mg diss ch5ii

7/30/2019 MG Diss Ch5ii

1/29

PAGE 140t erms under whi ch t he U. S. m l i t ar y m ssi on was t o oper at e. TheU. S. - sponsored I nt ernat i onal B~nk negot i at i ons br oke down i n Mar ch

Iand Presi dent Tr uman announcGd t hat t h~ $120 m l l i on l oan f i r stdi scussed i n Oct ober woul d be cont i ngent on a set t l ement of t heoi l di sput e. U. S. pol i cymaker s came t o doubt Mossadeq' s w l l i ng-ness t o r each a set t l ement . However , af t er hi s success i n t heMaj l es el ect i ons t hey began t o t ake a mor e opt i m st i c vi ew abouthi s abi l i t y t o r emai n i n of f i ce. Whi l e f i nanci al pr essur es wer eexpect ed ul t i mat el y t o l ead t o l a col l apse, i t was f el t t hat Mossa-deq woul d r emai n i n power f or at l east anot her 2- 3 mont hs. By MayU.s. of f i ci Cl l s no l onger f el t a c! " i s i s orTudeh- sponsor ed coup was i mmnent . 61

I n m d- J ul y Mossadeq unexpect edl y r esi gned and was r epl aced byQCl vCl mQavam remai ned i n of f i ce f or f i ve t umul t uous days, af terwhi ch massi ve demonst r at i ons f or ced t he shahI t o r eappoi ntMossadeq. As di s cussed i n t he pr evi ous sect i on, t he Uni t ed St at eshad sought t o bol st er Qavam w t h a $10- 20 m l l i on ai d package.Af t er Mossadeq r et ur ned t o of f i ce U. S. and Br i t i sh of f i ci al s madet hor ough r eeval uat i ons of t hei r pol i ci es. Acheson pr oposed a newpl an f or negot i at i ons t o t he Br i t i sh, who qui ckl y r ej ect ed i t . Het hen war ned t hat t he Uni t ed St at es was pr epar ed t o act i ndepend-ent l y i f t he Br i t i sh woul d not cooper at e. Di scussi ons bet ween t het wo al l i es wer e r esumed, cul m nat i ng i n t he Tr uman- Chur chi l l j oi ntnot e. Thi s not e was r ej ect ed by Mossadeq. Di pl omat i c r el at i onsbet ween Br i t ai n and I r an wer e soon br oken.

W t h t he r ej ect i on of t he j oi nt not e U. S. of f i ci al s began t osear ch f or anot her appr oach t o t he oi l pr obl em They soon t ur nedt hei r at t ent i on t o t he consor t i um ar r angement whi ch had beenconsi der ed br i ef l y i n t he f Cl l l of 1951 Cl nd t hen dr oPPQd. Th~ensui ng di scussi ons over t hi s appr oach and t he cr i si s at mospher et hen pr evai l i ng l ed t o a qui et debat e w t hi n t he U. S. gover nmentove! " how cl osel y t he Uni t ed St at es shoul d al i gn i t sel f w t h t he


2/29

PAGE 141Br i t i sh posi t i on. I n t he end t he St at e Depar tment di s r egar dedsuggest i ons by t he Depar tment of J ust i ce and t he J oi nt Chi ef s ofSt af f , choosi ng t o mai nt ai n gener al l y pr o- Br i t i sh posi t i on i thad hi t her t o f ol l owed.

The consor t i um ar r angement l i scussed i n Oct ober 1951 was modi -f i ed sl i ght l y i n 1952. Wher e it he Al Oe had been excl uded i n t hepr evi ous f ormul at i on, t he new J l an cal l ed f or t he AI OC t o pur chase75% of I r an' s oi l out put , W t hl t he r emai ni ng shar e t o be di st r i b-ut ed among sever al U. S. compl ni es I n addi t i on, a $100 m l l i onI payment was t o be advanced t o I r an by t he U. S. gover nment agai nstf ut ur e oi l pur chases. The Br i i i sh were t ol d t hat U. S. compani eswer e r el uct ant t o par t i ci Pat el because of ant i - t rust act i ons t henpendi ng agai nst t hem and because i t woul d upset t hei r ar r angement sw t h ot her pr oduci ng count r i e~, who woul d oppose t he necessar ypr oduct i on cut backs. U. S. co~pani es wer e t o be i ncl uded onl ybecause t hi s was necessar y t o secur e t he $100 m l l i on f rom t he,Export - I mport Bank. 62

IIThe vi ews of t he J ust i ce I Depar t ment on t he aht i - t r ust i mpl i -

cat i ons of t hi s ar rangement w4r e sol i ci t ed. Af ter exam ni ng t hepr oposed ar r angement , J Ust i ce! concl Uded t hat i t woul d const i t ut e" an unr easonabl e r est r ai nt uPOr . . . f or ei gn commer ce" and woul d t husvi ol at e f eder al ant i - t r ust l ~ws. 63 Two days l at er t he J ust i ce

IDepar tment i ssued a memo suggest i ng t hat t he goal of keepi ng I r anout of Sovi et hands coul d be a9hi eved w t hout vi ol at i ng ant i - t r ustl aws by enabl i ng I r an t o sel l i t s oi l on t he open mar ket , i . e. , bydoi ng away w t h t he consor t i u~ ar r angement and, by i mpl i cat i on,w t h t he Al Oe concessi on as We~ . 64 The St at e Depar tment appar ent -l y i gnor ed t hi s suggest i on. I t event ual l y chose t o ci r cumvent t heant i - t r ust i ssue when a consor J i um ar rangement was f i nal l y i mpl e-ment ed i n August 1954 by ci t i nJ ur gent nat i onal secur i t y concer ns.

Fol l ow-second di sput e ar ose w t h t he J oi nt Chi ef s of St af f .


3/29

PAGE 142i ng Mossadeq' s r ej ect i on of t ~e j oi nt not e t he Nat i onal Secur i t yCounci l deci ded t o r eexam ne t i e u . s . posi t i on i n t he oi l di sput e.The J oi nt Chi ef s pr oposed t hat t he Uni t ed St at es be pr epar ed t oact i ndependent l y of Br i t ai n i f necessar y i n or der t o pr event acommuni st t ~keover. I n doi ng so t hey expl i ci t l y r ecogni zed t hatt hl s m ght j eopar dl ze t he cl ose U. S. r el at l onshl p w t h Br i t al n.The state Depar t ment opposed J hi S r ecommendat i on, and i t was noti ncl uded i n t he r evi sed secur i l y Counci l posi t i on paper eventual l y

Iadopted. 6S

The r el uct ance of t he St at e Depar tment t o di st ance i t sel f f r omt he Br i t i sh became even mor e i ppar ent dur i ng di scussi ons over t wonot es i ssued by t he St at e Dep1r t ment i n l at e November . The f i r stnot e was a t r anscr i pt of conve1sat i ons hel d on November 20 between

IAcheson and Eden. Dur i ng t h, s conver sat i on Acheson apparent l ywar ned Eden t hat t he Uni ted St at es woul d consi der buyi ng I r ani anoi l i f t he AI OC coul d not pur 1hase suf f i c i ent quant i t i es t o meetI r an' s f i nanci al needs under an agr eement t hen bei ng di scussed.When a t r anscr i pt of t hi s convl r sat i on was shown t o Br i t i sh of f ; -

Ici al s , t hey st rongl y pr ot est edl Acheson' s st at ement . U. S. of f i ci al sagreed t o r et r act t he st at ement and del et e i t f r om t he t r anscri pt .However , t hey r ef used t o r ul e l out t he possi bi l i t y of t aki ng suchact i ons i n t he f ut ur e i f t he need ar ose. 66

The second not e was a st at ement i ssued t o t he pr ess by t heStat e Depar tment on December 7~ Thi s not e st at ed t hat t he quest i onof whet her U. S. oi l compani es J houl d buy I r ani an oi l woul d be l ef tt o t he compani es t hemsel ves t o I deci de. I t was cl ear l y di r ect ed atsmal l er . i ndependent oi l comp~ni es. si nce t he maj or s had al r eadyexpr essed t hei r r el uct ance t o t he i dea of buyi ng I r ani an oi l .

government was nothi l e i t appear ed t o i ndi cat e t hat t he U. S.opposed t o such pur chases. t hi s not e gave no i ndi cat i on t hat t hegover nment woul d pr ovi de f ur t her assi st ance i n t he f orm of hel p onant l - t r ust mat t er s or possi bl J AI OC l awsui t s. I t st at ed f ur t her


4/29

PAGE 143t hat t he U. S. government di d not t hi nk purchases by i ndependent scoul d cont r i but e si gni f i cant l ~ t o I r an' s pr obl ems. Never t hel ess,t he Br i t i sh wer e qui t e unhappyl w t h t hi s not e. Al t hough t hey wer enot successf ul i n bl ocki ng i t s r el ease, t hey di d manage t oconvi nce State Depar t ment of f i ci al s t o del et e a cr uci al sent encewhi ch decl ar ed t hat t he Depar tment "w l l t ake no act i on t o advi se,di ssuade, or pr event " pur chases by U. S. compani es. The messagewhi ch f i nal l y emerged was consequent l y qui te ambi guous about t heU. S. at t i t ude t owar d pur chases by U. S. compani es . ' 7

The consor t i um ar r angement whi ch r eemerged i n November 1952gr adual l y evol ved i nt o t he set of pr oposal s made by Acheson t oMossadeq i n December of t hat year . Negot i at i ons on t hese proposal sdragged on unt i l ear l y Mar ch, when t hey wer e f i nal l y t erm nat ed byMossBdeq. Af t er al most t wo year s of di scussi on, t he posi t i ons of

It he I rani an, Br i t i sh, and u t s . government s had changed ver yl i t t l e. Fur t her negot i at i ons seemed poi nt l ess . The Uni t ed St at es

Ihad by t hi s t i me begun t o devel op cover t pl ans t o over throw Mossa-deq. The coup whi ch f ol l owed on August 19, 1953 was a deci s i vet ur ni ng poi nt i n I ran' s pol i t i cal evol ut i on. I t al so set some-t hi ng of a pr ecedent f or U. S. cover t act i on i n t he Thi rd Wor l dwhi ch st i l l hol ds t oday.

