing
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http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/microelectronics-and-ic-technology 13/268Lect. 1 - 06/21/2004 Alessandro Pinto, EE40 Summer 2004 13
Digital Representation of Analog Signals
Problem: represent f(t) using a finitenumber of binary digits
Example: A key stroke using 6 bits
Only 64 possible values, hence not all values can be represented
Quantization error: due to finitenumber of digits
Time sampling: time is continuous but we want a finite sequence of numbers
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Digital Representation of Analog Signals
t
f(t)Dynamic Range: [-30,30] VPrecision: 5 V
t
Sampling
0000000100100011010001010110011110001001101010111100
-5µ
V-10
µ
V-15
µ
V-20
µ
V-25
µ
V-30
µ
V
Quantization10110100010101100001001010011100010000110010
0011
Result
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Digital Representation of Logic Functions
Boolean Algebra: Variables can take values0 or 1 (true orfalse)
Operators on variables:
a AND b a·b
aOR b a+b
NOT b b
Any logic expression can be built usingthese basic logic functions
Example: exclusive OR
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Full Adder Example
1-bit Adder
a
b
sum
carry
a b sum carry
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
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TAKE NOTE!
-Analog signals are representation of physicalquantities
-Digital signals are less sensible to noise than
analog signals
-Digital signals can represent analog signals with arbitrary precision (at the expense of
digital circuit cost)
-Boolean algebra is a powerful mathematicaltool for manipulating digital circuits
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Co!!on A""lication
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Cellular Technology
An important example of microelectronics.
Microelectronics exist in black boxes that process the
received and transmitted voice signals.
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Frequency Upconversion
!oice is "upconverted# by multiplying t$o sinusoids.
%hen multiplying t$o sinusoids in time domain& their
spectra are convolved in frequency domain.
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Transmitter
T$o frequencies are multiplied and radiated by an antenna
in 'a(.
A po$er amplifier is added in 'b( to boost the signal.
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)eceiver
*igh frequency is translated to +C by multiplying by f C.
A lo$noise amplifier is needed for signal boosting $ithoutexcessive noise.
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Microelectronics Technology
###$e!icond%ctor Processing&&&### $e!icond%ctorCharacteri'ation&&&
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
(hat is Microelectronics)
* Microelectronics is a s%+eld
o- electronics.* Microelectronics is the st%dyand !an%-act%re o- electronic
co!"onents hich are verys!all.
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Real $!all Co!"onents
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
/ery Co!"le
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Dierent A""roache
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
actors that Aect$e!icond%ctor a+rication
• Pro"er !aterial -or the "%r"ose
•3eo!etry
• Material groth and re!oval +y
the hel" o- lithogra"hy
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
$i!"le ea!"le 4ME$ET• Metal*$e!icond%ctor ield Eect
Transistor
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
CM$ Inverter
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
$ilicon Technology
• Process Involved – Crystal (substrate) growth
– Oxidation
– Difusion & implantation
– Material growth (metal evaporation,sputtering, vapor deposition, epitaxy)
– Lithography & ething
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
$%+strate or!ation
Dierent Methods o- $%+strateor!ation
– C!ohrals"i
• Ma#ority o$ the wa$ers – %loating !one (high purity)
• igh purity ' low oxygen & arbon impurity• More omplex wrt C!ohrals"i
– ridgman• *asy (melting & ooling)• Low +uality
– Drip melting, strain annealing and
others
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
C'ochrals6i groth
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
7Ingot8 9y C'ochrals6iMethod
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
C'ochrals6i 3roth
CARACTERI$TIC$
• Ty"ically %sed -or $ilicon +%t also %sed -or – ingle rystal semiondutors (i, -e, -a.s)
– Metals (/d, /t, .g, .u)
– alts et0
• Re:%ires seed crystal
• ast ;1*2 !!<!in=
PR9>EM$• ygen conta!ination -ro! cr%ci+le
• ?ni-or!ity o- aial resistivity is "oor
• $egregation "ro+le!s -or do"ants
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
$te"s Involved
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Processes Involved
• C/D @ >PC/D ;che!ical va"or de"osition ;l!groth=
• Ther!ally gron oide ;idation=
• Photoresist ;>ithogra"hy etching=
S "
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!ermal Si"2 Pro#erties
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!ermal Si"2 Pro#erties $cont.%
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"&idation ec!ni'ues
• !ermal "&idation
• (a#id !ermal "&idation
Oxidation /roess
!ermal "&idation ec!ni'ues
• )et "&idation
Si $solid% * +20 Si"2 $solid% * 2+2
• r "&idation
Si $solid% * "2 $as% Si"2$solid%
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once#tual Si "&idation Sstem
!ermal "&idation
• +eat is added to t!e o&idation tue durin t!e reaction..eteen o&idants and silicon
- 00-1,200° tem#erature rane- "&ide rot! rate increases as a result o !eat
• sed to ro o&ides eteen 60-10,0005
D 1 2h l
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Dry vs 1et 2hermalOxidation
)et !ermal "&idation !aracteristics
• "&idant is ater a#or
• 7ast o&idation rate- "&ide rot! rate is 1000-12005 / !our
• Preerred o&idation #rocess or rot! o t!ic8 o&ides
r !ermal "&idation !aracteristics
• "&idant is dr o&en
• sed to ro o&ides less t!an 10005 t!ic8
• Slo #rocess- 140 - 2905 / !our
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,assivation• P!sicall #rotects aers rom scratc!es and #article..contamination
• ra#s moile ions in o&ide laer
%untions o$ Oxide Layers (3)
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Masking• urin iusion, :on :m#lantation, and Etc!in
%untion o$ Oxide Layers (4)
iO4
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-nsulating Material• ;ate reion
- !in laer o o&ide- Allos an inductie c!are to #ass eteen ate
metal and silicon
%untion o$ Oxide Layers (5)
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+ielectric Material• :nsulatin material eteen metal laers
- 7ield "&ide
%untion o$ Oxide Layers (6)
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+ielectric Material• unnelin o&ide
- Allos electrons to #ass t!rou! o&ide it!outresistance
%untion o$ Oxide Layers (7)
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
idation
Main advantages o- $i3e co!"ared to $i4
A. Mo+ility
9. Poer Cons%!"tion
;oygen !%st di%se thro%gh the oide to
react at the $i<$i2 inter-ace, so ratede"ends on the thic6ness o- the oide andred%ces as the oidation "rogresses.=
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
idation
• Ther!al idation is "er-or!ed in -%rnaces atte!"erat%res +eteen 899 and 3499:C
• Many a-ers on the +oat ;a :%art' rac6= at thesa!e ti!e
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
idation 4 dry vs. et
• Dry ;!olec%lar oygen= 4 +etter oide +%tslo ;gate oide=
• (et ;stea! @ ater va"or= 4 -ast +%t "oro%s;isolation=
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
idation
>ithogra"h Pattern
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
>ithogra"hy PatternTrans-er?sed -or "attern trans-er into !etals, oides andse!icond%ctors
2hin ;lm deposition and lithography ;incl%ding "hoto ande*+ea!, et etching and li-t*o= are the !ost-re:%ently %sed !ethod in la+s
2ypes o$ resists< – /ositive < /= pattern is same as mas" On exposure to
light, light degrades the polymers resulting in thephotoresist being more soluble in developers 2he /=an be removed in inexpensive solvents suh asaetone
– >egative < /= pattern is the inverse o$ the mas" On
exposure to light, light polymeri!es the rubbers in the?
>ithogra"hy Pattern
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
>ithogra"hy PatternTrans-er
• 9lac6 areas ;PR= are theo"enings a-ter develo"!ent o-PR
>ithogra"hy Pattern
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
>ithogra"hy PatternTrans-er
Processes in doing>ithogra"hy4
– Dehydration ba"e or pre@ba"e
– .dhesion promoter (ie MD) – .pply resist ' spinner – o$t ba"e – AB@exposure with mas"
– /ost@ba"e – /ost proessing suh as development &
ething & li$t@of – Other proesses re+uired by spei; needs
(M*M)
>ithogra"hy Pattern
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
>ithogra"hy PatternTrans-er• 9a6ing
• $"inner
>ithogra"hy Pattern
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
>ithogra"hy PatternTrans-er• E"ose
• Develo"
>ith h P tt T -
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
>ithogra"hy Pattern Trans-er 4?ses o- lithogra"hy
tching ,rocesses/ open $indo$s in oxides for diffusion&
masks for ion implantation& etching& metal contact to the
semiconductor& or interconnect.
