BIO6, Introduction to Microbiology Lecture Study GuideDenise Lim, Instructor

Chapter 1: Introduction1. Bacteria have two words in their name, for example: Escherichia coli. Which word refers

to the genus? Which word refers to the species? What is the convention for writing species names?

2. What is the difference between a prokaryote and a eukaryote? Which class of microorganisms are prokaryotes? Which are eukaryotes?

3. What are the seven types of microorganisms and what are their general characteristics?4. What are the characteristics of life?5. Why are viruses not considered living organisms? How do they differ from cells?

Chapter 2: Chemical Principles1. It will be assumed that you are familiar with the following chemical concepts. These

concepts are a review from your previous chemistry course. a. Atomic and molecular structure: element, atom, proton, neutron, electron, salt, ion,

cation, anion, molecule, compound. b. Chemical bonds: ionic bonds, polar and nonpolar covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds.

What role do electrons play in each type of bond? Is each type of bond a strong bond or a weak bond? How can each type of bond be broken?

c. Chemical reactions: reactant, product, equilibrium.d. Solutions: polar (water) and nonpolar (fat) solvents, solutes.e. Acid and base chemistry.

2. Define hydrophobic, hydrophilic, and amphipathic. What is the biological significance of this chemical characteristic?

3. Describe the general chemical composition (you do not need to memorize specific chemical structures), physical characteristics, and functions of the four groups of organic molecules: a. Carbohydrates: monosaccharides, especially glucose & fructose; disaccharides;

glycogenb. Lipids: saturated & unsaturated fatty acids; triglycerides; phospholipids; cholesterolc. Protein: amino acids; peptide bonds; primary structure; secondary structure; tertiary

structure; quaternary structure.d. Nucleic acids: nucleotides, including the three structural components: base (A, T, C, G),

sugar (deoxyribose and ribose), and phosphate; DNA; RNA; ATP

Chapter 4: Cell Structure1. Describe the following growth morphologies and arrangements: coccus, bacillus, spiral,

diplococci, streptococci, tetrads, sarcinae, staphylococci, diplobacilli, streptobacilli, coccobacillus, vibrio, spirilla, and spirochetes.

2. Describe the following components of a bacterial cell wall: peptidoglycan (murein), techoic acid, outer membrane, lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Describe the differences between the cell walls of Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria, and acid-fast bacteria.

3. How does penicillin affect peptidoglycan? Does penicillin act better on growing or non-growing cells? Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacteria?

4. Describe the following morphological structures and their functions: glycocalyx (differentiate between capsule and slime layer), flagella, axial filaments, fimbria, pili (sex pilus), plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleoid, plasmids, ribosomes, endospores.

Spring, 2018 page 1

BIO6, Introduction to Microbiology Lecture Study GuideDenise Lim, Instructor

5. Describe the following flagellar arrangements: monotrichous, amphitrichous, lophotrichous, peritrichous, and endotrichous.

6. Describe chemotaxis and how bacteria find a chemical attractant or avoid a repellant by running and tumbling.

7. What is the difference between diffusion (simple and facilitated), osmosis, active transport, and group translocation? How are solutes transported by each of these mechanisms?

8. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes differ? Why is this medically important?9. What are endospores? What types of environmental hazards are endospores resistant to?

Name two bacterial genera that produce endospores and the diseases they produce.

Chapter 5: Metabolism1. Define metabolism and describe the difference between anabolism and catabolism. What is

an endergonic reaction? What is an exergonic reaction? What role do they play in metabolism?

2. What is an enzyme and describe its characteristics. Explain the role of enzymes in metabolic pathways.

3. What is activation energy? 4. How do enzymes decrease activation energy? What is the Collision Theory?5. Describe how the following factors that influence enzyme activity: temperature, pH,

substrate concentration, and competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors. What is allosteric inhibition?

6. Describe feedback inhibition and how it can be used to regulate enzyme activity. Describe how an allosteric interaction between a substrate and its enzyme can regulate a chemical reaction and the amount of product made.

7. Define and describe the following terms and processes: glycolysis, fermentation, Krebs cycle, anaerobic and aerobic respiration, redox reactions, electron transport, and chemiosmosis.