3) THE DOWNFALL OF THE MOSSADEQ GOVERNMENT

THE COUP OF AUGUST 19, 1953

Af t er t he Br i t i sh embassy was cl osed i n Oct ober 1952 a deci s i onwas made by t he Br i t i sh For ei gn Of f i ce t o appr oach U. S. of f i ci al s


5/29

PAGE 144about t he possi bi l i t y of a j oi nt U. S. - Br i t i sh cover t oper at i on t ooust Mossadeq. 68 Chr i st opher Woodhouse, who had been di r ect i ngBr i t i sh cover t act i vi t i es i n Tehr an bef or e t he embassy was cl osed,was di spat ched t o Washi ngt on w t h an el abor at e pl an f or Mossadeq' sover t hrow. Thi s pl an cal l ed f or a coor di nat ed upr i s i ng t o be engi -neer ed ( w t h or w t hout t he shah' s suppor t ) by t he Bri t i sh net worki n Tehran and by pr o- Br i t i sh t r i bes ( pr esumabl y t he Bakht i ar i ) i nIsout hwest er n I r an. Bot h t he St at e Depar tment and t he CI A wer eappr oached. Not sur pr i Si ngl y, l st at e Depar tment of f i ci al s showedl i t t l e i nt er est at t he t i me. However . t he CI A, par t i cul ar l y Deput yDi r ect or Al l en Dul l es and DeJ ut y f or Pl ans Fr ank W sner , wer equi t e r ecept i ve. At t he same t i me Kermt Roosevel t , chi ef of CI Aoper at i ons i n t he M ddl e East and a gr andson of Teddy Roosevel t ,was approached i n London w t h t he same pl an by t op M 6 of f i ci al s.The Br i t i sh wer e t ol d t hat not hi ng coul d be done under Tr uman, butt hat Ei senhower , who was t o be i naugur at ed i n J anuar y, m ght bemore recept i ve. 69

Fur t her meet i ngs wer e hel d i n Washi ngt on i n December bet weenFor ei gn Of f i ce and St at e Depar tment of f i ci al s. The l at t er wer e noww l l i ng t o di scuss a coup, but want ed t o wai t unt i l Ei senhower hadbeen i naugur at ed and t he oi l l negot i at i ons t hen bei ng conduct edw t h Mossadeq had been gi ven J chance. They al so suggest ed t hatt he coup be di r ect ed agai nst I t he Tudeh par t y and ot her r adi calel ement s, and t hat i t be under t aken i n cooper at i on w t h Mossadeq.Needl ess t o say, t hi s i dea hor r i f i ed t he Br i t i sh. I t i s i ndi cat i veof t he ver y di f f er ent vi ews hel d by t he St at e Depar tment on t heone hand and by t he CI A and t he Br i t i sh on t he other about Mossa-deq and how he shoul d be deal t w t h. 70

Seri ous pl anni ng f or t he coup began i n ear l y Febr uar y 1953,short l y af t er Ei senhower was i naugur at ed. I n a meet i ng of t opdl pl omat i c and i nt ei l l gence of f i ci al s f r om bot h countr l es i t wasdeci ded t hat pl anni ng f or t hG coup woul d go f orward under Roose-


6/29

PAGE 145vel t , who was t o l ead t he oper at i on. At t hi s meet i ng t he Ras hi di annet wor k and a wel l - known Br i t i s h agent named Ahmed Ar ames h wer emade avai l abl e t o Roos evel t . I t was al so dec i ded t hat Gener alFaz l o l l a h Zahedi woul d be s uppor t ed t o r epl ace Mos s adeq as pr i mem ni s t er , appar ent l y becaus e he was t he choi c e o f t he s hah. 71

Zahedi was wel l known t o t he Br i t i s h. He had been ar r es t ed i n1941 by Fi t z r oy Mac l ean f o r hi l P i ng t he Ger mans pl an an upr i s i ngagai n s t t he Al l i e d occupat i on [ o r ces . Mac l ean l a t er des c r i bed hi mas " one o f t he wor s t gr ai n hOl der s i n t he count r y. n72 Zahec l i wasi nt er ned i n Pal es t i ne f o r t he r emai nder o f t he war . The Br i t i sh

IIal s o ar r es t ed Ayat ol l ah Kashani dur i ng t he war and br ought hi m t o

Pal es t i ne as wel l . Many I r ani ans bel i eve t hat t hes e t wo menbecame Br i t i sh agent s at t hi s t i me and t hat Kashani l at er wor keds ec r et l y wi t h Zahedi agai ns t ~10s sac l eq. Br i t i s h document s cas t s omedoubt on t hi s . Ambas s ador Shepher d des c r i bed Zahedi i n May 1951 as" vai n" and " compl et el y unt r us t wo r t hy . " 73 Whi l e he was I nt er i orMi ni s t er i n Mos s adeq' s f i r s t c abi net Zahec l i had hel ped s t r engt hent he Nat i onal F r ont and wor ked f or nat i onal i z at i on. He had beendi s cus s ed by t he Br i t i sh as a pos s i bl e coup l e ader s i nce 1951, bu twas never t hei r pr i nc i pal candi dat e. As f or Kas hani . hi s f at herhad been ki l l ed by t he Br i t i sh and he hi ms el f had l ed an upr i s i ngagai ns t t he Br i t i s h i n I r a~ i n 1919. Hi s s peeches i n t heIpos t - Wor l d War I I er a wer e r ab~dl Y ant i - Br i t i s h. Br i t i s h o f f i ci a l sat var i ous t i mes suspec t ed hi m of havi ng t i es wi t h t he Uni t edSt at es and t he Sovi e t Uni o n. 74

Pl anni ng f or t he coup, now gi ven t he CI A codename TPAJ AX,c ont i nued af t e r t he Febr uar y meet i ng. Roos evel t t r avel ed f r equent -l y t o London. Bei r ut , and Tehr an wher e he met wi t h Br i t i s h of f i -c i a l s and member s o f t he l ocal CI A s t at i ons . The CI A s t at i on chi efi n Tehr an at t hi s t i me i s i dent i f i ed i n Roos evel t ' s memoi r Coun-t er coup as Geor ge Cuvi er . 75 Cuvi er oppos ed t he coup, but hel pedRoosevel t i n hi s pr epar at i ons . He was r epl aced i n J ul y 1953 by


7/29

PAGE 146IBi l l Her man, who had pr evi ous l y s er ved as Cuvi er ' s i nt el l i gence

deput y. As an As s oc i at ed pr el i s r epor t er Her man had cover ed t heAz er bai j a n c r i s i s i n 1946 and had become acquai nt ed wi t h a br oads pec t r um of I r ani a n po l i t i c al i i 9ur es . Roos evel t and Herman Wer ehel ped i n t he pl anni ng and l at er i n t he coup i t sel f by t hr ee o t her

ope r at l ' ves . Two o f t l i i es et at i on ar e i nexpl i c abl y combi ned i nRoos evel t ' s ac count i n t o a cha ac t er named Pet er St oneman. and t het hi r d i s i dent i f i ed as Fr ed Zi mmer man. One Pet er St oneman wasbr ought t o Tehr an i n J ul y 1953 t o mai nt ai n l i a s on wi t h t he I r ani anm l i t ar y o f f i cer s i nvol ved i n t he coup. He had pr evi ous l y beens t at i o ned i n Sout h Kor ea, wher e he had di r ec t ed par am l i t ar y oper -at i ons . Zi mmer man and t he o t he1 Pet er s t oneman wer e bot h i n t hei r1. t e t went i es, on t h. i r . i r st l ' A . ssi onment .