>ithogra"hy Pattern
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
>ithogra"hy PatternTrans-er
• >i-t o Processes4 Metali'ation
>ithogra"hy Pattern
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
>ithogra"hy PatternTrans-er• Iss%es ith "hotolithogra"hy
– =esolution < $eature si!e (97 mironusually)
– horter wavelength better resolution – =egistration < alignment o$ diferentlayers on the same wa$er ( 3E5 o$ theresolution or 99F miron)
– 2hroughput < efetive ost and time – =esist thi"ness 3Espin speed
>ithogra"hy Pattern
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
>ithogra"hy PatternTrans-er
• Photolithogra"hy syste!s
>ithogra"hy Pattern
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
>ithogra"hy PatternTrans-er• Contact Resist is in contact ith the !as64 141
!agnication – Gnepensive, relatively high resolution ( 97 miron),
ontat with the mas" (srathes, partiles and dirt areimaged in the wa$er)
• Proi!ity Resist is al!ost +%t not in contact iththe !as64 141 !agnication – Gnexpensive, low resolution ( 3@4miron), difration
efets limit auray o$ pattern trans$er Lessrepeatable than ontat methods,
• ProBection Mas6 i!age is "roBected a distance-ro! the !as6 and de*!agnied to a s!aller i!age4
14 *1410!agnication – Can be very high resolution (99H um or slightly
better), >o mas" ontat results in almost no mas" wear(high prodution ompatible), mas" de$ets or partileson mas" are redued in si!e on the wa$er *xtremelyexpensive and ompliated e+uipment, Difration
efets limit auray o$ pattern trans$er
>ithogra"hy Pattern
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
>ithogra"hy PatternTrans-er
>ithogra"h Pattern Trans-er
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
>ithogra"hy Pattern Trans-er 4>ight so%rces
• Ty"ically merury (g)@ Ienon (Ie)vapor bulbs are %sed as a lightso%rce in visi+le ;#20 n!= and%ltraviolet ;#250*00 n! and&20 n!= lithogra"hy e:%i"!ent
• Lasers are %sed to increaseresol%tion, and decrease the
o"tical co!"leity -or dee"%ltraviolet ;D?/= lithogra"hysyste!s.
• *xited dimer ;Eci!er or Ei"le=
"%lsed lasers are ty"ically %sed.
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Di%sion I!"lantation
• Do"ants -or F and PF regions ;i!"lantation di%sion=
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Di%sion I!"lantation
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Di%sion I!"lantation
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Di%sion I!"lantation
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Di%sion I!"lantation
• 1hat is difusionJ – Difusion is the spontaneous net movement o$
partiles $rom an area o$ high onentration toan area o$ low onentration (partilepenetration $rom sur$ae into the wa$er)
• Commonly used $or – ipolar tehnology (base, emitters) – %*2 (soure, drain)
• Ased when – Gon implantation damage is not aeptable – Deep #untions are needed – Cheap & easy solutions are see"ed
Di%sion I!"lantation 4
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Di%sion I!"lantation 4Ty"es o- di%sion
• Instertital
• /acancy
• Interstitialcy• Gic6*o%t
• Dissociative
Di i I l t ti
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Di%sion I!"lantation
• Di%sionde"ends on4
–Difusion time –Difusion
onstant
(difusivity) –Material density
– 2emperature
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Di%sion I!"lantation
• Ion i!"lantation 4 – Gons (harged atoms or moleules) are reated
via an enormous eletri ;eld stripping awayan eletron
– 2hese ions are ;ltered and aelerated towarda target wa$er, where they are buried in thewa$er
– 2he depth o$ the implantation depends on the
aeleration energy (voltage) – 2he dose is very are$ully ontrolled by
integrating the measured ion urrent
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Di%sion I!"lantation
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Di%sion I!"lantation
• Advantages – Bery preise ontrol o$ the dose and position – Gndependent ontrol o$ impurity depth and dose – Bery $ast (#ust $ew seonds) – Complex pro;les an be ahieved by multiple &
se+uential implantations
• Disadvantages – Bery deep and very shallow pro;les are diKult – >ot all the damage an be orreted by annealing – 2ypially has higher impurity ontent than difusion – O$ten uses extremely toxi gas soures suh as arsine
(.s5), and phosphine (/5) – expensive
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Di%sion I!"lantation
a+rication o- a CM$
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
a+rication o- a CM$Inverter
a+rication o- a CM$
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
a+rication o- a CM$Inverter
a+rication o- a CM$
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
a+rication o- a CM$Inverter
• Poly*$i de"osition ;>PC/D=
il d i i h
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
il! de"osition groth
• Physical de"osition – 2hermal evaporation – *@beam evaporation – puttering
• Che!ical va"or de"osition – CBD – L/CBD – /*CBD
• E"itaial groth
– M* – MOCBD – C*
Ther!al E*+ea!
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Ther!al E +ea!Eva"oration• The so%rce !aterial is eva"orated in a vac%%!.
The va"ors other than the so%rce !aterial areal!ost entirely re!oved +e-ore the "rocess+egins.
• The vac%%! allos va"or "articles to travel
directly to the target o+Bect ;s%+strate=, herethey condense +ac6 to a solid state.
• .dvantages – igh purity (good $or hott"y ontats), simple, easy &
heap, $ast, low vauum (39@6)
• Disadvantages – /oor alloy $ormation, step overage problems, low throughput
(low vauum), relatively non@uni$orm deposition, non@smoothsur$aes, short mean $ree path (F9m), high temperatures
Ther!al E*+ea!
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Ther!al E +ea!Eva"oration
2hermal
*@beam
$ tt i
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
$"%ttering
• A HtargetH !ade o- the !aterial to +e de"osited is
+o!+arded +y energetic ions hich ill dislodgeato!es o- the target, i.e., Hsputter the! oH.
• The dislodged ato!s ill have s%+stantial 6ineticenergies, and so!e ill Jy to the s%+strate to +ecoated and stic6 there.
$ tt i
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
$"%ttering
.dvantages – The target ato!s hit the s%+strate ith
an energy large eno%gh so they Hgetstuck H, +%t not so large as to li+erates%+strate ato!s. $"%ttered layersthere-ore %s%ally stic6 ell to thes%+strate ;in contrast to othertechni:%es, !ost nota+ly eva"oration
– All ato!s o- the target ill +eco!ede"osited, in "retty !%ch the sa!e
co!"osition as in the target. It is th%s"ossi+le, e.g., to de"osit a silicide slightlyo the stoichio!etric co!"osition
– The target ato!s hit the s%+strateco!ing -ro! all directions.
– o!ogeneo%s coverage o- the s%+strate*
$ tt i
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
$"%ttering
Disadvantages – $"%ttered layers %s%ally have a very +ad
crystallinity * very s!all grains -%ll o- de-ects oreven a!or"ho%s layers res%lt. ?s%ally so!e 6indo- annealing o- the layers is necessary to restoreacce"ta+le crystal :%ality.
– $"%ttering or6s ell -or !etals or otherso!ehat cond%cting !aterials. It is not easy orsi!"ly i!"ossi+le -or ins%lators. $"%ttering $i2layers, e.g., has +een tried o-ten, +%t never!ade it to "rod%ction ;Kn*oide, tin*oide etc.are easily achieved hoever=
Che!ical /a"or
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Che!ical /a"orDe"osition
• the s%+strate is"laced inside areactor to hich an%!+er o- gasesare s%""lied.
• a che!icalreaction ta6es"lace +eteen theso%rce gases.
• The "rod%ct o-
that reaction is asolid !aterial ithcondenses on alls%r-aces inside thereactor.
C t i - C/D
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Categories o- C/D
1. At!os"heric Press%re ;APC/D=• .dvantages< igh deposition rates, simple,
high throughput• Disadvantages< /oor uni$ormity, purity is
less than L/CBD
• 2hi" oxides
2. >o Press%re ;>PC/D, 0.2 @ 20 Torr=• /oly@silion deposition, dieletri layer and
doped dieletri deposition• .dvantages< *xellent uni$ormity, purity• Disadvantages< Lower (but reasonable)
deposition rates than ./CBD
C t i - C/D
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Categories o- C/D
5 Metal rganic ;MC/D= alternative $orM*
• .dvantages< ighly exible(semiondutors, metals, dieletris)
•Disadvantages< ighly toxi, very expensivesoure material, environmental disposalosts are high
6 Plas!a Enhanced (/*CBD)
• dieletri oating suh as silion nitride• .dvantages< Ases low temperatures
neessary $or rear end proessing• Disadvantages< /lasma damage typially
results
E it
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
E"itay
• (e can gro crystalline se!icond%ctors+y raising the te!"erat%re to allo!ore s%r-ace !igration and +y %sing acrystalline s%+strate
grothL de"osition• The lattice constant o- the e"itaiallygron layer needs to +e close to thelattice constant o- the s%+strate a-er.therise the +onds can not stretch -areno%gh and dislocations ill res%lt.
• Advantages 4 /ery high :%ality,etre!ely clean sa!"les,crystallinity,very long !ean -ree "ath ;-e h%ndred
!eters=, "recise ato!ic layer de"osition
E it
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
E"itay
/
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
/ac%%!