8. What are the important substrates and products of glycolysis, Krebs cycle, chemiosmosis, and fermentation?

9. Define aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, and fermentation in terms of final electron acceptors. Be able to recognize examples of the final electron acceptor for each different pathway. What is the function of the final electron acceptor?

10. What is the relationship between aerobic metabolism and fermentation? What is the importance of pyruvate? How do they rank in terms of the amount of energy (ATP) produced? What is the final electron acceptor in each pathway?

11. How are fermentation byproducts used to identify different species of bacteria? Recognize examples of common fermentation products.

12. How is energy stored in a molecular bond? What are the different types of storage molecules? How do these molecules rank in the amount of energy that can be stored in each? How is energy transferred from compound to compound?

13. What are the roles of FADH2, NADH, and ATP?

Spring, 2018 page 2

BIO6, Introduction to Microbiology Lecture Study GuideDenise Lim, Instructor

Chapter 6: Microbial Growth1. Describe how bacterial cells divide by fission. Define generation time. Be able to

recognize a bacterial growth curve and identify the different phases of growth. In which growth phase are bacteria most metabolically active?

2. Describe the following methods used to determine the number of bacteria: plate count methods including serial dilution, pour plates, and spread plates; filtration, direct microscopic count, and turbidity. Which methods measure living cells only? Which methods measure living and dead cells?

3. Explain how physical conditions such as temperature, pH, and oxygen conditions can affect bacterial growth. How can these growth conditions be manipulated to control food spoilage?

4. What is the range of growth temperatures for psychrophiles, psychrotrophs, mesophiles, thermophiles and extreme thermophiles? What is the optimum temperature for each category? How are these cardinal temperatures determined?

5. How do hypotonic and hypertonic environments affect bacterial growth? What is plasmolysis? What are extreme and obligate halophiles?

6. What are the chemical requirements for bacterial growth? 7. How does oxygen availability affect the ability of different microorganisms to grow in

different environments? Define the O2 conditions for obligate aerobes, facultative anaerobes, obligate anaerobes, aerotolerant anaerobes, microaerophiles, and capnophiles. How can an anaerobic environment be created in a laboratory?

8. What is the difference between chemically defined media and complex media? What is the purpose of agar in media? What is enriched media?

9. What is a chemical buffer and why are they included in many bacterial media?10. A common minimal media for E. coli contains the following chemicals:

glucoseNH4PO4 (ammonium phosphate)NaCl (sodium chloride)MgSO4 (magnesium sulfate)KH2PO4 and K2HPO4 (potassium phosphate salts)

a. What nutritional requirements are satisfied by each component? b. Which components act as a buffer?c. What are other carbon sources that can be substituted for glucose?

11. What are selective media? What are differential media? How are they generally used to identify different species of bacteria?

Spring, 2018 page 3

BIO6, Introduction to Microbiology Lecture Study GuideDenise Lim, Instructor

Chapter 7: Microbial Control1. Compare and contrast bacteriostatic and bactericidal, sterilization and disinfection,

disinfectants and antiseptics.2. Describe how each of the following physical conditions can limit microbial growth: heat

(moist, dry, and pasteurization), filtration, desiccation, osmotic pressure, and radiation (ionizing and nonionizing).

3. Describe when and how each of these methods would be used. Which of these methods decrease the number of organisms and which sterilize? How are some of these conditions used to prevent food spoilage?

4. Describe the actions of the following chemical methods of microbial control: phenol and phenolics, halogens, alcohols, heavy metals, surfactants, organic acids, aldehydes, chemosterilizers and oxidizing agents like H2O2. Describe when and how each of these methods would be used.

Chapter 8: Microbial Genetics1. Define the following terms: genetics, chromosome, gene, genetic code, genotype and

phenotype.2. Describe the structure of DNA. Be able to distinguish the 3' and 5' ends of DNA and how

they affect assembly of a DNA polymer.3. What is complimentary base pairing? What is a base sequence? How is information stored

in a molecule of DNA?4. Describe the process of DNA replication, including the enzymes. What is meant by

semiconservative replication? What are the leading and lagging strands? Okazaki fragments? Why does discontinuous replication occur?

