mgt2700: theory continued

Mgt2700: Theory continuedMgt2700: Theory continued

Science,Science,

Scientific Method,Scientific Method,

and Truthand Truth

Nature of truthNature of truth

knowledge is socially constructedknowledge is socially constructed

Sources of KnowledgeSources of Knowledge

ExperienceExperience– but may not be systematicbut may not be systematic– may not be universalmay not be universal

AuthorityAuthority– customcustom– traditiontradition– but how does authority but how does authority

know?know?

Sources of KnowledgeSources of Knowledge

Deductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning– from general to the specificfrom general to the specific

Advantages of Deductive Advantages of Deductive ReasoningReasoning

can organize what is already knowncan organize what is already known– means of linking theory & observationmeans of linking theory & observation

deductions from theory can provide deductions from theory can provide hypothesis to determine what hypothesis to determine what phenomenon to observephenomenon to observe

Problems with Deductive Problems with Deductive ReasoningReasoning

must begin with true premises to arrive at must begin with true premises to arrive at true conclusionstrue conclusions

– premises need not relate to real worldpremises need not relate to real world (e.g., (e.g., mathematical models)mathematical models)

– can argue reasonably how many angels can stand on can argue reasonably how many angels can stand on head of a pinhead of a pin

Problems with Deductive Problems with Deductive ReasoningReasoning

it is hard to establish universal truth of it is hard to establish universal truth of many statements dealing with scientific many statements dealing with scientific phenomenonphenomenon

SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGESOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

ExperienceExperience

AuthorityAuthority

Deductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning– from general to the specificfrom general to the specific

Inductive ReasoningInductive Reasoning– from specific to generalfrom specific to general– need to observe phenomenon directlyneed to observe phenomenon directly

Francis BaconFrancis Bacon

In the year of our Lord, 1432, there arose a grievous quarrel among the brethren over the number of teeth in the mouth of a horse. For thirteen days the disputation raged without ceasing. All the ancient books and chronicles were fetched out, and wonderful and ponderous erudition was made manifest. At the beginning of the fourteenth day a youthful friar of goodly bearing asked his learned superiors for permission to add a word, and straightway, to the wonder of the disputants, whose deep wisdom he sorely vexed, he beseeched them in a manner coarse and unheard of, to look in the mouth of a horse and find answers to their questionnings. At this, their dignity being grievously hurt, they waxed exceedingly wroth; and joining in a mighty uproar they flew upon him and smote him hip and thigh and cast him out forthwith. For, said they, "Surely Satan hath tempted this bold neophyte to declare unholy and unheard-of-ways of finding truth, contrary to all the teachings of the fathers." After many days of grievous strife the dove of peace sat on the assembly, and they, as one man, declaring the problem to be an everlasting mystery because of the dearth of historical and theological evidence thereof, so ordered the same writ down. —Attributed to Bacon, cited in Best and Kahn, Research in Education, 8th edition, pp.4-5.

Inductive ReasoningInductive Reasoning

perfect inductionperfect induction– when dealing with small enough sample, can when dealing with small enough sample, can

observe every case, so infallible conclusionsobserve every case, so infallible conclusions

imperfect inductionimperfect induction– when dealing with larger groups, extrapolate when dealing with larger groups, extrapolate

from sample, so may be open to errorfrom sample, so may be open to error



AuthorityAuthority

Deductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning




AuthorityAuthority

Deductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning


Scientific MethodScientific Method– inductive - deductiveinductive - deductive

THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH

OBSERVATIONS Inductively HYPOTHESES Deductively

If compatible with theorganized body of acceptedknowledge, thesehypotheses will be testedby the gathering of empirical data

LOGICAL IMPLICATIONSOF THE

HYPOTHESES

THEORYTHEORY

is a system for explaining a set of is a system for explaining a set of phenomena by specifying constructs and phenomena by specifying constructs and the laws that relate these constructs to the laws that relate these constructs to each othereach other..

The ultimate goal of science is The ultimate goal of science is theory formationtheory formation

Theories knit together the results of Theories knit together the results of observations, enabling scientists to make observations, enabling scientists to make general statements about variables and general statements about variables and the relationships among variablesthe relationships among variables

Purpose of TheoriesPurpose of Theories

to summarize and organize existing to summarize and organize existing knowledgeknowledge


to explain observed events and to explain observed events and relationshipsrelationships


to predict the occurrence of unobserved to predict the occurrence of unobserved events and relationshipsevents and relationships


to stimulate further inquiry to stimulate further inquiry – identifying areasidentifying areas– providing leadsproviding leads

Factors to consider whenFactors to consider when

Evaluating Evaluating ResearchResearch

Is the research hypothesis...Is the research hypothesis...

sufficiently specific?sufficiently specific?

clearly stated?clearly stated?

Inspect for deliberate bias / distortion whenInspect for deliberate bias / distortion when

investigator has vested interest in results supporting a investigator has vested interest in results supporting a particular viewpointparticular viewpoint

highly emotional issues are involvedhighly emotional issues are involved

states "this study was conducted to prove”states "this study was conducted to prove”

number of cases upon which percentages are based is number of cases upon which percentages are based is either not indicated or is loweither not indicated or is low

Inspect for deliberate bias / distortion whenInspect for deliberate bias / distortion when

figures are calculated to several decimal placesfigures are calculated to several decimal places

surprising or newsworthy findings reward the surprising or newsworthy findings reward the researcher with career-making publicityresearcher with career-making publicity

objective findings are distorted by mass media to objective findings are distorted by mass media to make them "more newsworthy"make them "more newsworthy"

only a few key studies are citedonly a few key studies are cited

Inspect for non-deliberate biasInspect for non-deliberate bias

Inspect for sampling bias whenInspect for sampling bias when

the research is based on volunteersthe research is based on volunteers

there is high subject mortalitythere is high subject mortality

group selection criteria may be inappropriategroup selection criteria may be inappropriate

Inspect for sampling biasInspect for sampling bias

in causal-comparative studiesin causal-comparative studies

experimental vs. control groupexperimental vs. control group

when subjects may not be representative of the when subjects may not be representative of the populationpopulation

Check for omission ofCheck for omission of

important variablesimportant variables

Undertake critical evaluation of Undertake critical evaluation of measurement techniquesmeasurement techniques

reliabilityreliability

validityvalidity

appropriateness of the test normsappropriateness of the test norms

Inspect for observer biasInspect for observer bias

Developing the Research ProposalDeveloping the Research Proposal

Introduction & research problem statementIntroduction & research problem statement– Literature reviewLiterature review– Identify problemsIdentify problems– State significance of problemsState significance of problems– Research ideasResearch ideas– Contribution to knowledge and practiceContribution to knowledge and practice

Formulating hypothesisFormulating hypothesisSelecting possible measuresSelecting possible measuresSelecting research sourcesSelecting research sourcesSpecifying research designSpecifying research designSelecting analysis proceduresSelecting analysis proceduresSpecifying research activitiesSpecifying research activities

mgt2700: theory continued

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