• A vac%%! is a vol%!e o- s"ace that isessentially e!"ty o- !atter s%ch that itsgaseo%s "ress%re is !%ch less than standardat!os"heric "ress%re.
• A "er-ect vac%%! ith a gaseo%s "ress%re o-a+sol%te 'ero is a "hiloso"hical conce"t that isnever o+served in "ractice
• :%ant%! theory "redicts that no vol%!e o-s"ace can +e "er-ectly e!"ty in this ay.
• The :%ality o- a vac%%! is !eas%red in relationto ho closely it a""roaches a "er-ect vac%%!.
The resid%al gas "ress%re is the "ri!aryindicator o- :%ality, and is !ost co!!only!eas%red in %nits called torr
• The average distance +eteen collisions ;!ean-ree "ath=
/ac !
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
/ac%%!
• /ac%%! :%ality is s%+divided into ranges accordingto the technology re:%ired to achieve it or !eas%reit. These ranges do not have %niversally agreeddenitions ;hence the ga"s +elo=, +%t a ty"icaldistri+%tion is as -ollos4
At!os"heric NO0 Torr>o vac%%! NO0 to 25 TorrMedi%! vac%%! 25 to 110* Torrigh vac%%! 110* to 110*Q
Torr?ltra high vac%%! 110*Q to 110*12
TorrEtre!ely high vac%%! &110*12 Torr%ter $"ace 110*O to &10*1N TorrPer-ect vac%%! 0 Torr
/ac%%! "%!"s
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
/ac%%! "%!"s
• Ro%gh !edi%! vac%%! – /iston pumps (partile problems) – =otary vane pumps (heap)
– Dry pumps• igh vac%%! ?/
– Difusion (oil ontamination) – 2urbo
– Cryo – Gon (low pumping speed & apaity)
Trans-er "%!"s
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
Trans-er "%!"s
• Rotary "%!" ;!echanical=
/ac%%! "%!"s
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
/ac%%! "%!"s
• T%r+o!olec%lar "%!"s
a+rication o- a CM$
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
inverter
a+rication o- a CM$
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
inverter
a+rication o- a CM$
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
inverter
Inverter @ A-ter -e
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Microelectronics And IC
TechnologyDave A. Anas
ste"s
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronics Design
2he tart o$ the Modern *letronis
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*ra
Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain at
Bell Labs - Brattain and Bardeen
invented the bipolar transistor in 1947.
The first germanium bipolar
transistor. Roughly 50 years later,
electronics account for 10% (4 trillion
dollars) of the world GDP.
*letronis Milestones
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*letronis Milestones
38H6 raun invents the solid@statereti;er
39F De%orest invents triodevauum tube
39H@34H
%irst radio iruits developed$rom diodes and triodes
347 Lilien$eld ;eld@efet deviepatent ;led
36H ardeen and rattain at ellLaboratories invent bipolartransistors
374 Commerial bipolar transistorprodution at 2exasGnstruments
37F ardeen, rattain, andho"ley reeive >obel pri!e
378 Gntegrated iruits developed
by Nilby and >oye3F3 %irst ommerial GC $rom
%airhild emiondutor
3F5 G*** $ormed $rom merger o$ G=*and .G**
3F8 %irst ommerial GC opamp
3H9 One transistor D=.M ellinvented by Dennard at GM
3H3 6996 Gntel miroproessorintrodued
3H8 %irst ommerial 3@"ilobitmemory
3H6 8989 miroproessor
introdued386 Megabit memory hipintrodued
4999 .l$erov, Nilby, and Nromershare >obel pri!e
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
The o+el Pri'e in Physics 2000
as aarded "for basic work oninformation and communicationtechnology" ith one hal- Bointly
to Khores I. Al-erov and er+ertGroe!er "for developingsemiconductor heterostructures
used in high-speed- and opto-electronics" and the other hal- to ac6 $. Gil+y "for his part in theinvention of the integrated
“Miroeletroni Ciruit Design, 6*
M-raw@ill Chap 1 - 101
*volution o$ *letroni
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Devies
Vacuum
Tubes
Discrete
Transistors
SSI and MSI
IntegratedCircuits
VLSI
Surface-MountCircuits
Microelectronics
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
Proli-eration• The integrated circ%it as invented in 1Q5S.• (orld transistor "rod%ction has !ore than
do%+led every year -or the "ast tentyyears.
• Every year, !ore transistors are "rod%cedthan in all "revio%s years co!+ined.
• A""roi!ately 101S transistors ere"rod%ced in a recent year.
• Ro%ghly 50 transistors -or every ant in theorld.
$o%rce4 3ordon MooreUs Plenary address at the 200International $olid $tate Circ%its Con-erence.
Devie %eature i!e
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Devie %eature i!e
• %eature si!eredutions enabled
by proessinnovations
• maller $eatures leadto more transistors
per unit area andthere$ore higherdensity
=apid Gnrease in Density o$
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Miroeletronis
Memory chip density
versus time.
Microprocessor complexity
versus time.
ignal 2ypes
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ignal 2ypes
• .nalog signals ta"eon ontinuous values@ typially urrent orvoltage
• Digital signals
appear at disretelevels Asually weuse binary signalswhih utili!e onlytwo levels
• One level is re$erredto as logial 3 andlogial 9 is assignedto the other level
.nalog and Digital ignals
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.nalog and Digital ignals
• .nalog signals areontinuous in time
and voltage orurrent (Charge analso be used as asignal onveyor)
• .$ter digiti!ation, theontinuous analogsignal beomes a set
o$ disrete values,typially separatedby ;xed timeintervals
Digital@[email protected] (DE.)
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Conversion
• %or an n@bit DE. onverter, the output voltageis expressed as<
• 2he smallest possible voltage hange is "nownas the least signi;ant bit or L
V LSB
= 2−nV
FS
V O= (b12
−1+b22
−2+ ...+bn 2
−n)V FS
V FS = Full -Scale Voltage
.nalog@to@Digital (.ED)
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Conversion
• .nalog input voltage vx is onverted to the nearest n@bitnumber
• %or a $our bit onverter, 9 vx input yields a 9999 3333 digital output
• Output is approximation o$ input due to the limited
resolution o$ the n@bit output *rror is expressed as<
V ε = v x − (b12−1 +b2 2
−2 + ...+bn 2−n
)V FS
.ED Converter 2rans$er
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Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 110
Charateristi
V ε = v x − (b12−1 + b2 2−2 + ...+ bn 2−n )V FS
Eercises
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 111
Eercises
A 10*+it D<A converter has VFS
5.12 /. (hat is the o%t"%t voltage-or a +inary in"%t code o-;1100010001=) (hat is V >$9)
(hat is the si'e o- the M$9)
Eercises
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 112
Eercises
A 10*+it D<A converter has VFS 5.12 /. (hat is the o%t"%t voltage-or a +inary in"%t code o-
;1100010001=) (hat is V >$9)(hat is the si'e o- the M$9)
.Q25 /V 5 !/V 2.5O /
Eercises
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 113
Eercises
An S*+it A<D converter has VFS
5 /. (hat is the digital o%t"%tcode ord -or an in"%t o- 1.2 /)(hat is the voltage range
corres"onding to 1 >$9 o- theconverter)
Eercises
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 114
Eercises
An S*+it A<D converter has VFS 5 /. (hat is the digital o%t"%tcode ord -or an in"%t o- 1.2 /)
(hat is the voltage rangecorres"onding to 1 >$9 o- theconverter)
00111101V 1Q.5 !/
otational Conventions
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
otational Conventions
• Total signal DC +ias F ti!e varyingsignal
• Resistance and cond%ctance * R and 3ith sa!e s%+scri"ts ill denotereci"rocal :%antities. Mostconvenient -or! ill +e %sed ithine"ressions.
sig DC T
sig DC T
i I i
vV v
+=
+=
G x =1
R x
and gπ =1
r π
(hat are Reasona+le+
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
%!+ers)•
I- the "oer s%""ly is W 10 /, a calc%lated DC+ias val%e o- 15 / ;not ithin the range o- the"oer s%""ly voltages= is %nreasona+le.
• 3enerally, o%r +ias c%rrent levels ill +e+eteen 1 X A and a -e h%ndred !illia!"s.
• A calc%lated +ias c%rrent o- .2 a!"s is "ro+a+ly%nreasona+le and sho%ld +e reea!ined.
• Pea6*to*"ea6 ac voltages sho%ld +e ithin the"oer s%""ly voltage range.
• A calc%lated co!"onent val%e that is %nrealistic sho%ld +e rechec6ed. or ea!"le, a resistancee:%al to 0.01 oh!s.