5. Describe the pathway of information from DNA to protein (Central Dogma).6. Describe the process of transcription. What enzymes are involved and what do they do?

Describe the process of translation. What cellular components are needed? How is translation initiated and ended? Be able to transcribe and translate a sample of genetic code into protein.

7. What is a codon? What is the genetic code?8. What is the relationship between antibiotics and these cellular processes?

Spring, 2018 page 4

BIO6, Introduction to Microbiology Lecture Study GuideDenise Lim, Instructor

Chapter 10: Classification of Microorganisms1. What is taxonomy? What is phylogeny? How are they related?2. What are the three Domains and what type of organisms belong to each?3. What are the taxonomic categories?

Chapter 11: The Bacteria1. How are Archae different from typical prokaryotes? What are the three types of Achaea?2. How are mycoplasma different from typical bacteria?3. Which organisms cause disease we vaccinate against? 4. You are expected to know the genus names of the organisms listed below, as well defining

characteristics as described on pages 6 – 9. This is mostly the disease associated with the organism and its mode of transmission. The exception to this is Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes. You will need to know the specific infections and diseases associated with these species as listed in this handout.

I've included some genera because we have used them in lab, even though you are not required to know them for the lecture exam. You should remember which phylum each genus belongs to, but do not need to remember the class or order.

PHYLUM: ProteobacteriaRickettsiaWolbachiaRhizobiumAgrobacteriumNeisseriaBordetellaPseudomonasEscherichiaSalmonellaShigellaYersiniaHaemophilusVibrioLegionellaCampylobacterHelicobacter

PHYLUM: Firmicutes ClostridiumBacillusStaphylococcusStreptococcus (Enterococcus)Mycoplasma

PHYLUM: ActinobacteriaMycobacterium

PHYLUM: ChlamydiaeChlamydia

PHYLUM: SpirochetesTreponemaBorrelia

Spring, 2018 page 5

Chapter 11: The Bacteria (Continued)

I. PHYLUM: Proteobacteria (Gram Negative Bacteria)A. Class: Alphaproteobacteria

1. These bacteria are classified as obligate intracellular parasites and were originally believed to be viruses because of their small size and inability to reproduce outside a host cell system. Culturing these bacteria require tissue culture (animal cells in a dish), living animals, or embryonated chicken eggs. This explains why diagnostic testing for this group is more time consuming and costly.a. Genus: Rickettsia* - Transmission to humans is typically by insect vectors or

ticks. Human diseases caused by Rickettsia sp. include tick-borne typhus, Q fever, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and Rickettsial pox.

b. Genus: Wolbachia* infects insects and is transmitted through reproduction from parent to offspring. Wolbachia infected mosquitoes have been released into the wild to fight the spread dengue fever virus. Wolbachia interferes with DFV replication in the mosquito host.

2. These organisms live symbiotically with plants and are agriculturally important. Both of these organisms carry genes that can influence differentiation of plant tissues in their hosts. a. Genus: Rhizobium*infects leguminous plants like beans, peas, and clover and is

mutually beneficial, providing fixed nitrogen as a nutrient source for the plants. b. Genus: Agrobacterium* is a parasite that can infect over 2000 varieties of plants,

including grapes, and causes crown gall tumors. Genes responsible for crown gall development are located on a plasmid call the Ti plasmid (tumor inducing).

B. Class: Betaproteobacteria1. Genus: Neisseria* - N. meningitidis causes meningitis, or inflammation of the

membranes surrounding the brain. N. gonorrhoeae causes the sexually transmitted disease gonorrhea. Theses organisms are referred to less formally as meningococcus and gonococcus, respectively.

2. Genus: Bordetella* - B. pertusis is the causative agent of whooping cough (pertussis).

C. Class: Gammaproteobacteria1. Many species of this group are psychrotrophs and are therefore a common cause of

food spoilage. These organisms are oxidase positive. a. Genus: Pseudomonas* - P. aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen capable of

infecting a variety of body systems and wounds, especially burns. Infection is characterized by the production of blue-green pus due to the green pigment the organism produces. P. fluorescens is nonpathogenic and produces soluble pigment that fluoresces under UV light. We have used both of these organisms in lab.