Two ot her i mpor t ant CI A f i gur es i n I r an at t hi s t i me wer e RogerBl ack and a " Per si a exper t , " I WhO i s des c r i bed but no t named byRoos evel t " Thes e t wo wer e wel l - known Amer i c an academ c s wi t hl ongs t andi ng CI A/ OSS t i es i n I r an, appar ent l y wor k i ng i n t heTehr an s t at i on on a cont r ac , bas i s . I n 1950 Roger Bl ack hadr ec r ui t ed t he I r ani ans who i n ~953 wor ked wi t h Roos evel t ' s t eam i nt he pl o t agai ns t Mos s adeq. T1es e agent s , c odenamed Ner r en and~i l l ey, r an a pr opaganda oper a~i on f o r t he CI A whi ch was codenamedTPBEDAMN. ' 7

TPBEDAMN was t he onl y maj o1 CI A oper at i on t ar get ed at I r ani anpol i t i c al gr oups i n t he ear l y ~950s . 78 I t had been s et up i n 1950

Ior 1951 ( pos s i b l y af t er t h~ as s as s i nat i o n o f Razmar a) by t h~ " Per -Is i a exper t , " and was s ubsequent l y t r ans f er r ed t o Di c k Manvi l l eI

( ano t her CI A o f f i c er ment i o ne~ by Roos evel t ) s omet i me bef or e t he1953 coup. I t r epor t edl y had I n annual budget o f $1 m l l i on, andcont i nued t o oper at e f or at l eJ s t a year af t er t he 1953 coup.

TPBEDAMN was mai nl y a pr opaganda oper at i on di r ec t ed agai ns t t heSovi e t Uni o n and t he Tudeh par t Y, 79 However , o t her smal l - s cal e


8/29

PAGE 147oper at i ons wer e car r i ed out under i t s aegi s as wel l . Spor t s cl ubt oughs wer e hi r ed t o br eak up Tudeh demonst rat i ons. Money wasgi ven t o t he r i ght - w ng, ul t r a- nat i onal i st Pan- I r ani st par t y. Anat t empt was made t o counter t he gr eat i nf l uence of Kashani bybui l di ng up a cl er i cal organi zat i on ar ound t he mul l ah Fal saf i .These operat i ons wer e al l car r i ed out t hr ough Ner r en and Ci l l ey,who had t hei r OWn net wor k of l agent s. The CI A had l i t t l e or nodi r ect cont act w t h t hi s net w l r k ( ot her t han t hr ough Ner ren andCi l l ey) , and i t s member s presumabl y had no di r ect know edge t hatt hey wer e bei ng f unded by t he I CI A. Some of t he act i vi t i es under -t aken t hr ough TPBEDAMN, i ncl ucl i ng t hose j ust ment i oned, i mpacteddi r ect l y or i ndi r ect l y on t he ~at i onal Fr ont . However , despi t e i t sr el at i vel y l ar ge budget , SO t he oper at i ons car r i ed out under TPBE-DAMN had l i t t l e r eal i mpact on ei t her t he Tudeh par t y or t heNat i onal Fr ont . I t s pr i mar y si gni f i cance l ay 1n t he net wor k ofagent s i t made avai l abl e t o t he TPAJ AX operat i on.

Nerren and Ci l l ey wer e t he onl y I rani ans di r ect l y empl oyed byt he CI A who pl ayed a r ol e 1n TPAJ AX. By 1953 t he Tehr an st at i onhad devel oped a w de networ k 1 0 f agent s who wer e used t o gat heri nt el l i gence on event s i nsi de ~r an and on Sovi et and East er n Bl ocact i vi t i es. These i nc l uded i nf ormant s i n al l l evel s of t he gover n-

Iment bur eaucracy, i n Mossade1' s cabi net and among hi s cl osestadvi sor s and assi st ant s, i n t he Tudeh par t y, and i n sever al East -er n Eur opean embassi es. Whi l e i nf ormat i on cont r i buted by t heseagent s was undoubt edl y of some use i n pl anni ng TPAJ AX, none oft hem pl ayed an act i ve r ol e i n t he oper at i on. I n addi t i on t o Ner r enand Ci l l ey, t he Rashi di an br ot her s and Ar amesh ( who had beenl oaned t o Roosevel t by t he Br i t i sh) pl ayed i mpor t ant r ol es i n t hecoup.

Fi nal appr oval f or TPAJ AX came i n a meet i ng on J une 25 at t heSt at e Depar tment . Pr esent at t ~ s meet i ng wer e Secr et ar y of St at eJ ohn Fost er Dul l es, Al l en Dul l es, Loy Hender son, Roosevel t , and


9/29

PAGE 148sever al t op of f i ci al s f r om t he Depar tment s of St at e and Def ense.A pl an f or t he coup, basedl i n par t on t he or i gi nal Br i t i sh

p r O : : : : : ~ e : : s s : : : n i ~ : : : , : o a c l : : J : d t : : : : ~ : , m e : : : ~ : i : ~ i n T e h r a n o nJ ul y 19. Si nce t he shah had ~ot yet been t ol d about Roosevel t ' spl an, ar r angement s were made t J cont act hi m U. S. Ai r For ce Maj orChar l es Mason ( thi s i s t he pseJ dOnym used by Roosevel t ) and NormanDer byshi r e, an M! 6 of f i cer WhJ had been Woodhouse' s assi st ant i nTehr an, wer e sent t o Par i s t o l encour age t he shah' s si st er Ashr aft o go t o Tehr an and not i f y her br ot her of t he pl an. Mason andDer byshi r e f i nal l y l ocat ed As~r af ' who l i ked t o gambl e, i n t heFr ench casi no t own of Deauvi l J e. She r el uct ant l y agr eed t o speakt o her br ot her , af t er r ecei vi nJ an unaut hor i zed pr omse f r om Masont hat t he Uni t ed St at es woul d J uppor t her br ot her i n t he st yl e t owhi ch he was accust omed 1n t he event t hat t he coup f ai l ed. Ashr afar r i ved i n Tehr an on J ul y 25, but har rassment f rom t he Mossadeqgovernment ( whi ch had f or ced ~er i nt o exi l e) pr event ed her f romdel i ver i ng the message.

t h r : u : ~ c : ~ : . a : : : : : : , t : o r : : : t : 1 : W : : : 2 k : : : ~ w : ~ o ~ : : e : o m : : : : e : a : ~ :I r ani an Gendarmer i e f r om 1942 unt i l 1948. Schwar t zKopf managed t osee t he shah, am d heavy cr i t i di sm i n t he l ocal pr ess. He t ol d t heshah about t he CI A pl an and as~ed hi m t o si gn f i r mans ( or decr ees)di smssi ng Mossadeq and apPoi n~ ng Zahedi as t he new pr i me m ni s-t er . ( Thi s was t he shah' s l edal pr er ogat i ve under t he const i t u-t i on. ) The shah ref used t o si gn t he f i rmans and woul d not comm t

Ihi msel f t o t he CI A pl an. Schwar t zkopf t hen advi sed Roosevel t t osee t he shah per sonal l y. Ar r andement s wer e made t hr ough t he Rashi -di ans, who had access t o t he cour t . Roosevel t and t he shah metsever al t i mes t o di scuss t he coup pl ans. s~

Roosevel t ' s pl an was t o shah si gn t he t wo f i r mans andhe


10/29

PAGE 149t hen f l y t o t he Caspi an coast and awai t devel opment s. The f i r mandi sm ssi ng Mossadeq was t o be del i ver ed t o hi m at hi s home. Af t ert he f i r man was del i ver ed armor ed uni t s wer e t o t ake up key posi -t i ons i n t he ci t y. I t was evi dent l y assumed t hat Mossadeq woul dsi mpl y gi ve up t he pr i me m ni s t er shi p t o Zahedi , si nce no cont i n-gency pl ans wer e made.