• 3iven the inherent variations in !ost electronic
co!"onents, three signicant digits are
Ciruit 2heory< Boltage Division
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and
Applying KVL (Kirchhoff’s voltage
law) to the loop,
Combining these yields the basic voltage division formula:
andv1 = ii R1
v2 = ii R2
vi
= v1
+ v2
= ii
( R1
+ R2
)
ii = v i
R1 + R2
v1 = v i R1
R1 + R2
v2 = v i R2
R1 + R2
Ciruit 2heory< Boltage Division( t )
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Using the derived equations
with the indicated values,
(ont)
V _____ k 2k 8
k 8V10
1
=Ω+Ω
Ω=v
V ____ k 2k 8
k 2V102 =
Ω+ΩΩ
=v
GirchhoYs voltage la;G/>=
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
;G/>=
• The "rinci"le o- conservation o-energy i!"lies that – 2he direted sum o$ the eletrial
potential diferenes (voltage) aroundany losed iruit is !ero
Miroeletroni Ciruit Design, 6*
M-raw@ill Chap 1 - 119
Ciruit 2heory< CurrentDi i i
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Division
and
Combining and solving for vs,
Combining these yields the basic current division formula:
where andii = i1 + i2
i1 = ii R2
R1 + R2
i2 = v i
R2
i1 = vi
R1
v i = ii 11
R1
+1
R2
= ii R1 R2
R1 + R2= ii R1 || R2
i2 = ii R1
R1 + R2
Ciruit 2heory< Current Division
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Ciruit 2heory< Current Division
Using the derived equations
with the indicated values,
mA ____ k 3k 2
k 3ma5
1
=Ω+Ω
Ω=i
mA _____ k 3k 2
k 2ma52 =
Ω+ΩΩ
=i
GirchhoYs c%rrent la;GC>=
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
;GC>=
• The "rinci"le o- conservation o-electric charge i!"lies that4 – .t any node (#untion) in an eletrial
iruit, the sum o$ urrents owing intothat node is e+ual to the sum o$ urrentsowing out o$ that node
Ciruit 2heory< 2hPvenin and >orton*+uivalent Ciruits
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*+uivalent Ciruits
Thévenin
Norton
ThZvenin E:%ivalent Circ%its
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
• The ThZvenin*e:%ivalent voltageis the voltage at the o%t"%tter!inals o- the original circ%it.
Miroeletroni Ciruit Design, 6*
M-raw@ill
ThZvenin E:%ivalentCi it
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Circ%its• The ThZvenin*e:%ivalent resistance is the
resistance !eas%red across "oints A and 9Hloo6ing +ac6H into the circ%it.
• It is i!"ortant to rst re"lace all voltage* and
c%rrent*so%rces ith their internalresistances.
• or an ideal voltage so%rce, this !eansre"lace the voltage so%rce ith a short circ%it.
• or an ideal c%rrent so%rce, this !eansre"lace the c%rrent so%rce ith an o"encirc%it.
Ciruit 2heory< %ind the 2hPvenin*+uivalent Boltage
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*+uivalent Boltage
Pro+le!4 %ind the 2hPvenine+uivalent voltage at theoutput
Ciruit 2heory< %ind the 2hPvenin*+uivalent Boltage
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*+uivalent Boltage
v th = 0.718v i
Ciruit 2heory< %ind the 2hPvenin*+uivalent =esistane
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*+uivalent =esistane
Pro+le!4 %ind the 2hPvenine+uivalent resistane atthe output
Ciruit 2heory< %ind the 2hPvenin*+uivalent =esistane
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*+uivalent =esistane
Test voltage vx has been added to the
previous circuit. Applying vx and solvingfor ix allows us to find the Thévenin
resistance as vx /ix.
Ciruit 2heory< %ind the 2hPvenin*+uivalent =esistane
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*+uivalent =esistane
Ω= 282th R
orton E:%ivalentCirc%its
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Circ%its
• Calc%late the o%t"%t c%rrent, A9,ith a short circ%it as the load.
Ciruit 2heory< %ind the >orton*+uivalent =esistane
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*+uivalent =esistane
Pro+le!4 %ind the >ortone+uivalent urrentsoureat the output
Ciruit 2heory< %ind the >orton*+uivalent Ciruit
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*+uivalent Ciruit
A short circuit has been applied
across the output. The Norton
current is the current flowingthrough the short circuit at the
output.
Ciruit 2heory< %ind the >orton*+uivalent Ciruit (ont )
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*+uivalent Ciruit (ont)
in =50 +1
20 k Ω v i = v i
392 Ω = (2.55 mS)v i
%inal 2hPvenin and >ortonCiruits
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Ciruits
Check of Results:
Note that vth = in Rth and this can be used to check the calculations:
in Rth=(2.55 mS)vi(282 Ω) = 0.719vi, accurate within round-off error.
While the two circuits are identical in terms of voltages and currents at
the output terminals, there is one difference between the two
circuits.
re:%ency $"ectr%! o-Electronic $ignals
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
Electronic $ignals
• on re"etitive signals have contin%o%ss"ectra o-ten occ%"ying a +road range o--re:%encies
• o%rier theory tells %s that re"etitive
signals are co!"osed o- a set o-sin%soidal signals ith distinct a!"lit%de,-re:%ency, and "hase.
• The set o- sin%soidal signals is 6non as ao%rier series.
• The -re:%ency s"ectr%! o- a signal is thea!"lit%de and "hase co!"onents o- thesignal vers%s -re:%ency.
re:%encies o- $o!e Co!!on$ignals
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
$ignals
• A%di+le so%nds 20 ' * 20 G'• 9ase+and T/ 0 * .5 M'
• M Radio SS * 10S M'
• Television ;Channels 2*O= 5 * SS M'
• Television ;Channels N*1= 1N * 21O M'• Mariti!e and 3ovt. Co!!. 21O * 50 M'
• Cell "hones and other ireless1N10 * 2OQ0M'
• $atellite T/ .N * .2 3'• (ireless Devices 5.0 * 5.5 3'
%ourier eries
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• .ny periodi signal ontains spetral omponents only atdisrete $re+uenies related to the period o$ the original signal
• . s+uare wave is represented by the $ollowing %ourier series<
ω0=2π /T (rad/s) is the fundamental radian frequency
f 0=1/T (Hz) is the fundamental frequency of the signal.
2f 0, 3f
0, and 4f
0 are called the second, third, and fourth harmonic frequencies
v(t ) = V DC +2V O
π sinω 0t +
1
3sin3ω 0t +
1
5sin5ω 0t + ...
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A!"lier 9asics
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
• Analog signals are ty"ically !ani"%latedith linear a!"liers.
• Altho%gh signals !ay +e co!"rised o-several dierent co!"onents, linearity
"er!its %s to %se the s%"er"osition"rinci"le.
• $%"er"osition allos %s to calc%late theeect o- each o- the dierent co!"onents
o- a signal individ%ally and then add theindivid%al contri+%tions to the o%t"%t.
.mpli;er Linearity
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Given an input sinusoid:
For a linear amplifier, the output is at
the same frequency, but different
amplitude and phase.
In phasor notation:
Amplifier gain is:
v i =V i sin(ω it +φ )
vo =V o sin(ω it + φ +θ )
vi =V i∠φ
vo= V
o∠(φ +θ )
A = v
o
vi
= V o∠(φ +θ )
V i∠φ = V o
V i∠θ
.mpli;er GnputEOutput=esponse
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=esponse
vi = sin2000πt V
Av = -5
Note: negative
gain is equivalent
to 180 degrees of
phase shift.
Gdeal Operational .mpli;er (Op.mp)
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.mp)
Ideal op amps are assumed to have
infinite voltage gain, and
infinite input resistance.
These conditions lead to two assumptions useful in analyzing
ideal op-amp circuits: (VGP)
1. The voltage difference across the input terminals is zero.
2. The input currents are zero.
Gdeal Op .mp *xample
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Writing a loop equation:
From assumption 2, we know that i- = 0.
Assumption 1 requires v- = v+ = 0.
Combining these equations yields:
v i − ii R1 − i2 R2 − vo = 0
ii= i2 =
vi− v
−
R1
ii = v i
R1
Av = vo
v i
= − R2
R1
Gdeal Op .mp *xample(.lternative .pproah)
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(.lternative .pproah)
From Assumption 2, i2 = ii:
Yielding:
ii = v i
R1= i2 = v− − vo
R2= −vo
R2
Av = v
o
v i= −
R2
R1
v i
R1
=−vo
R2
.mpli;er %re+ueny=esponse
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=esponse
Low Pass High Pass Band Pass Band Reject All Pass
Amplifiers can be designed to selectively amplify specific
ranges of frequencies. Such an amplifier is known as a filter.
Several filter types are shown below:
Circ%it Ele!ent/ariations
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
/ariations
• All electronic co!"onents have!an%-act%ring tolerances. – =esistors an be purhased with ± 39Q, ± 7Q,
and
± 3Q tolerane (GC resistors are o$ten
± 39Q)
– Capaitors an have asymmetrial toleranessuh as R49QE@79Q
– /ower supply voltages typially vary $rom 3Qto 39Q
• Device "ara!eters ill also vary ithte!"erat%re and age.