2. The enterics are a large group contains many normal inhabitants of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract of humans and other animals and are informally known as enteric bacteria. These organisms are oxidase negative. Important genera include:

a. Genus: Escherichia* - E. coli is probably the most commonly known fecal bacteria and an important research organism. Although most strains are relatively harmless, certain enteropathic varieties can cause "traveller's diarrhea" and urinary tract infections (UTI). E. coli O157:H7 is a particularly pathogenic strain that is enterohemorrhagic and can lead to fatalities. This strain produces Shiga toxin and causes profuse bleeding in the large intestine. This organism can also cause hemolytic uremic syndrome, which can lead to kidney damage and/or kidney failure, especially in young children.

b. Genus: Salmonella* - this genus is unique in that almost all members are potentially pathogenic. It contains the causative agent of typhoid fever and Salmonellosis, a food-borne infection.

c. Genus: Shigella* - certain species of this genus cause baciterial dysentery or shigellosis. Other species cause a less harmful form of "traveller's diarrhea".

d. Genus: Yersinia* pestis: this bacterium causes the bubonic plague.

3. Genus: Haemophilus* - H. influenzae is the most common cause of meningitis in children and one cause of otitis media (inflammation of the middle ear). It also causes respiratory tract infections in children, including epiglottitis, which can result in death within a few hours. The HIB vaccine protects against these infections.

4. Genus: Vibrio* – these organisms are curved rods. Most vibrios are nonpathogenic with the notable exception of V. cholera, which causes cholera, a disease that results in such severe diarrhea, patients can lose as much as a liter of fluid per hour. Untreated, this disease has a 50% mortality rate.

5. Genus: Legionella* - L. pneumophila was first identified in the 1970's when there were 221 cases of pneumonia and 34 related deaths among the participants at an American Legion convention in Philadelphia. This infectious agent is notable because it can survive in water supplies and can be dispersed by air conditioning systems.

D. Class: Epsilonproteobacteria1. Order: Campylobacterales;

a. Genus: Camplyobacter* - these are microaerophilic vibrios commonly found on poultry and can cause food borne intestinal disease. Another species is responsible for spontaneous abortion in domestic animals.

b. Genus: Helicobacter*: Helicobacter pylori is the most common cause of peptic ulcers in humans and can be treated with antibiotics. These infections can lead to stomach cancer if left untreated.

II. PHYLUM: Firmicutes (Low G + C, Gram Positive Bacteria); This phylum is not divided into Classes.

A. Order: Clostridales 1. Genus: Clostridium* These organisms are spore-forming, obligate anaerobes.

a. Clostridium tetani: causative agent of tetanusb. Clostridium perfringens: causative agent of gas gangrenec. Clostridium botulinum: causative agent of botulism food poisoning

B. Order: Bacillales 1. Genus: Bacillus* – These organisms are spore forming.

a. Bacillus anthracis is pathogenic and causes anthrax in cattle. b. Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus cereus are nonpathogenic species.c. Bacillus thuringiensis has been used as a biological pesticide (BT) to curb the

spread of the gypsy moth, which can be very damaging to agriculture.2. Genus: Staphylococcus* - These cocci display a random cell arrangement typically

described as grape-like (staphylo). They are catalase positive, facultative halophiles that tolerate up to 10% NaCl. Many species are normal residents of the skin and upper respiratory tract. a. Pathogenic strains of Staphylococcus aureus* are coagulase positive and may

infect any area of the human body. Staphylococcal skin infections are very common. The Staphylococcal infections and diseases you are responsible for knowing include: folliculitis, furuncles, carbuncles, abscesses, impetigo, scalded skin syndrome, and toxic shock syndrome (TSS). [See also Ch. 21, pg. 591 – 593]

b. Staphylococcus epidermidis is common, nonpathogenic inhabitant of human skin. Colonies show a porcelain white pigmentation on solid agar media.

c. Staphylococcus saprophyticus is generally nonpathogenic, but is one of the leading causes of urinary tract infections.