Af t er a br i ef m xup t he f i r l an was del i ver ed t o Mossadeq on t heni ght of Sat ur day August 15 byi COI Onel Nematol l ah Nassi r i , Comman-der of t he I mper i al Guar ds anm l at er a not or i ous chi ef of SAVAK,t he shah' s br ut al secr et pol i ce. Mossadeq had been war ned ofNassi r i ' s m ssi on by a Col onel l Mumaz, appar ent l y one of t he of f i -cer s Roosevel t ' s t eam had been wor ki ng w t h. Mossadeq denouncedt he f i rman as a f or ger y, t or e i t up, and had Nassi r i ar r est ed.Accor di ng t o some r epor t s t he si gnat ur e on t he f i r mans was not t heshah' s. Accor di ng t o ot her s i t was cl ear t hat t he f i rmans wer edr af t ed on a bl ank sheet of paper whi ch had al r eady been si gned byt he shah. I n ei t her case Mossadeq consi der ed t he shah' s or der s t obe i nval i d. Tr oops l oyal t o Mossadeq set up r oadbl ocks t hr oughoutt he ci t y. Opposi t i on deput i es, m l i t ar y of f i cer s suspect ed ofbei ng l oyal t o Zahedi , and t he shah' s m ni st er of cour t wer ear rest ed. A massi ve sear ch was made f or Zahedi and a r ewar d of100, 000 r i al s was of f er ed f 01 hi s ar r est . The armor ed col umnwhi ch was t o move i nt o Tehr 1n appar ent l y br oke up, w t h somesol di er s j oi ni ng t he pr o- Mo~sadeq f or ces. W t hout i nf orm ng

IRoosevel t ' s t eam t he shah f l ed t he count r y i n pani c, f i r st t oBaghdad and t hen t o Rome. 83

The ar rest of Nassi r i ended t he or i gi nal coup at tempt . Havi ngmade no cont i ngency pl ans, Roosevel t and hi s t eam wer e f or ced t oi mprovi se a new st r at egy. Thei r f i rst act was t o ar r ange f or t heevacuat i on of Roosevel t , Zahedi , and ot her key par t i ci pant s. 84Zahedi was brought t o t he house of Fr Qd Zi mmQrman t o awai t Qvacu-at i on by t he U. S. ai r at t ache He r emai ned t her e unt i l Mossadeq


11/29

was f i nal l y t oppl ed.PAGE 150

The dec i s i o n t o make pl ans t o evacuat e Zahedi and Roos evel t di dnot end t he CI A ef f o r t t o ous t l Mos s adeq. Sever al di ver se and unco -o r di nat ed ac t i o ns wer e under i aken by Roos evel t ' s t eam and byNer r en and Ci l l ey ( who wer e ac t i ng al mos t i ndependent l y) i n t hehopo t hat a 5ucc055f ul c oup co t ' d bo t c i ggocod.

The f i r s t was an ef f or t t o l publ i c i z e t he s hah' s di sm s sal o fMos s adeq and appoi n t ment of z l hedi . Thi s was accompl i s hed i n t woways . F i r s t , i t was dec i ded t hat t he r oyal f i r mans shoul d becopi ed and di s t r i but ed t o t he r ews medi a and t he publ i c . Thi s wasdone on Sunday, Augus t 16 i n t ~e hous e of one of t he CI A o f f i cer si dent i f i ed by Roos evel t as Pet gr St oneman. The copi es wer e gi ven

It o Ner r en and Ci l l e y t o di s t r i but e. as Si nce t he Mos s adeq gover n-ment had not announced del i Vef y of t he f i r man t o Mos s adeq' s homet hi s was an ef f ec t i ve way t o m ke t he shah' s r epl acement o f Mos s a-deq known. I n a s econd ef f o r t t o publ i c i z e t he s hah' s ac t i ons ,Bi l l Her man br ought Kennet t L J ve o f t he New Yor k Ti mes and DonSchwi nd o f t he As s oc i a t ed pr e~s t o St oneman' s hous e t o meet wi t h

IZahedi ' 5 s on Ar deshi r . Ar deshi r t ol d t hem about t he f i r mans anddes c r i bed Mos s adeq' s at t empt t l ar r es t hi s f at her as a coup, s i nce, Ihi s f at her had l egal l y been appo i nt ed pr i me m ni s t er . L ove andISchwi nd qui c k l y publ i s hed t hi s i nf o r mat i on. s6

Af t er t he s hah' s ac t i ons had been publ i c i z ed t he Amer i c an andI r ani an cons pi r at or s t ook s t e~s t o bui l d s uppor t i n t he m l i t ar yf o r a Zahedi gover nment . Zahedi qui c k l y dr ew up and di s t r i but ed aIdec l a r at i o n cal l i ng f or member ~ of t he ar med f or ces t o s uppor t t hes hah. Mi l i t a r y s uppl i QS wer Qi di s t r i but e d by t he U. S. m l i t ar yadvi s o r y m s s i on t o pr o - Zahedi f or ces i n t he Tehr an ar ea. Ef f or t swer e al s o made t o gai n t he 5ul por t o f m l i t ar y gar r i s ons i n o t herkey c i t i es . Mes s enger s wer e s e t t o Ker mans hah and I s f ahan, us i ngf o r ged t r avQl documQnt s whi c h had been br ought i n f r om CI A head-


12/29

PAGE 151quar t Qr s i n Was hi ngt on. ThQ Ql dQr PQt Qr St onQman and an AmQr i c anCI A dr i ver went t o Ker mans hahJ wher e Col o nel Tei mur Bakht i a r wast hQ gar r i s on commander . Bakht i l r was s ympat het i c and l ed a co l umna t t ank . and ar mor ed car . t of ar d Tehr an I n . uppor t o f ' ahedl .Al t hough t hi s co l umn di d not ar r i ve i n TQhr an unt i l af t Qr Mos s adeqhad been ous t ed, news t hat Bakht i ar was mar chi ng i n s uppor t o fZahedi r eached Tehr an i mmedi at l l Y and hel ped t ur n t he t i de agai ns tMos s adeq. Ar deshi r Zahedi wa~ s ent t o I s f ahan wher e t he ac t i nggar r i s on commander , Col onel z aJ qam agr eed t o cooper at e. 67

As t hes e event s wer e unf ol l i ng, Ner r en and Ci l l ey ar r anged onSunday Augus t 16 t o have a l Sr gQ c r owd mar ch i n t o cent r al Tehr anon t he f ol l owi ng day shout i ng Tudeh s l ogans and car r yi ng s i gnsdenounc i ng t he s hah. Thi s c r o J d was or gani z ed t hr ough t he usuals por t s c l ub l eader s and was i nJ ended t o r al l y s uppor t f or t he s hahby pr ovok i ng f ear s of s Tudeh J akeover . Thi s was done i ndependent -l y of Roos evel t ' s ef f or t s , ani appar ent l y wi t hout hi s knowl edge.I t was f i nanced i n par t wi t h $50, 000 gi ven t o Ner r en and Ci l l ey onSunday ni ght by Fr ed Zi mmer ma~, who was handl i ng t hem whi l e Di c kManvi l l e was s i ck wi t h j aunJ i CQ. Thi s c r owd dul yapPQar Qd onMonday mor ni ng and was s oon j o i ned by r eal Tudeh member s, who wer e

Shah maus ol eum ands hah and hi s f at hQr

appar ent l y unawar e t hat t he or i gi nal c r owd had been hi r ed wi t h CI Amoney. The combi ned cr owd

i n Tehr an.

at ~acked t he Reza. '1 . t . t ue. o f t heTudeh par t y demons t r at i ons cont i nued on t he f ol l owi ng day.

Fear i ng t hat t he c r owd woul d at t ack Amer i c ans , U. s . Ambas s adorHender s on met wi t h Mos s adeq on I TUesday ni ght and convi nced hi m t os end t he Tehr an po l i ce i nt o ~he s t r eet s t o br eak up t he demon-s t r at i o ns . Thi s pr oved t o be a f at ef ul dec i s i on f or Mos s adeq. TheTudeh par t y, whi c h had uni nt ent i onal l y become one of Mos s adeq' smai n s our ces of s uppor t by t hi s t i me, r et al i at ed by or der i ng i t smember s of f t he s t r eet s. On W dnesday mos t of t he pol i c e t ur ned


13/29

PAGE 152agai nst Mossadeq and t hr ew t hei r suppor t t ower e not out i n l ~r gQ nUmbQr~ to conf ront

Zahedi . Tudeh crowdst hQ pr o- shah f or ces

whi ch mar ched on t hat day. ss

Once t he f i r mans had been i Ubl i ci zed and st eps had been t akent o r al l y t he m l i t ar y behi nd Zahedi , Roosevel t and Her man began t ol ook f or a way t o t r i gger popl l ar upr i s i ngs agai nst Mossadeq. Themost obvi ous way of doi ng t hi s was t hr ough t he cl er gy, pr ef er abl yt hr ough a popul ar f i gur e such as Kashani . The CI A st at i on had not i es w t h Kashani , and apparent l y had no ot her r el i gi ous t i eswhi ch coul d accompl i sh t hi s ~ask. However , t he Rashi di ans wer ecl ose t o Ayat ol l ah Behbehani 1 a l eadi ng f i gur e i n t he Shi ' i teest abl i shment , and so ROOSj Vel t asked t hem t o ar r ange anant i - Mossadeq demonst rat i on. He was t ol d t hat t hi s coul d not bedone unt i l Fr i day, when weekl y pr ayer s woul d be hel d.