• Circ%its !%st +e designed toacco!!odate these variations.
Tolerance Modeling
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
• or sy!!etrical "ara!etervariations
Pno!;1 * ε= ≤ P ≤ Pno!;1 F ε=
• or ea!"le, a 10G resistor ith±5[ "ercent tolerance co%ld ta6eon the -olloing range o- val%es4
106;1 * 0.05= ≤ R ≤ 106;1 F0.05=
Q,500 ≤ R ≤ 10,500
1orst Case .nalysis*xample
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*xamplePro+le!4 %ind the nominaland worst@ase values $or
output voltage and soureurrent
$ol%tion4• Gnon In-or!ation and
3iven Data< Ciruittopology and values in;gure
• ?n6nons< BOnom, BO
min ,BO
max, GGnom, GG
min, GGmax
• A""roach< %ind nominal
values and then selet =3,=4, and BG values togenerate extreme aseso$ the un"nowns
• Ass%!"tions< >one• Analysis< >ext slides0
Nominal voltage solution:
V Onom =V I
nom R1
nom
R1
nom
+ R2
nom
=15V 18k Ω
18k Ω+ 36k Ω= 5V
1orst@Case .nalysis*xample
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*xampleNominal Source current:
Rewrite VO to help us determine how to find the worst-case values.
VO is maximized for max VI, R1 and min R2.
VO is minimized for min VI, R1, and max R2.
I I nom =
V I nom
R1
nom + R2
nom=
15V
18k Ω+ 36k Ω= 278 µ A
V O =V I R1
R1 + R2
= V I
1+ R2
R1
V Omax =15V (1.1)
1+36K (0.95)
18K (1.05)
= 5.87V V Omin
=15V (0.95)
1+ 36K (1.05)
18K (0.95)
= 4.20V
1orst@Case .nalysis*xample
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*xampleWorst-case source currents:
I I max =
V I max
R1
min + R2
min=
15V (1.1)
18k Ω(0.95) + 36k Ω(0.95)= 322 µ A
I I min = V I
min
R1
max + R2
max= 15V (0.9)
18k Ω(1.05)+ 36k Ω(1.05)= 238 µ A
Te!"erat%re Coe\cients
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
Most circ%it "ara!eters arete!"erat%re sensitive.
P Pno!;1Fα1]TF α2]T2=
here ]T T*Tno!
Pno! is dened at Tno!
Eercise
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
T he in"%t and o%t"%t voltages o- ana!"lier are e"ressed as vi 0.001sin;2000^t= / and vo _5 cos;2000^t
F 25`= / in hich vi and vo ares"ecied in volts hen t is seconds.(hat are /i, /, and the voltage gaino- the a!"lier)
Eercise
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
T he in"%t and o%t"%t voltages o- ana!"lier are e"ressed as vi 0.001sin;2000^t= / and vo _5 cos;2000^t
F 25`= / in hich vi and vo ares"ecied in volts hen t is seconds.(hat are /i, /, and the voltage gaino- the a!"lier)
0.001& 0`V 5& _O5`V 5000&_O5`
Eercise
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
The a!"lier has a gain o- _5 ithR1 10 6oh!s. (hat is the val%eo- R2)
Eercise
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
The a!"lier has a gain o- _5 ithR1 10 6oh!s. (hat is the val%eo- R2)
Anser4 50 Gilo oh!s
Eercise
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
;a=The +and*"ass a!"lier in has f! 1.56', f 2.5 6', and A 10. I- the in"%tvoltage is given +y vs 0.5 sin;2000#t =R sin;000#t = R 1.5 sin;O000#t =b /. (hat
is the a!"lit%de o- theo%t"%t voltage o-the a!"lier)
;+=$%""ose the sa!e in"%t signal is a""liedto the lo*"ass a!"lier hich has A O
and f 1.5 6'. (hat is the a!"lit%deo- the o%t"%t voltage)
Eercise
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
;a=The +and*"ass a!"lier in has f! 1.5 6',f 2.5 6', and A 10. I- the in"%t voltageis given +y vs 0.5 sin;2000#t = Rsin;000#t = R 1.5 sin;O000#t =b /. (hat is the
a!"lit%de o- theo%t"%t voltage o- thea!"lier)
;+=$%""ose the sa!e in"%t signal is a""lied tothe lo*"ass a!"lier hich has A O and f 1.5 6'. (hat is the a!"lit%de o- the
o%t"%t voltage)Ansers4 10.0V .00 /
Eercise
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
A Q*6 resistor has a 10 "ercenttolerance. (hat is the range o-resistor val%es corres"onding to
this resistor) Re"eat -or a .O*6 resistor ith a 1 "ercent tolerance.
Eercise
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
A Q*6 resistor has a 10 "ercenttolerance. (hat is the range o-resistor val%es corres"onding to
this resistor) Re"eat -or a .O*6 resistor ith a 1 "ercent tolerance.
.nswers< 5.1 S $ S 2.Q 6V .5O S $S .O 6.
Eercise
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
. difused resistor has a nominalvalue o$ 39 " at a temperature o$ 47TCand has a 2C= o$ R3999 ppmETC %ind
its resistane at 69 and H7TC %or % U55TC and % RS5TC)
Eercise
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
. difused resistor has a nominal value o$ 39" at a temperature o$ 47TC and has a 2C= o$R3999 ppmETC %ind its resistane at 69 andH7TC %or % U55TC and % RS5TC)
39.37 "
39.7 "
Q.20 6 10.O 6
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
$olid $tate Electronics
2he Gnventors o$ the GntegratedCiruit
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Jack KilbyAndy Grove, Robert Noyce, and
Gordon Moore with Intel 8080 layout.
2he Nilby Gntegrated Ciruit
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Semiconductor dieActive device
Electrical contacts
$olid*$tate ElectronicMaterials
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
• Electronic !aterials -all into threecategories4 – Gnsulators =esistivity (ρ) V 397 Ω@m – emiondutors 39@5 W ρ W 397 Ω@m – Condutors ρ W 39@5 Ω@m
• Ele!ental se!icond%ctors are -or!ed -ro!a single ty"e o- ato!, ty"ically $ilicon.
• Co!"o%nd se!icond%ctors are -or!ed -ro!co!+inations o- col%!n III and / ele!entsor col%!ns II and /I.
• 3er!ani%! as %sed in !any earlydevices.
• $ilicon :%ic6ly re"laced 3er!ani%! d%e toits higher +andga" energy, loer cost, and
is easily oidi'ed to -or! silicon dioide
emiondutor Materials
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Semiconductor BandgapEnergy EG (eV)
Carbon (diamond) 5.47
Silicon 1.12
Germanium 0.66
Tin 0.082
Gallium arsenide 1.42
Gallium nitride 3.49
Indium phosphide 1.35
Boron nitride 7.50
Silicon carbide 3.26
Cadmium selenide 1.70
Covalent ond Model
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Silicon crystal
lattice unit cell.
Corner of diamond
lattice showing
four nearest
neighbor bonding.
View of crystal
lattice along acrystallographic axis.
ilion Covalent ond Model
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Near absolute zero, all bonds are complete.
Each Si atom contributes one electron to
each of the four bond pairs.
Increasing temperature adds energy to the
system and breaks bonds in the lattice,
generating electron-hole pairs.
Intrinsic CarrierConcentration
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A Anas
•The density o- carriers in a se!icond%ctor as a-%nction o- te!"erat%re and !aterial "ro"erties is4
• E3
se!icond%ctor +andga" energy in e/ ;electron
volts=
• 6 9olt'!annUs constant, S.O2 10*5 e/<G
• T a+sol%te ter!"erat%re, G
• 9 !aterial*de"endent "ara!eter, 1.0S 101 G *
c!*O
-or $i• 9andga" energy is the !ini!%! energy needed to
-ree an electron +y +rea6ing a covalent +ond in these!icond%ctor crystal.
ni2 = BT 3 exp −
E G
kT
cm -6
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
• Electrondensity is n ;electrons<c!=and ni -orintrinsic
!aterial n ni .
• Intrinsic re-ersto "ro"erties
o- "%re!aterials.
• ni 1010 c!* -or $i
I n t r i n s i c c a r r i e r d e n s i t y ( c m - 3 )
Electron*holeconcentrations
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill Chap 2 - 173
• A vacancy is le-t hen a covalent +ond is+ro6en.
• The vacancy is called a hole.
• A hole !oves hen the vacancy is lled +y
an electron -ro! a near+y +ro6en +ond;hole c%rrent=.
• ole density is re"resented +y p.
• or intrinsic silicon, n ni p.
• The "rod%ct o- electron and holeconcentrations is pn ni
&.