C. Order: Lactobacillales1. Genus: Streptococcus* - All members of this genus are catalase negative. Some are

halotolerant of 6.5% NaCl while others are not. This trait can be used to differentiate different species of this genus. Two classification schemes are used for Streptococcal species. The first system, Lancefield classification, divides Streptococci into groups A through O based on cell wall structure (serology). The second system analyzes the effect of each bacterium on blood agar growth media. Alpha ()-hemolytic bacteria partially breaks down red blood cells and produces a green pigment called biliverdin. Beta ()-hemolytic bacteria destroy red blood cells and therefore cause a clearing of the agar. Gamma ()-hemolytic bacteria do not cause any visible change. The two systems are often used together as shown below.a. Streptococcus pyogenes* = Group A, -hemolytic Streptococcus. The

Streptococcal infections and diseases you are responsible for knowing include: meningitis, pneumonia, pharyngitis, otitis media, endocarditis (rheumatic fever), puerperal fever (childbed fever), scarlet fever, and the skin infections erysipelas and necrotizing fasciitis.

erysipelas, [See Ch. 21, pg. 594 – 5996 and Ch.22, pg. 641 – 642]b. Streptococcus agalactiae = Group B, -hemolytic Streptococcusc. Enterococcus faecalis = Group D, -hemolytic Streptococcusd. Streptococcus salivarius = Group K, -hemolytic Streptococcus

D. Order: Mycoplasmatales1. Genus: Mycoplasma* - Bacteria in are characterized by the following:

Cells do not form a cell wall. Their plasma membrane possess sterol compounds, similar to cholesterol. Cells are pleiomorphic (no specific shape) Cells display fastidious growth requirements when grown on artificial media. Cellular growth is slow and colonies are small.a. Mycoplasma pneumoniae, also called Eaton's agent or PPLO, is the cause of

primary atypical pneumonia.

III. PHYLUM: Actinobacteria (High G + C, Gram Positive bacteria). This phylum is not divided into Classes.A. Order: Actinomycetales

1. Genus: Mycobacterium* - These organisms are acid-fast. The cell walls contain a peptidoglycan backbone with layers of relatively impermeable waxes and lipids. The nature of the cell wall makes staining difficult and renders them acid fast. The Gram stain is not truly applicable since the gram stain will not adhere to the waxy cell wall, although these bacteria are classified as gram positive. Medically important members include:a. Mycobacterium tuberculosis: causes tuberculosisb. Mycobacterium leprae: causes leprosy

Other Phyla of Medical Importance

IV. PHYLUM: Chlamydiae – Like the Rickettsias, these organisms are also intracellular parasites, but do not require insect vectors for transmission. Transmission usually occurs by direct contact or via airborne routes.A. Order: Chlamydiales

1. Genus: Chlamydia* - C. trachomatis causes what may be the most common sexually transmitted disease (STD) in the United States. It is also the causative agent for the leading cause of infectious blindness, an eye infection called trachoma. Chlamydia psittaci is the causative agent of parrot fever, which is also referred to as psittocosis and ornithosis, and can be transmitted to humans.

V. PHYLUM: Spirochetes – These gram-negative bacteria are helical in shape similar to a metal spring. A classic rotating-corkscrew motion is caused by axial filaments rather than flagella. A. Order: Spirochaetales – Medically important genera include:

1. Genus: Treponema* – T. pallidum causes syphilis2. Genus: Borrelia* – B. burgdorferi causes Lyme disease, a tick borne disease that

initially causes a bull's-eye rash, but can eventually lead heartbeat irregularities, arthritis, and neurological symptoms.

Chapter 13: Viruses1. Define the terms virion, mature or infectious viral particle, virus, and viroid. 2. Why are viruses obligate intracellular parasites? 3. What is host range?4. Describe the basic structure of a virus (nucleic acid, capsid and envelope). Define

capsomere. What is the function of spikes on a viral envelope?5. Describe the three morphological types of virus: icosohedral, helical, and complex.6. Describe the five steps of the viral life cycle for bacteriophage and DNA animal viruses:

attachment, penetration and uncoating, replication and biosynthesis, maturation, and release. How do these steps differ for naked viruses vs. enveloped viruses?