Fear i ng t hat Mossadeq' s net woul d cl ose i n ar ound t hem by t he. It i me t hese demonst rat I ons coul d be hel d, s9 Roosevel t asked t he

Rashi di ans how he coul d cont al t Kashani . The Rashi di ans di r ect edhi m t o Ar amesh. Bi l l Her man anJ Fr ed Zi mmerman met w th Aramesh onthe morni ng of Wednesday, AUgUf t 19. They g~ve hi m $10, 000, whi chwas appar ent l y passed on t o Kashani . Kashani I n t ur n ar ranged t oh~ve a cr owd of spor t s cl ub t o~9hS and bazaar wor ker s mar ch t owar dt he cent er of t own f rom t he ba~aar ar ea. I n t he f ol l ow ng days somuch of t hi s Amer i can cur r encJ had f ound i t s way i nt o t he bazaart hat t he bl ack mar ket exchange r at e had f al l en f r om over 100 r i al st o t he dol l ar t o under 50. 90

ITh~ cr owd or g~ni zQd by K~~hani m~r ch~d t owdr d t he cQnt Qr ofiI t was j Ol ned al ong t he I way by ar my and pol l ce unl ~s and by

onl ooker s who had become di j i l l USi oned w t h Mossadeq or wer ean~er ed by t he Tudeh demonst r at i ons of t he pr evi ous days. Gover n-mont of f i co bui l di ngs , Tudoh " 1d pr o- Mos s . doq nowsp. por s , . nd t hoof f i ces of sever al pr o- Mossadeq par t i es wer e at t acked. Mossadeq

t own.


14/29

PAGE 153

: : : ~ : : : a t o r : : : : 5 t ' : : ' t h : r ~ : d 1 : i : : r t : O ~ : : : r m : P t : h : : t : : : W d i t ~ n :sour ce who was cl ose t o Mossadeq at t he t i me t ol d me t hatMossadQq. f Qar i ng a TudQh t aKQJ vQr and r Qcogni zi ng t hQ st r Qngt h oft he opposi t i on, si mpl y gave upJ 9 1

On Wednesday morni ng an army det achment l oyal t o Zahediat tacKed and sei zed t he TQhr an r adi o st at i on. Zahedi was st i l lhi di ng i n t he basement of Fr 1d Zi mmerman' s house at t hi s t i me.Hear i ng denunci at i ons of Mossadeq over t he r adi o and seei ng al ar ge pr o- s hah cr owd. Roosevel t r ushed over t o Zahedi ' s hi deout .On t he way he encount er ed Genef al Gui l anshah, commander of t he ai rf or ce. Gui l anshah f ol l owed Roosevel t t o Zahedi ' s hi deout w thsever al t anks. Zahedi and GUi J anshah wer e soon j oi ned by severalot her t ank det achment s, l ed by I col onel s Ovei ssi , Khaj eh- Nour i , andot her s. Toget her w t h t he pr o- shah demonst r at or s. t hi s uni t( r epor t edl y cont ai ni ng 35 t ankJ ) sei zed t he army headquar t er s andt hen marched on M05sadeq' s r i si dence. Ther e a ni ne- hour bat t l eensued i n whi ch some 300 peol l e wer e ki l l ed. The wal l s ar oundMossadeq' s house were des t royed w t h t ank and ar t i l l er y f i r e. The- Icrowd s tormed t he house and Mossadeq escaped over t he gar den wal l .He surr ender ed t o Zahedi t he nJ xt day. 92

THE POST- COUP CONSOLI DATI ON OF POWER

IThe ar rest of Mossadeq di d I not ent i r el y el i m nat e publ i c oppo-Isi t i on t o Zahedi ' s t akeover . Sporadi c outbur s ts and demons t rat i onscont i nuQd i n Tehr an and i n out J Yi ng pr ovi nci al t owns. A number of

Fat em , went i nt o hi di ng and i n t he f ol l ow ng mont hs t r i ed t oMossadeq' s cl osest associ at es, i ncl udi ng For ei gn M ni st er Hossei n

r al l y Mossadeq' s suppor t er s. T e Tudeh par t y cont i nued t o oper at e


15/29

PAGE 154cl andest i nel y. Per haps t he most ser i ous t hr eat t o Zahadl came f r omt he pr o-MossBdeq Qashqai t r i bl , whi ch was based i n sout h- cent ralI ran ar ound t he ci t y of shi r J z. I mmedi at el y af ter t he coup t heQashqai khans w t hdr ew f r om Tehr an t o consi der an at t ack onZahedi ' s f or ces. Af ter an i ni t i al meet i ng t hey t ol d CI A st at i on

: : : : : e r : i ' : . : : : : o . e : : : : b e : e 1 h : : d d : : : : : : : t : : : : n s : o . : : s o : : : : : ~' h i r a z a . d t h r e a t e n e d t o i n 1 0 d e t h e c i t y u n l e s s M o s s a d e q w a sr el eased f r om pr i son. Tudeh par t y member s i n t he ai r f or ce sabo-t aged a number of sur vei l l anl e pl anes bei ng used t o wat ch t heQashqai . The st andof f ar ound I Shi r az cont i nued unt i l t he end ofSeptember , when t he Qashqai appar ent l y w t hdr ew t hei r f or ces. 93

I n t he weeks and mont hs af t er t he coup Zahedi moved qui ckl y t oneut r al i ze what r emai ned of t f e opposi t i on. Mossadeq and GeneralRi ahi ( hi s army chi ef of st af f 1 wer e ar r est ed and event ual l y gi venshor t pr i son t er ms. Mos~ ot hel . Nat i onal Fr ont l eader s wer e soonar r est ed as wel l and gl ven P1l son t erms or sent i nt o i nt er nalexi l e. Onl y Hossei n Fat em , , hO had been a par t i cul ar l y bi t t ercr i t i c of t he shah and was r ai ar ded as a communi st sympat hi zar byt he U. S. embassy st af f , was event ual l y execut ed. Kashani , Baqai ,and Makki , who had each cont r i but ed t o Mossadeq' s downf al l , wer eeven kept on a shor t l eash by Zahedi . The t wo

I .newspaper s ( Kayhan and Et t el al at ) wer e br l ef l y cl osed down af t ert he coup because t hey had suppor ted Mossadeq. Fr equent sweepsw e . e m o d e f o r T u d e h s u s p e c t s , j ; t h 1200 b e i n g a r r e s t e d b y t h e e n dof Oct ober . Tudeh net wor ks i n ~he ai r f or ce, t he cour t syst em and

It he educat i on m ni st ry were ~ncover ed and l ar ge quant i t i es of

l eadi ng Tehr an

Tudeh arms and l i t er at ur e wer e sei zed. Al l demonst r at i ons by t heITudeh and t he Nat i onal Fr ont I were broken up_ I n at l east t wocases CI A of f i cer s wor ked w t h I zahedi ' S f or ces t o br eak up demon-st rat i ons i n t he f al l of 1953. 94

By t he t i me Mossadeq was over t hr own t he 011 bl ocade had been i n


16/29

PAGE 155pl ace f or over t wo year s . Des pi t e t he aus t er i t y measur es i mpl e-ment ed by Mos s adeq, I r an' s f OJ i ei gn exchange ho l d i ngs had near l ybeen depl et ed. The I r ani an go er nment es t i mat ed at t he t i me t hatt he bl ocade had cos t i t r o J ghl v $200 m l l i on. Mos s adeq hadappeal e d t o Ei s enhower i n May 1953 f or econom c ai d, but was f l at -l y r ej ec t ed. Now, af t er t he coi p, U. S. ai d was suddenl y avai l abl e .F i ve m l l i o n do l l a r s was i mmed, at el Y gi ven t o Al i Am ni . Zahedi ' sm ni s t er o f f i nance, by t he CI A. Thi s was al l egedl y f ol l owed upwi t h anot her $2- 3 m l l i o n, Whi dh Zahedi i s s ai d t o have pocket ed.On Sep t ember 1 Ei s enho wer oppr 1ved a $23 m l l i on po i nt 4 ai d gr antf or I r an. F i ve days l at er ano t i er $45 m l l i o n i n ai d was appr oved.Thi s br ought t he t o t al t o at l eas t $73 m l l i on i n t he f i r s t t hr eeweeks af t er t he coup, mor e t han

1

i a t hi r d o f t he r evenue l os t due t ot he o i l bl o cade under Mos s adeq Sever al days af t er t he coup Zahedi

I r an woul ~ , 1t o l d Hender s on t hat u f al l t o c ommuni sm i f ai d wer e noti mmedi a t el y f or t hcom ng. Gi ven t he i mpor t ance o f t he o i l bl o cadei n under m ni ng Mos s adeq and t he f ac t t hat o i l s al es wer e notr e sumed unt i l November 1954, t J i s s eems t o be a r eas onabl e conc l u-s i o n. 95

4) I MPL I CATI ONS FOR I RAN' S DOMHSTI C POL I TI CS

IThi s chapt er has ar gued t hat t he Uni t ed St at es , ac t i ng l a r gel yon t he bas i s o f s t r at egi c cons~der at i ons , pl ayed a cr uc i al r o l e i n

It he over t hr ow of t he Nat i ona! Fr ont gover nment l ed by MohamedMos s adeq. I t i s us ef ul t o v i ew t he U. S. i nvol v ement i n Mos s adeq' sover t hr ow as occur r i ng i n t wo di s t i nc t phas es , co r r es pondi ng t ot he per i ods i n whi ch pr QSi dQnt l Tr uman and Ei s enhowQr hQl d o f f i cQ.Under Tr uman t he Uni t ed St at es f ac i l i t a t ed t he Br i t i s h o i l bl o cadeand r ef us ed t o gr ant a l ar ge j d package t o Mos s adeq. Thes e ac t sc ont r i but ed t o I r an' s econom det er i or at i on and i n t hi s SQnSQ


17/29

pl a yed a m nor r ol e i n under m i ng t he Mos s adeq gover nment . Howev-PAGE 156

er , Tr uman al s o bl o cked Br i t i s h ef f or t s t o over t hr bw Mos s adeq.Despi t e hi s s uppor t f or t he Br i t i s h pos i t i on i n t he o i l di s put e i ti s c l ear t hat Tr uman had no des i r e t o r emove Mos s adeq f r om of f i c e.Gi ven hi s t ol e r ance of Mos s adJ q and Mos s adeq' s c omm t ment t o ani ndependent and non- a l i gned I r J n1 i t i s al s o c l ear t hat Tr uman hadno i nt er es t i n t ur ni ng I r an i nJ o a c l i ent s t at e.