• The pn "rod%ct a+ove holds hen ase!icond%ctor is in ther!al e:%ili+ri%!
Dri-t C%rrent
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
•Electrical resistivity ρ and its reci"rocal, conductivity σ, characteri'e c%rrent Jo in a !aterial hen anelectric eld is a""lied.
• Charged "articles !ove or drift %nder the inJ%enceo- the a""lied eld.
• The res%lting c%rrent is called drift current .
• Dri-t c%rrent density is
' (v ;C<c!=;c!<s= A<c!2
' c%rrent density, ;Co%lo!+ charge !ovingthro%gh a %nit area=
( charge density, ;Charge in a %nit vol%!e=
v velocity o- charge in an electric eld.
Mo+ility
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill Chap 2 - 175
•At lo elds, carrier dri-t velocity v ;c!<s= is"ro"ortional to electric eld E ;/<c!=. Theconstant o- "ro"ortionality is the !o+ility, 4
v n * nE and v p pE,here
v n and v p electron and hole velocity ;c!<s=,
n and p electron and hole !o+ility ;c!2</⋅s=
ole !o+ility is less than electron since hole
c%rrent is the res%lt o- !%lti"le covalent +onddisr%"tions, hile electrons can !ove -reely a+o%tthe crystal.U
/elocity $at%ration
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill Chap 2 - 176
At high elds,carrier velocitysat%rates and"laces %""er
li!its on thes"eed o- solid*state devices.
Intrinsic $iliconResistivity
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill Chap 2 - 177
y
• 3iven dri-t c%rrent and !o+ility, e cancalc%late resistivity4
' ndrift (nv n ;*)n=;* n*= )n n* A<c!2
' pdrift ( pv p ;)p=; p*= )p p* A<c!2
' % drift ' n + ' p );n n F p p=* σ *
This denes electrical cond%ctivity4
σ );n n F p p= ; ⋅
c!=*1
Resistivityρ
is the reci"rocal o- cond%ctivity4
1<σ ;
⋅
c!= ρ = E
jT drift
= V / cm
A / cm2= Ω ⋅ cm
*xample< Calulate the resistivity o$intrinsi silion
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Pro+le!4 %ind the resistivity o$intrinsi silion at roomtemperature and lassi$y it asan insulator, semiondutor, orondutor
*xample< Calulate the resistivity o$intrinsi silion
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σ (3F9 x 39@3)X(3939)(3579) R (3939)(799)Y (C)(m5)(m4EB⋅s)
4F x 39@F (Ω⋅m)@3
ρ 3Eσ 558 x 397 Ω⋅m
$e!icond%ctor Do"ing
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill Chap 2 - 180
• Do"ing is the "rocess o- addingvery s!all ell controlleda!o%nts o- i!"%rities into a
se!icond%ctor.• Do"ing ena+les the control o-the resistivity and other"ro"erties over a ide range o-val%es.
• or silicon, i!"%rities are -ro!col%!ns III and / o- the "eriodic
Donor Gmpurities in ilion
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• /hosphorous (or otherolumn B element) atomreplaes silion atom inrystal lattie
• ine phosphorous has
;ve outer shell eletrons,there is now an Zextra?eletron in the struture
• Material is still hargeneutral, but very little
energy is re+uired to $reethe eletron $orondution sine it is notpartiipating in a bond
.eptor Gmpurities inilion
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ilion• oron (olumn GGG
element) has been addedto silion
• 2here is now aninomplete bond pair,reating a vaany $or aneletron
• Little energy is re+uiredto move a nearbyeletron into the
vaany• .s the Zhole? propagates,
harge is moved arossthe silion
.eptor Gmpurities in ilion
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Hole is propagating through the silicon.
Do"ed $ilicon CarrierConcentrations
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill Chap 2 - 184
•I- n # ", the !aterial is n*ty"e.I- " # n, the !aterial is "*ty"e.
• The carrier ith the largest concentration is the!aBority carrier, the s!aller is the !inoritycarrier.
• D donor i!"%rity concentration ato!s<c!
A acce"tor i!"%rity concentration ato!s<c!
• Charge ne%trality re:%ires :;D F " * A * n= 0
• It can also +e shon that pn ni2, even -or do"ed
se!icond%ctors in ther!al e:%ili+ri%!.
n*ty"e Material
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill Chap 2 - 185
• $%+stit%ting p ni 2<n into :;D F p * A * n= 0 yields n2 * ;D *
A=n * ni 2 0.
• $olving -or n
• or ;D * A= ## 2ni , n ;D * A= .
n =( N D − N A ) ± ( N D − N A )2 + 4ni
2
2 and p =
ni2
n
"*ty"e Material
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill
• $i!ilar to the a""roach %sed ith n*ty"e!aterial e nd the -olloing e:%ations4
• (e nd the !aBority carrier concentration-ro! charge ne%trality and nd the !inoritycarrier conc. -ro! the ther!al e:%ili+ri%!
relationshi".• or ;A * D= ## 2ni , p ;A * D= .
p =( N A − N D ) ± ( N A − N D )2 + 4ni
2
2 and n =
ni2
p
Practical Do"ing >evels
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill Chap 2 - 187
• MaBority carrier concentrations areesta+lished at !an%-act%ring ti!e and areinde"endent o- te!"erat%re ;over "racticalte!". ranges=.
• oever, !inority carrier concentrationsare "ro"ortional to ni
2, a highlyte!"erat%re de"endent ter!.
• or "ractical do"ing levels, n ;D * A= -orn*ty"e and p ;A * D= -or "*ty"e !aterial.
• Ty"ical do"ing ranges are 101<c! to1021<c!.
Mobility and =esistivity inDoped emiondutors
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Di%sion C%rrent
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A Anas
Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E
McGraw-Hill Chap 2 - 189
• In "ractical se!icond%ctors, it is :%ite%se-%l to create carrier concentrationgradients +y varying the do"antconcentration and<or the do"ant ty"e acrossa region o- se!icond%ctor.
• This gives rise to a di%sion c%rrentres%lting -ro! the nat%ral tendency o-carriers to !ove -ro! high concentrationregions to lo concentration regions.
• Di%sion c%rrent is analogo%s to a gas!oving across a roo! to evenly distri+%teitsel- across the vol%!e.
Di%sion C%rrent
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A Anas
• Carriers !ove toardregions o- loerconcentration, sodi%sion c%rrent
densities are"ro"ortional to thenegative o- the carriergradient.
Diffusion currents in thepresence of a concentration
gradient.Diffusion current density equations
2
2
A/cm )(
A/cm )(
x
nqD
x
n Dq j
x
pqD
x
p Dq j
nn
diff
n
p p
diff
p
∂
∂
∂
∂
∂
∂
∂
∂
+=
−−=
−=
−+=
Di%sion C%rrent
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A Anas
• The "ro"ortionality constants D" and Dn are the hole and electron di%sivities ith %nits c!2<s. Di%sivity and !o+ilityare related +y EinsteinsUs relationshi"4
• The ther!al voltage, V % , k%), is
a""roi!ately 25 !/ at roo!te!"erat%re.
Dn
µ n= kT
q= D p
µ p= V T = Thermal voltage
Dn = µ nV T , D p = µ pV T
3a%ssYs la
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A Anas
• In "hysics, 3a%ssYs la, also6non as 3a%ssYs J% theore!,is a la relating the distri+%tion
o- electric charge to theres%lting electric eld.
• %he electric u/ through anyclosed surface is proportional tothe enclosed electric charge.
Miroeletroni Ciruit Design, 6*M-raw@ill
Chap 2 - 192
MaellYs e:%ations
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A Anas
• 3a%ssYs la• 3a%ssYs la -or !agnetis!
• aradayYs la o- ind%ction
• A!"reYs la ith MaellYs correction
Miroeletroni Ciruit Design, 6*M-raw@ill
Chap 2 - 193
3a%ssYs la -or!agnetis!
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A Anas
• It states that the !agnetic eld 9 has divergence e:%al to 'ero,in other ords, that it is a
solenoidal vector eld.• It is e:%ivalent to the state!entthat !agnetic !ono"oles do noteist.
• Rather than H!agnetic chargesH,the +asic entity -or !agnetis! isthe !agnetic di"ole. Chap 2 - 194
emiondutor *nergy andModel
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Semiconductor energy
band model. EC and EV are energy levels at the
edge of the conduction
and valence bands.
Electron participating in
a covalent bond is in alower energy state in the
valence band. This
diagram represents 0 K.
Thermal energy breaks
covalent bonds and
moves the electrons up
into the conduction
band.
*nergy and Model $or a Dopedemiondutor
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Semiconductor with donor or n-type
dopants. The donor atoms have free
electrons with energy ED. Since ED is
close to EC, (about 0.045 eV for
phosphorous), it is easy for electronsin an n-type material to move up into
the conduction band.