7. How do bacteriophage produce new genetic recombinants through specialized transduction?8. Describe the retroviral life cycle. Why can a protease inhibitor be used in anti-HIV drug

therapy? 9. What is an acute, or lytic infection? What is a latent infection? What is a provirus? How

does a virus evade the immune system during a latent infection? What is a persistent or chronic infection? What is the ultimate outcome of persistent infections?

10. What are the effects of viral transformation? What is an oncogene? Describe how oncogenes can cause cancer. Explain how viruses are related to oncogenes and how viruses are involved in causing cancer.

11. What are prions? How are they transmitted? How do they spread in the brain? What diseases are caused by prions?

12. What is the scientific basis for vaccinating against influenza annually? What are the health risks of contracting influenza? What is antigenic drift? What is antigenic shift? How does antigenic shift contribute to new influenza pandemics?

 Chapter 14: Disease and Epidemiology1. Define the following terms: host, pathogen, disease, infection, pathogenicity, virulence,

pathogenesis, etiology and epidemiology.2. What are normal flora, or normal microbiota, and where do they exist in the body? What

are some general types? What is microbial antagonism?3. Define the following terms in relation to disease: symbiosis, commensualism, mutualism,

parasitism, opportunistic pathogens.4. What are Koch's four postulates? What is the significance of his postulates? What are some

exceptions to his postulates?5. Define or describe the following terms: disease symptoms, communicable disease,

noncommunicable disease, herd immunity, sporadic disease, epidemic, endemic, pandemic, disease reservoir, pathogen.

6. What is the difference between acute, chronic, and latent or inapparent disease?7. Describe the difference between local and systemic infection. Define sepsis and septicemia,

bacteremia, toxemia, viremia, primary infection and secondary infection.8. Describe the development of disease: incubation period, prodromal period, illness period,

decline period, convalescence.9. Describe the three reservoirs for disease: human, animal, and nonliving. Define a human

carrier of disease and zoonoses.10. Define the following modes of disease transmission: direct and indirect contact

transmission, fomite transmission, droplet transmission, vehicle transmission via water, food

and air; vector transmission and the difference between mechanical transmission and biological transmission.

11. What is a nosocomial infection or HAI (Healthcare Associated Infection)? What factors contribute to the spread of nosocomial infections? How can nosocomial infections be prevented? What is the difference between an exogenous and endogenous nosocomial infection?

12. What is an emerging infectious disease? What are some of the causes of the emergence of these diseases? Understand the relationship between the emergence of a disease and the following: new technology for identifying the cause of disease; human disruption of new ecosystems and overlap of humans with new disease reservoirs; use of antibiotics producing new resistant strains; failure to vaccinate.

13. What is epidemiology and what role does it play in public health?

Chapter 15: Mechanisms of Pathogenicity1. Describe the following portals of entry into a host: mucous membranes, skin, parenteral

route, and the preferred portal of entry. What are typical portals of exit?2. What is virulence? What are LD50 and ID50, and how do they relate to virulence?3. Describe the various strategies for infection including adherence and penetration,

colonization and invasion by the following factors: adhesins, biofilms, capsules, M protein, waxy cell wall, coagulase, collagenase, hyaluronidase, streptokinase, and invasin.

4. Describe how bacterial pathogens damage host tissues, either direct damage or through toxins.

5. What is the difference between an exotoxin and an endotoxin? 6. Describe the action of the following exotoxins: hemolysins, leukocidins, diphtheria toxin,

erythrogenic toxins, botulinum toxin, tetanus toxin, vibrio enterotoxin, and staphylococcal enterotoxin.

7. What organisms produce endotoxins? What are the signs and symptoms produced by endotoxins? How do bacterial toxins affect the host immune response? How is a fever induced by endotoxin, including the role of LPS and IL-1. How do endotoxins induce septic shock?

8. Describe the cytopathic effects of viral infection.

Chapter 16: Innate Immunity1. What are the different types of mechanical and chemical barriers, including skin, mucous

membranes, tears, mucus, and other body fluids; sebum, perspiration, acid mantle of skin, lysozyme, and gastric juice. How do they work?