Tho do f ac t o doc i s i on t o maJ o I r an a U. S . c l i ont di d not occurunt i l Ei s enhower was i naUgUr at J d. Thi s was done by engi neer i ng t heover t h r ow of Mos s adeq and r ePI J c i ng hi m wi t h t he pr o- shah gover n-ment headed by Zahedi . Mos s adJ q' S over t hr ow was achi eved, qui t eobvi ous l y. t hr ough cover t U. S. l i nt er vent i on i n t he f or m of t he CI Aoper at i on codenamed TPAJ AX. Ot her c l i e ncy i ns t r ument s 1 i nc l udi ngm l i t ar y and econom c ai d a1d as s i st ance t o I r an' s s ecur i t yf or ces . al s o pl ayed i mpor t ant no l es i n es t abl i s hi ng I r an as a U. S.

Ther e can be no doubt t hat t he U.S. r o l e was c r uc i al i n over-

c l i ent .

t h r owi ng Mos sadeq. P l anni ng T 0 1 t he coup began dur i ng Ei s enhower ' sf i r s t mont h i n o f f i c e. The coup was di r ec t ed and f i nanced by t heCI A. Al t hough i t was car r i ed J ut i n a ver y haphaz ar d manner , t heCI A t eam and i t s agent s conc J i v ed and i mpl ement ed s uch c r uc i a ldot ai l s of t ho coup as t ho pUbl i cat i on of t ho f i r mans , t ho onl i s t -ment o f t he gar r i s ons at I Sf al ] an and Ker mans hah. t he us e o f f akeTudeh c r owds t o hei ght en f ear s o f a Tudeh t akeover , and t he or gan-i z at i on o f t he c r owd whi ch s t i r med Mos s adeq' s hous e. Whi l e t hes eevent s wer e unf ol di ng t he s ha~ had f l ed t he count r y i n pani c and

tZahedi , t he pr i me m n i s t er - des i gnat e. was hi d i ng f r om Mos s adeq' sf or ces i n a CI A s af e hous e. Af ~er t he coup U. S . econom c ai d and,

n Ixt chapt er , ext ens i ve U.S. s ec ur i t ys wi l l be di s cus s ed i n t heas s i s t ance pl ayed a c r uc i a l r ol e i n cons o l i dat i ng t he di c t at or s hi pwhi ch r epl aced Mossadeq.


18/29

PAGE 157The o i l bl ocade and t he o~her econom c s anc t i ons i mpos ed onI r an by Br i t ai n c l ear l y hel ped pr epar e t he way f or Mos s adeq' s

downf al l . The econom c det er i o l at i on t hat f o l l o wed al i e nat ed manyof Mos s adeq' s s uppor t er s, pal t i cul ar l Y among t he m ddl e c l as s .Thi s undoubt edl y cont r i but ed t o t he def ec t i on o f key l eader s f r omt he Nat i onal F r ont and t o t he wi l l i ngnes s o f t he Tehr an c r owds t ot h r ow t hei r s uppor t t o Zahedi on t he day Mos s adeq was over t hr own.

Whi l e t he Br i t i sh bl ocadl t hus pl ay. d a cr uci al r ol . i nMos sadeq' s downf a l l , i t Shoul d j be emphas i z ed t hat t he U. S. r o l e i nt he coup whi c h br o ught Mo ss ade down was dec i s i v e, bo t h i n r emov-i ng hi m f r om of f i c e and, mor e i mpor t ant l y , i n det er m ni ng t he t ypeo f r egi me whi c h succeeded hi s . Al t hough Mos s adeq' s popul a r i t y hads l i pped cons i der abl y by AUgUSt 1953, a r oyal i s t COup was , i n t heabs ence of a U. S . i nt er v ent i o l ' per haps t he l eas t l i kel y out comeof Mo s s adeq' s dec l i ne. Mos s adeq coul d have r egai ned hi s ear l i e rpopul ar i t y by ar r angi ng o i l s J l es t o c ount r i es s uch as J apan orI t al y o r by s t r i ki ng a deal J i t h domes t i c power br oker s s uch asKashani . I t i s al s o pos s i bl e t hat Mos s adeq' s pr i ~e m ni s t er s hi p

be en t r ans f er r ed peacef ul l y t ano t her f i gur e, s uch as Kas hani ,and hi s pos i t i on as l eader o f t he nat i onal i s t movement coul d hav~

Baqai , Daf t ar i , o r even Qavam Pr obabl y t he mos t l i k el y al t er na-t i ve i n t he abs ence o f a U. S . i nt er vent i on woul d have been a Tudeh

I n any event , z aJ edi and t he r oyal i s t f o r ces he

~: : s p: : : : : : ~~e: : : : : w: : g: : : : J : : : I : ~pu~: : : ~: : o r : an: : : dt : ~s : : ~: :Ipower wi t hout U. S. hel p it i s 1i f f i c UI t t o s ee how t hey coul d have

r emai ned i n power f o r l ong wi t Hout s ubs t ant i al out s i de as s i s t ance.I

t a keover .

II t s houl d al s o be emphas i zed t hat t he Br i t i s h r o l e i n t he COupi t s el f was not o f gr eat i mpo J l t ance. The Br i t i s h had or i gi nal l yappr oached U. S . pol i c ymaker s wi t h a pl an f or t he coup and had madeavai l a bl e t o t he CI A t eam par t o f t hei r i nt el l i g ence net wor k . Theor i gi nal Br i t i s h pl an was t ho oughl y r ewr i t t en, however , and i n


19/29

PAGE 158any case t he pl an f i nal l y adoPi ed pr ovi ded l i t t l e gui dance f or t heevent s whi ch act ual l y t ook pl ace. The Br i t i sh net wor k was of someuse, not abl y i n ar r angi ng c~nt act w t h Ayat ol l ah Kashani t opr ovi de t he cr owd whi ch mar ched on Mossadeq' s house. However , t hesuccess of Ner r en and Ci l l ey i n pr oduci ng t he f ake Tudeh cr owdwhi ch appear ed on August 17 suggest s t hat t h; s coul d have beenaccompl i shed i n other ways.

The concl usi on t hat t he Uni 1ed St at es pl ayed a cr uci al r ol e i nover t hr ow; ng Mossadeq t hus ap l ear s ; nescapabl e. What , t hen, wer et he consequences of t he U. S . i nt er vent i on and i t s subsequent r ol ei n t he consol i dat i on of power by Zahedi and t he shah f or I ran' sdomest i c pol i t i cs?

As out l i ned i n t he f i r st pa1t of t hi s chapt er , Mossadeq was t hel eader of a popul ar , democr at i d or gani zat i on known as t he Nat i onalFr ont . The Nat i onal Fr ont wasJ f ounded i n 1949 at t he apex of aper i od of i nt ense pol i t i cal at i vi t y i n I r an t o coor di nat e oppo-si t i on t o t ho shah' s at t om" t o r i g t ho si xt oont h Ma; l osel ect i ons. I t s i deol ogy, t ac~ cs, and soci al bases of suppor tpl acod i t squar ol y i n t he t r 1di t i on of t ho 1906 const i t ut i onalmovement . The pol i t i cal or gani zat i ons i ncl uded i n t he Nat i onalF t d th t" I I" t" I t d ibh t hon r ange acr oss e en l r e po 1 l ca spec r um an, WI e

i ssue addr essed by the Nat i ona~ Fr ont was t he oi l nat i onal i zat i onequal l y i m or t ant and cl osel y bound up w t h

goal of a 10r e equi t abl e di st r i but i on of power

except i on of t he Tudeh par ty and cer tai n pr o- Br i t i sh el ement s,i ncl uded ever y maj or or gani zat i on act i ve i n t hi s per i od. The mai n

questi on. However,t hi s i ssue was t hei n I r an. I

II

Moss. d 5 t hus t ho I. ~ of . n o i i o hi . h popu-l i st i n char act er , cl osel y t i ed t o t he t r adi t i ons of I r an' s demo-cr at i c movement , and whi ch eJ er ged dur i ng a per i od of f er ventpol i t i cal act i vi t y t o l ead t he st r uggl e f or a new pol i t i cal or der


20/29

PAGE 159i n I r an. By r emovi ng Mossadeq f r om of f i ce and i nst al l i ng l n hi spl ace a di ct at or shi p l ed by Gener al Zahedi t he Uni t ed st at esdest r oyed t hi s or gani zat i on and ended t he pr ospect s f or a t r ansi -t i on t o democr acy, whi ch appear ed t o have begun under Mossadeq.Thi s had two mai n consequences. Fi r st , i t enabl ed t he shah t o r ul ef or t he next t wenty - f i ve year s w t hout r egar d f or popul ar pol i -t i cal pr essur es. Second, i t d~s t r oyed much of t he l i ber al , demo-cr at i c l eader shi p i n I ran, cr el t i ng a vacuum whi ch was l at er t o bef i l l ed by r adi cal el ement s of J ot h t he l ef t and t he r i ght . As w l lbe di s cussed i n t he concl usi o~ of t hi s st udy, t hese consequenCeshad i mpor t ant i mpl i cat i ons f or t he event s whi ch t ook pl ace i n I r ani n 1978 and 1979.