Semiconductor with acceptor or p-
type dopants. The donor atoms have
unfilled covalent bonds with energy
state EA. Since EA is close to EV,
(about 0.044 eV for boron), it is easyfor electrons in the valence band to
move up into the acceptor sites and
complete covalent bond pairs.
*nergy and Model $orCompensated emiondutor
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A compensated semiconductor has both n-type
and p-type dopants. If ND > NA, there are more
ND donor levels. The donor electrons fill the
acceptor sites. The remaining ND-NA electrons
are available for promotion to the conduction
band.
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Gntegrated Ciruit %abriationOverview
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Top view of an integrated pn diode.
Gntegrated Ciruit%abriation
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(a) First mask exposure, (b) post-exposure and development of photoresist, (c)
after SiO2 etch, and (d) after implantation/diffusion of acceptor dopant.
Gntegrated Ciruit%abriation
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(e) Exposure of contact opening mask, (f) after resist development and etching of contact
openings, (g) exposure of metal mask, and (h) After etching of aluminum and resist removal.
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Da e A Anas
Digital and >ogic Circ%its
495
2he >umber ystem
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2he >umber ystem
Number System Radix or Base
Decimal 10Binary 2
Octal 8
Hexadecimal 16
Deimal >umber ystem
The Deci!al %!+er
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas496
$yste!s
• ?nit
• %!+er• 9ase;Radi=
sitional >otation
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas497
Positional otation
• Positional notation
– is a system where the value o$ anumber is de;ned not only by thesy!+ol +%t +y the sy!+olUs"osition
sitional >otation
Positional otation
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas49F
Positional otation
• Positional notation
A9CDE.vy'
sd lsd
;M$D and
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas49H
>$D=• M$D – 2he MD in a number is the digit that
has the greatest efet on that number
•>$D – 2he LD in a number is the digit that has
the least efet on that number
onversion
%!+er $yste!
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas498
Conversion• 9ase 10 to 9ase
• 9ase to 9ase 10
• 9ase to 9ase M
• $"ecial Conversion ;9inary,
eadeci!al, ctal=
se 39@base n
9ase 10 to 9ase
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas49
9ase 10 to 9ase • (hole Part4 DI/IDE +y radiLL
• ractional Part4 M?>TIP>f +yradiLL
se n ' base 39
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas439
9ase to 9ase 10• Place /al%eL
se n@base m
9ase to 9ase
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas433
M
9ase
9ase 10
9ase M
inary@otal
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas434
9inary to ctal• 3ro%" +y +itsL
tal@binary
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas435
ctal to 9inary• Re"resent each octal digit into +itsL
inary @ hex
9inary to
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas436
eadeci!al• 3ro%" +y +itsL
ex@binary
eadeci!al to
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas437
9inary• Re"resent each octal digit into +itsL
t@hex & hex@ot
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas43F
ct to e e to ct
ctal
ctal
9inary 9inary
e
e
thematial opr
Mathe!atical
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas43H
"erations• Addition
– Convert to deimal, .DD, onvert ba"to its number system
• $%+traction – Ase omplements
mplements
Co!"le!en
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas438
ts• ?sed to in s%+traction and also in
re"resenting negative n%!+ers.
1. Radi*!in%s*ne Co!"le!ent
2. Tr%e Co!"le!ent
ase@3
Radi*Min%s*ne
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas43
Co!"le!ent• Di!inished Radi Co!"le!ent
• ;9ase*1= * co!"le!ent
true
Tr%e
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas449
Co!"le!ent• ADD 1 to the Radi*!in%s*one
co!"le!ent.
odes
Code
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas443
s• (eighted Code
– 1eight is assigned to eah bit
representing a number – *xample< CD, 8@6@4@3 ode
• ?neighted Code – 1eight is not assigned to eah bit
– *xample< *xess@5, i+uinary
olean algebra
9oolean
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas444
Alge+ra• 9y 3eorge 9oole ;1S5=
• An alge+raic str%ct%re in hich varia+les
can only have to "ossi+le val%es4 1 or0
• "erators4 Co!"le!ent, R and AD
• ?sed "ri!arily +y Design Engineers.
heorems
Theore!s o- 9oolean
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas445
Alge+ra• AFAA• AFA1
• AF0A• AF11• 0F00• 0F11
• 1F01• 1F11
AA=A AA=0
A0=0 A1=A 00=0
01=0 10=0 11=1
A=A 0=1 1=0
laws
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas446
ruth table
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas447
Tr%th Ta+le• $hos all the "ossi+le in"%t
co!+inations and itscorres"onding o%t"%t.
• The n%!+er o- in"%tco!+ination sho%ld +e 2+. – 1here b is the number o$ inputs
ampleER@logi
2ruth 2able
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44F
x y z F
0 0 0 Output
0 0 1 Output0 1 0 Output
0 1 1 Output
1 0 0 Output1 0 1 Output
1 1 0 OutputdutEsum term
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas44H
Garna%gh Ma" ;G*Ma"=• 3ra"hical*Ta+%lar !ethod o-si!"li-ying logical e"ressions.
0 1 3 2
4 5 7 6
12 13 15 148 11 10
!r"up#$ %"&er "' t&" (ymmetrical )ar*e a# p"##i+le ,e& a# p"##i+le
ondiitions
Fx y z
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas448
11 1 101 1 0
11 0 1
11 0 000 1 1
00 1 0
00 0 1
00 0 0
y
y'Fy'Fy'
;yF'=
ogi gates
>ogic
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas44
3ates• $!allest +%ilding +loc6 o-
digital circ%itry.
• A circ%it that -ollos 9oolean>ogic.
ate sample
Positive and egative
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas459
>ogic
ate sample
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas453
>ogic 3ates• Inverter ;T=
• R
• AD• R
• AD
• R
• R
iversal gates
?niversal 3ates
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas454
• R
•AD
gi "tExnor x or
>ogic Circ%its
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas455
• Co!+inational >ogic – Output is dependent on "resent in"%t
only
– as logic gates only
• $e:%ential >ogic – Output is dependent on "resent in"%t and
"resent o%t"%t – as logic gates and !e!ory ele!ents
mbinational
Co!+inational >ogic Circ%its
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas456
g
• Adder
–[uarter –al$
–%ull
e+uential
Co!+inational >ogic Circ%its
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas457
g
e+uential
$e:%ential >ogic Circ%its
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas45F
• $ynchrono%s se:%ential circ%it – Clo"@ontrolled
• Asynchrono%s se:%ential circ%it – >on@lo"ed
lip@ops
li"*lo"s
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas45H
• %sed to store data te!"orarily• to !%lti"ly or divide• to co%nt o"erations
• to receive and trans-erin-or!ation.• $!allest !e!ory ele!ent.• Co!!on ty"es4
– =
– 2 – D – \N
egisters
Registers
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas458
• A register is a te!"orary storagedevice.
• They are %sed to store data, !e!ory
addresses, and o"eration codes.• Registers are nor!ally re-erred to +y
the n%!+er o- stages they contain or+y the n%!+er o- +its they ill store.
• ?sed in the trans-er o- data to and-ro! in"%t and o%t"%t devices.
rallel =egister
$hi-t Register
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas45
• A register in hich the contents!ay +e shi-ted one or !ore"laces to the le-t or right.
• %sed -or serial*to*"arallelconversion and -or scaling
+inary n%!+ers
emories
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
>3IC AMI>IE$
>ogic a!ily Denition
• A circ%it cong%ration or a""roach
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
%sed to "rod%ce a ty"e o- digitalintegrated circ%it.
• Conse:%ence4 dierent logic-%nctions, hen -a+ricated in the -or!
o- an IC ith the sa!e a""roach, or inother ords +elonging to the sa!elogic -a!ily, ill have identicalelectrical characteristics.
• the set o- digital ICs +elonging to thesa!e logic -a!ily are electricallyco!"ati+le ith each other
463
Co!!on Characteristicso- the $a!e >ogic a!ily
• $%""ly voltage range, s"eed o-
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
res"onse, "oer dissi"ation, in"%tand o%t"%t logic levels, c%rrentso%rcing and sin6ing ca"a+ility,
-an*o%t, noise !argin, etc.• Conse:%ence4 choosing digital ICs-ro! the sa!e logic -a!ilyg%arantees that these ICs are
co!"ati+le ith res"ect to eachother and that the syste! as ahole "er-or!s the intended logic-%nction. 464
Ty"es o- >ogic a!ily 1
• The entire range o- digital ICs is-a+ricated %sing either +i"olar
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Microelectronics And ICTechnology
Dave A. Anas
devices or M$ devices or aco!+ination o- the to.