2. What are the different five types of white blood cells and what are their general functions?3. What is phagocytosis and how does it relate to nonspecific defense? Which cells are

responsible for phagocytosis? Describe the process of phagocytosis upon entry of a pathogen into a host organism, from chemotaxis to action of the lysosome.

4. What are natural killer cells (NK cells) and how do they destroy target cells?5. Describe the process of the inflammatory response and its characteristics, including

vasodilation, phagocytic migration, tissue repair, and fever. What is the function in the process of inflammation of the following compounds: kinin, histamine, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and interleukin-1? Describe how Gram negative endotoxins are thought to produce fever.

6. What is complement? What are the main characteristics of the three pathways of activation? What are the results of complement activation? You do not need to remember the individual complement proteins or the details of the activation pathways.

7. What are interferons and how do they help stop viral infections? How can they be used as drug therapies?

Chapter 17: Adaptive Immunity1. What is immunity? Describe the difference between these different types of immunity:

innate immunity, acquired immunity (both natural and artificial), active immunity, and passive immunity. What are immune globulins, or gamma globulins?

2. What is the difference between B lyphocytes and T lymphocytes? What is humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity?

3. What is an antigen? What is an antigenic determinant, epitope, hapten? What types of molecules can be antigens? What type of molecule makes the best antigens?

4. What is an antibody? Describe the physical characteristics of an antibody and how it interacts with an antigen. What are the five classes of antibody and where is each class found or used in the body?

5. What are the results of the formation of an antibody-antigen complex, including agglutination, opsonization, neutralization, antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity, and inflammation.

6. Describe the process of B cell activation, including the primary and secondary (anamnestic) immune response to an antigen. What is the difference between a plasma cell and a memory B cell? What is clonal selection?

7. What are major histocompatibility antigens (MHC/HLA) and what role do they play in immunity?

8. What is antigen presentation? What type of cells can become antigen presenting cells (APC)? How do they become APC? Describe the role of the APC in the immune response.

9. Describe the different types of T cells and their functions. How do these different cells types interact with macrophages and/or B cells during the immune response?

10. Describe the cell-mediated immune response and all the players.11. What are cytokines, especially IL-1, IL-2, and what role do they play in immunity?12. What is apoptosis and what role does it play in immunity?

Chapter 22: Diseases of the Nervous System1. Describe the general arrangement of the central and peripheral nervous system and the

structure of the meninges. 2. For each of the following diseases, know the causative agent, symptoms and/or

pathogenesis, mode of transmission and reservoir (if known), treatment and/or prevention, and associated complications (if applicable):a. Hansen's disease, or leprosy (both the tuberculoid form and the lepromatous form)b. Poliomyelitis (polio virus)c. Rabies (Rhabdovirus)

Chapter 23: Diseases of the Cardiovascular and Lymphatic Systems 1. Define the following terms: septicemia, lymphangitis, sepsis, septic shock, TORCH.2. For each of the following diseases, know the causative agent, symptoms and/or

pathogenesis, mode of transmission and reservoir (if known), treatment and/or prevention, and associated complications (if applicable):a. Septicemia and Lymphangitisb. Gas Gangrene (C. perfringens)c. Mononucleosis, Burkitt's Lymphoma, Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma (Epstein-Barr virus)d. Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii)

Chapter 24: Diseases of the Respiratory System1. For each of the following diseases, know the causative agent, symptoms and/or

pathogenesis, mode of transmission and reservoir (if known), treatment and/or prevention, and associated complications (if applicable):a. Influenza (including H1N1 and avian)b. Tuberculosisc. Whooping Cough (Bordetella pertussis)d. Diphtheria

Chapte 25: Gastrointestinal Diseases1. For each of the following diseases, know the causative agent, symptoms and/or

pathogenesis, mode of transmission and reservoir (if known), treatment and/or prevention, and associated complications (if applicable):a. Hepatitis A, B, and Cb. Schistosomiasis (Schistosoma)c. Tapeworms (Taenia)d. Ascariasis (Ascaris)

2. How do protozoans and helminths differ from bacteria and viruses? Describe the two types of helminthes.

3. Describe the life cycles for Schistosoma, Taenia, and Ascaris. Be sure to understand the role of both the human host and any biological vector involved.