21/29

PAGE 160FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER 51) L. P. El wel l - Sut ton, Per si an Oi l ( London: Lawr ence and W shar t ,1955) , pp. 158- 215.2) Ri ch~rd Cot t ~m Nat i on~ i sm i n I r an ( Pi t t sburgh: Uni vers i ty ofPi t t sbur gh Pr ess, 1964) pp. 264- 265; Er vand Abr ahaman, I ranBet ween Two Revol ut i ons ( Pr i ncet on: Pr i ncet on Uni ver s i t y Pr ess,1982) , pp. 250- 261; T. Cuyl er Young, "The Soci al Suppor t ofCur r ent I r ani an Pol i c y, " M ddl e East J our nal , Vol . 6, No. 3,Spr i ng 1952, pp. 125- 143; Shah~ough Akhaui , Rgl i qi on and Pol i t i csi n Cont empor ar y I r an ( Al bany: Stat e Uni vers i t y of New Yor k Pr ess,1980) , pp. 60- 69. I3) Abr aham an, I ran Between Two Revol ut i ons, pp. 188- 192, 256-257;Cot t am Nat i onal i sm i n I r an, P' 1265.4) Chapour Bakht i ar , Me Fi del et e ( Par i s: Al bi n M chel , 1982) , pp.50- 51: El wel l - Sut t on, Per si an 10i L pp , 110- 111; Abrahaman, l . r anBet ween Two Revol ut i ons, p. 189; The New Yor k Ti mes, May 5, 1951.11: 4.5) The New Yor k Ti mes, May 25, 1951, 13: 1.6) U. S. Depar tment of St at e, Of f i ce of I nt el l i gence and Resear ch,Mossadeg' s Cur r ent Posi t i on i n t he I nt er nal I r ani an Si t uat i on, OI RNo. 5676, Oct . 26, 1951; "Out l i ne of t he Secret ar y of st at e' sVi ew. " 4 Nov. 1951, FO/ 37l / 9l 608: "Recor d of an I nt er vi ew w t h Mr .Acheson on 31st J ul y. " 31 J ul y, 1952, FO/ 371/ 98691; U. S. Depar t -ment of st at e, Of f i c e of I nt el l i gence and Resear ch, Mossadeq andt he Cur r ent I r ani an El ect i ons, I R No. 5735, J an. 10, 1952; Centra lI ntel l i gence Agency, Pr ospect s For Surv i val of Mossadeq Reqi me i nI r an, SE- 33, 14 Oct . 1952; "Assessment of t he St at e of Publ i cOpi ni on. " 4 September 1951, FO/ 371/ 91463. For t ypi cal pr ess cover -age of Mossadeq see: The Ti mes ( London) . August 22. 1951. p. 7and The New Yor k Ti mes, November 25, 1951, I V, 6: 6.7) Abr aham an, I r an Bet ween Twd Revol ut i ons, pp. 318- 319; Cent r alI nt el l i gence Agency, Pr obabl e Devel opment s i n I r an i n 1952 i n t heAbsence of an Oi l Set t l ement , NI E 46, 4 Februar y, 1952.8) U. S. Department of St at e, df f i ce of I nt el l i gence and Research,Mossadeg and t he Cur r ent I r ani ~n El ect i ons, I R No. 5735, 10 J anu-ar y. 1952. p. 6; YoUngIIThe] Soci al Suppor t of Cur r ent I r ani anPol i cy. "

I9) U. S. Depar tment of St at e, O~ f i c e of I nt el l i gence and Research,Mossadeg and t he Cur r ent I rani an El ect i ons, pp. 6- 7, Mossadeq asLeader of a Pot ent i al Popul ar l ~ ovEment i n I r an, aI R No. 5272, 9J une 1950. p. 2, and I r an' s Pol i t i cal and Econom c Pr ospect sThr ough 1953. OI R No. 6126, 9 J anuar y, 1953. pp. 11- 12; SephehrZabi h, The Communi st Movement i n I r an ( Ber kel ey: Uni ver si t y ofCal i f or ni a Pr ess, 1966) , pp. 186, 188.10) Cent r al I nt el l i gence Agency, Pr obabl e Devel opment s i n I r an, p.1.11) El wel l - Sut t on, Per si an Oi l , Chs. 16, 17; Al an W For d, TheAnol o- I r ani an Oi l Di sput e of 1951- 1952 ( Ber kel ey: Uni ver si t y ofCal i f or ni a Pr ess. 1954) . pp. 51- 177. Usef ul chr onol ogi es of t hi sper i od appear i n For d, pp. 273- 283 and U50M- I r an, Revi ew of U. S.Techni cal Assi st ance and Econom c Ai d t o Tr an, 1951- 1957, Vol . 1(Washi ngt on: AI D Li br ar y, n. d. ) , pp. 5 43 .


22/29

12) El w~ l - Sut ton, P~r si dn Oi l , pp. 259- 269, 272- 273; G~org~~kGhee, Envoy t o t he f'H ddl e I Wor l d ( New Yor k: Har per and Row,1983) , eh. 31; Dean Acheson, Pr i esent at t he Cr eat i on ( New Yor k: WW Nor t on, 1969) , pp. 509- 511. 113) Thi s i s di scussed i n t he next sect i on.14) ~ cGhee, Envov t o t he M ddl J Wor l d, p , 403; Ant hony Eden, Fl ! l lCi r cl e ( Bost on: Hought on M f f l i l n, 1960) , p. 223.15) El wel l - Sut t on, Per si an Oi l n pp. 273- 279.16) "Angl o- U. S. Di scussi ons, ~ ~1 August , 1952, FO/ 371/ 98693.17) El wel l - Sut t on, Per si an Oi ~, pp. 281- 289; Roy M Mel bour ne."Amer i ca and I r an i n Perspect i ~e: 1953 and 1980, " For ei gn Ser vi ceJ ournal , Apr i l 1980, pp. 13- 15; i nt er vi ew w t h Mel bourne ( ChapelHi l l , N. C. , Febr uar y 1, 1984) ,

PAGE 161

18) Thi s descr i pt i on i s based on i nt er vi ews w t h numer ous I r ani anpol i t i cal f i gures and Br i t i sh and Amer i can i nt el l i gence and di pl o-mat i c of f i ci al s. Descr i pt i ons 9f t he Br i t i sh networ k var y subst an-t i al l y f r om sour ce t o sour ce' , 1 For exampl e, some peopl e mai nta i nt hat i t decl i ned gr eat l y i n t He 1940s whi l e ot her s hol d t hat i twas st i l l qui t e act i ve i n t he I l at e 1950s. Documentar y evi dence ont he Br i t i sh net i s f r agmentar~, but gi ves some i ndi cat i on of i t sdept h. See, f or exampl e, "Les r yol l i es I mper i al es, " 18 Mar ch, 1952,FO/ 248/ 15~1. Thi s j s a r eport f j l ed by t he Br j t i sh Charge inTehr an and a t op Br i t i sh i nt e~ i gence of f i cer on t he shah' s mosti nt i mat e vi ews, as r ecount ed ~y hi s conf i dant Er nst Per r on. Seeal so Cot t am Nat i onal i sm i n ] r an, pp. 235- 236 on t he f r eemasonorgani zat i on and "Act i on i n t h~ Per si an Si tuat i on Advocat ed by MKei ven, " 3 J ul y, 1951, FO/ 37~/ 91461, f or a l i st of pr o- Br i t i shI r ani an pol i t i cal f i gur es. i19) "Recor d of I nt er depar tm nt al Meet i ng, " 20 Mar ch, 1951.FO/ 37l / 91525.20) "Reasons f or Decl i ne i n I n~ uence of Mussadi q, " 14 J une, 1951,FO/ 371/ 91460; "Assesses t he Gener al St at e of Af f ai r s i n Per si a, "28 May, 1951, FO/ 371/ 91542. I

I21) Acheson, Pr esent at t he Crdat i on, p. 507.22) "Recor ds Conver sat i on w J h M ss l ambt on, " 15 J une, 1951.FO/ 371/ 91548; "AI OC and ~at i onal i zat i on, " 1 May 1951,FO/ 371/ 9l 530; Chr i s t opher Mon~ague Woodhouse, Somet hi ng Vent ur ed( l ondon: Granada, 1982) ' p , 107' .