• 9i"olar -a!ilies4
– Diode logi (DL) (obsolete) – =esistor transistor logi (=2L) (obsolete)
– Diode transistor logi (D2L) (obsolete)
– 2ransistor 2ransistor logi (22L)
– *mitter Coupled Logi (*CL), also "nownas Current Mode Logi(CML)
– Gntegrated Gn#etion logi (G4L) (obsolete)465
Ty"es o- >ogic a!ily 2
• M$ -a!ilies4
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–/MO $amily (using /@hannelMO%*2s)
– 2he >MO $amily (using >@hannel MO%*2s)
– 2he CMO $amily (using both >@and /@hannel devies)
– 2he i@MO logi $amily uses bothbipolar and MO devies
466
D> Ea!"le
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RT> Ea!"le
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DT> Ea!"le
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TT> $%+-a!ilies
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CM$ $%+ -a!ilies
000A
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• 000A• 0009, 000?9,
• 5<NC, 5<NC, 5<NCT,
5<NAC and 5<NACT;TT> "inco!"ati+le=
46
CharacteristicPara!eters 1
• I3*level in"%t c%rrent, ;c%rrent Joing
i t ;t 6 iti = t - ;t 6
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into ;ta6en as "ositive= or o%t o- ;ta6en asnegative= an in"%t hen a I3*level in"%tvoltage e:%al to the !ini!%! I3*level o%t"%tvoltage s"ecied -or the -a!ily is a""lied.
• >(*level in"%t c%rrent, !. is the !ai!%!
c%rrent Joing into ;ta6en as "ositive= or o%t o-;ta6en as negative= the in"%t o- a logic -%nctionhen the voltage a""lied at the in"%t e:%als the!ai!%! >(*level o%t"%t voltage s"ecied -orthe -a!ily.
• unit load ;?>= I3*level and >(*level in"%tc%rrent or loading ty"ically -o%nd in data sheets;or devices o- the TT> -a!ily, 1 ?> ;I3=0 Aand 1 ?> ;>(=1.O !A.
479
CharacteristicPara!eters 2
• I3*level o%t"%t c%rrent, 0. This is the
i t J i t -
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Dave A. Anas
!ai!%! c%rrent Joing o%t o- ano%t"%t hen the in"%t conditions ares%ch that the o%t"%t is in the logicI3 state. Ty"ically negative
n%!+er.• >(*level o%t"%t c%rrent, 0!. This is the
!ai!%! c%rrent Joing into theo%t"%t "in o- a logic -%nction hen
the in"%t conditions are s%ch thatthe o%t"%t is in the logic >( state.
473
CharacteristicPara!eters
• I3*level o*state ;high*i!"edance state=
t t t 01 Thi i th t
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o%t"%t c%rrent, 01. This is the c%rrentJoing into an o%t"%t o- a tristatelogic -%nction ith the EA9>Ein"%t chosen so as to esta+lish a
high*i!"edance state and a logicI3 voltage level a""lied at theo%t"%t. The in"%t conditions are
chosen so as to "rod%ce logic >(i- the device is ena+led.
474
In"%t and o%t"%t c%rrents"ecications
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CharacteristicPara!eters
• >(*level in"%t voltage, V!. This is the
i lt l l li d
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!ai!%! voltage level a""liedat the in"%t that is recogni'edas a legal >( level -or the
s"ecied -a!ily.• I3*level o%t"%t voltage, V0. This is
the !ini!%! voltage on the
o%t"%t "in o- a logic -%nction hen the in"%t conditionsesta+lish logic I3 at the
476
CharacteristicPara!eters 5
• I3*level o%t"%t voltage, V0. Thisis the !ini!%! voltage onth t t i - l i
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the o%t"%t "in o- a logic-%nction hen the in"%tconditions esta+lish logic
I3 at the o%t"%t -or thes"ecied -a!ily.
477
CharacteristicPara!eters O
• $%""ly c%rrent, 22. The s%""ly c%rrent
hen the o%t"%t is I3 >( and in
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hen the o%t"%t is I3, >( and inthe high*i!"edance state isres"ectively designated as ICC, ICC>and ICCK.
• Rise ti!e, tr. This is the ti!e that ela"ses+eteen 10 and Q0 [ o- the nal signallevel hen the signal is !a6ing atransition -ro! logic >( to logic I3.
• all ti!e, tf. This is the ti!e that ela"ses+eteen Q0 and 10 [ o- the signal level
hen it is !a6ing I3 to >(transition.
47F
CharacteristicPara!eters N
• Pro"agation delay tp. is the ti!e delay
+eteen the occ%rrence o- change in the
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+eteen the occ%rrence o- change in thelogical level at the in"%t and +e-ore it isreJected at the o%t"%t. It is the ti!e delay+eteen the s"ecied voltage "oints onthe in"%t and o%t"%t ave-or!s.
• Pro"agation delays are se"arately dened-or >(*to*I3 and I3*to*>(transitions at the o%t"%t. In addition, ealso dene ena+le and disa+le ti!e delays
that occ%r d%ring transition +eteen thehigh*i!"edance state and dened logic>( or I3 states.
47H
CharacteristicPara!eters S
• Mai!%! cloc6 -re:%ency, fma/. This is the
!ai!%! -re:%ency at hich the cloc6
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!ai!%! -re:%ency at hich the cloc6in"%t o- a Ji"*Jo" can +e driven thro%ghits re:%ired se:%ence hile !aintainingsta+le transitions o- logic level at the
o%t"%t in accordance ith the in"%tconditions and the "rod%ct s"ecication.
• Poer dissi"ation. The "oer dissi"ation"ara!eter -or a logic -a!ily is s"ecied
in ter!s o- "oer cons%!"tion "er gateand is the "rod%ct o- s%""ly voltage /CCand s%""ly c%rrent ICC.
478
CharacteristicPara!eters Q
• $"eed@"oer "rod%ct. The s"eed o- a logic circ%it can+e increased, that is, the "ro"agation delay can +ered%ced at the e"ense o- "oer dissi"ation
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red%ced, at the e"ense o- "oer dissi"ation.• an*o%t. is the n%!+er o- in"%ts o- a logic -%nction
that can +e driven -ro! a single o%t"%t itho%tca%sing any -alse o%t"%t.
•oise !argin. This is a :%antitative !eas%re o- noisei!!%nity oered +y the logic -a!ily. (hen theo%t"%t o- a logic device -eeds the in"%t o- anotherdevice o- the sa!e -a!ily, a legal I3 logic stateat the o%t"%t o- the -eeding device sho%ld +e
treated as a legal I3 logic state +y the in"%t o-the device +eing -ed. $i!ilarly, a legal >( logicstate o- the -eeding device sho%ld +e treated as alegal >( logic state +y the device +eing -ed.
47
oise MAR3I
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Eercise
A certain TT> gate has the- ll i l - it l i
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A certain TT> gate has the-olloing val%es -or its logiclevels4 V0 .O /, V0! 0. /, V 2.0 /, V ! 0.S /. (hat are
the noise !argins -or this TT>gate)
Eercise
A certain TT> gate has the- ll i l - it l i
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A certain TT> gate has the-olloing val%es -or its logiclevels4 V0 .O /, V0! 0. /, V 2.0 /, V ! 0.S /. (hat are
the noise !argins -or this TT>gate)
• .nswers< M 1.O /V M> 0./
Eercise
A certain TT> gate has the -olloing val%es -or its
logic levels4 V0 O / V0! 0 / V 2 0 / V !
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logic levels4 V0 .O /, V0! 0. /, V 2.0 /, V ! 0.S /. (hat are the noise !argins -or this TT> gate)
• >ML 2he noise margin assoiated with a low input level isde;ned by
>ML VI L U VOL
• >M 2he noise margin assoiated with a high input level isde;ned by
>M VOH U VI H
.nswers< M 1.O /V M> 0. /
Eercise
$%""ose the ave-or!s in ig.O 5 th - EC> t ith
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O.5 are those o- an EC> gate ithV! U2.O / and V U0.O /, andt 1 100 ns, t 2 105 ns, t 150
ns, and t 15 ns. (hat are theval%es o- V 10[, V Q0[, V 50[, tr ,and tf )
Eercise
$%""ose the ave-or!s in ig. O.5 arethose o- an EC> gate ith V! 2 O / and V
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those o- an EC> gate ith V! U2.O / and V U0.O /, and t 1 100 ns, t 2 105 ns, t 150 ns, and t 15 ns. (hat are the val%eso- V 10[, V Q0[, V 50[, tr , and tf )
• .nswers< U2. /V U0.S /V U1.O /V nsV 5 ns
Eercise
$%""ose the ave-or!s in ig. O.5 are those o- an EC>
gate ith V! U2.O / and V U0.O /, and t1 100 ns,
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gate ith V! 2.O / and V 0.O /, and t 1 100 ns,t 2 105 ns, t 150 ns, and t 15 ns. (hat are theval%es o- V 10[, V Q0[, V 50[, tr , and tf )
V 39Q VL R 9.3V
V 9Q VL R 9.V VH U 9.3V V VH U VL
V79Q VH R VL