24) "Di scussesFO/ 371191550. t he i n Pers i a, " 21 J une, 1951.23) "Not es of a Meet i ng t o Di scuss Per si a, " 28 J une. 1951.FO/ 37l / 9! 55. 5.

Posi t i on:25) "Amer i can Assi s t ance t o ~he Per si an Oi l Di sput e, " 2 J ul y,1951, FO/ 371191559; "perSi a

JaliI Di sput e: Vi ews of l " I r . Hor aceEmery, " 12 J ul y, 1951, F0/37l/91570i "Per si a Oi l Di sput e, " 21J une, 1951, FO/ 371/ 91565.

26) "Repor t s Conversat i on w t t he Shah on 30t h J une, " 2 J ul y,1951, FO/ 371/ 91461; "Repor t s on Conversat i on w t h t he Shah, " 16J ul y, 1951, FO/ 37l / 91462; "Record of a Luncheon Par ty Gi ven by t heShah, " 5 August 1951, FO/371/ 91577.27) "Encl oses Shor tFO/ 371/ 915M Account of Tal ks, " 1 Sept ~=mber 1951,


23/29

PAGE 16228) "Vi ew t hat HMG' Shoui d Ref r i n Fr om Any st at ement , " 26 August,1951, FO/ 371/ 91582. I29) The Hew Yor k Ti mes, AU9U1t 27, 1951, 12: 2 and Sept ember 3,1951, 1: 6; "Conver sat i on w t h t he Shah on 29 August , " 30 August,1951, FO/ 371/ 91583; "Approach t o a New Pers i an Government , " BSept ember 1951, FO/ 371/ 91590; 1Change of Gover nment , " 4 September,1951. FO/ 371/ 91587; "Suggest s Li nes t o be Taken t o Pr eventCompl et e Nat i onal i zat i on, " 5 S~ptember , 1951. FO/ 371/ 91587.30) "Repor t s Per si ans Tr yi ng I t o Recr ui t Oi l Techni ci ans, " 20August , 1951. FO/ 371/ 91579; J Exports t o Per s i a. " 17 December .1951, FO/ 371/ 98634; "Fi nanci al Rest r i ct i ons on Per si a. " 12 September , 1951, FO/ 371/ 91491.31) "Depar tmental Comments . " 1 I November , 1951, FO/ 371/ 91614j TheNew York Ti mes, Sept ember 10, ~951, 1: 7.32) " Assessment of t he stat e I of Publ i c Opi ni on, " 4 Sept ember ,1951, FO/ 371/ 91463; " Not es by t i he Lor d Pr i vy Seal , " 22 September ,1951, F0/ 371/ 91590. I33) "Di scusses t he Shah' s Pr ef er ence i n Regards t o a Pr i me M ni s-t er t o Succeed Mossadeq, " 31 ~Ugust , 1951, FO/ 371/ 91462; "Recordof a Conver sat i on w t h t he S~ah on 17t h Sept . , " 18 September ,1951. FO/ 371/ 91463; "The Lor d Pr i vy Seal Has Asked ForI nf ormat i on, " 25 September , 19~1, FO/ 371/ 91591; " Lor d Pr i vy Seal ' sVi ews, " 21 September , 1951, FOAI 371/ 91591.34) "Change of Gover nment , " 14 September , 1951, FO/ 37l / 9l 463;"Di scuss i ons Concer ni ng t he Pe~si an Fi el d at t he Bi par t i t e Tal ks, "11 Sept ember , 1951, FO/ 371/ 91412.35) "Text of St at e Depar tme~t ' s Vi ews, " 21 September , 1951,FO/ 371/ 91589.36) "Text of Repl y f rom Pr esi dent Tr uman, " 26 Sept ember , 1951,FO/ 371/ 91591; "Per si an Oi l Di 5put e. " 28 Sept ember , 1951,FO/ 371/ 91592; "Dr af t Tel egr am t o Tehr an, " 27 Sept ember , 1951,FO/ 371/ 91592; "Recor d of a Con~er sat i on w t h t he Ameri can Ambassa-dor. " 1 October , 1951. FO/ 371/ ~1596.37) "Comment s onFO/ 371/ 91613.38) U. S. Depar tment of St at e, qf f i ce of I nt el l i gence and Resear ch,I ncr easi na Communi st Thr eat in I r an. OI R No. 5716. November 23,1951. I39) "Next St eps i n per si a- St l t e Depar t ment ' s Vi ews, " 17 Apr i l ,1952, FO/ 371/ 98688.40) "Per si an Oi l Di sput e: Vi ews of M ss Lambt on, " 2 November ,1951, FO/ 371/ 91609; "Pol i t i cal I Aspect s of t he Per si an Si t uat i on. "23 November , 1951, FO/ 371/ 91465; "Next St eps i n Per si a. " 7 A~r i l ,1952, FO/ 371/ 98687; "Gener al SJ mmary of t he Per si an I nt er nal Si t u-at i on, " 26 J anuar y, 1952, FO/ 1371/ 98684; "The Text of t he J oi ntAppr ai sal by t he Br i t i sh and Uni t ed Stat es Embassi es i n Tehr an, " 9May, 1952, FO/ 371/ 98689; "Not~ on t he Fi nanci al Di f f i cul t i es andPr ospect s of t he I r an Government , " 26 J ul v, 1952, F0/371/98625.

Qavam s Pr oposal s, " 20 November , 1951,

41) "U. S. Fi nanci al Ai d t o Per 5i a. " 18 J ul y."Qavam s Request f or Fi nanci al Ai d and Ear l yOi l Set t l ement , " 21 J ul y, 1952, FO/ 371/ 98691.1952. FO/ 371/ 98690;Negot i at i ons f or an

42) "Angl o- U. S. Di scussi ons About t he Per si an I nt er nal Si t uat i onand t he Oi l Questi on, " 29 J ul y, 1952, FO/ 371/ 98691.


24/29

PAGE 16343) "Angl o- U. S. Di scussi ons on t he Per si an Si t uat i on, " 29 J ul y,1952, FO/ 371/ 98691; npol j t j cal Devel opment s j n Per sj a, " 5 August ,1952, C( 52) 275.44) "U. S. - U. K. Approach t o Dr . Mussadi q, " 31 J ul y, 1952,FO/ 371/ 98691; " I nt er nal Af f ai ~s and Oi l Negot i at i ons. " 27 J ul y,1952, FO/ 371/ 98691; "U. S. Ambassador ' s Reappr ai sal of t he I nt er nalSi t uat i on, " 2 August , 1952, Fd/ 371/ 98692; "Repl y t o Acheson, " 9August , 1952, FO/ 371/ 9869l ; " ngl o- U. S. Di scussi ons, " 11 August ,1952, FO/ 371/ 98693.45) "U. S. Pr oposal s f or a J oi nt Appr oach t o Dr . Mussadi q. " 12August . 1952, FO/ 371/ 98693.46) Nat i onal Secur i t y Counci l , The Posi t i on of t he Uni t ed St at esW t h Respect t o I ran, NSC 107, March 14, 1951.47) nWashi ngt on Tal ks, " 10 Apr i l 1951, FO/ 371/ 91470.48) Yonah Al exander and Al l an ~anes ( eds. ) , The Uni t ed St at es andI r an: A Documentar y Hi st or y qFr eder i ck. MD: Uni Ver s i t y Publ i ca-t i ons of Amer i ca, 1980) , pp. ~15- 217; The New Yor k Ti mes, May 22,1951, 24: 4 and May 24, 1951. 13: 1; "Recor ds Conver sat i on W t h U. S.Ambassador , " 1 J une, 1951, FO~371/ 91540; "Repor t s Di scussi on w t hMr . Acheson, " 17 May, 1951, FO/ 371/ 91535; Acheson, Pr esent at t heCr eat i on, p. 506.49) "Comment s on Gr ady' s I nt er f er ence, " 6 J une, 1951,FO/ 371/ 91545; "Repor t s Di scussi on w t h Mr . Acheson. " FO/ 371/ 91535.50) Nat i onal Secur i t y Counci l , Nat i onal Secur i ty Probl ems Concern-i ng Fr ee Wor l d Petr ol eum Demands and Pot ent i al Suppl i es, NCS 138,December 8, 1952, pp. 9- 10; Fe~ ei dun Feshar aki , Devel opment of t heI r ani an Oj l I ndust r v ( New Yor k: Pr aeger , 1976) , p. 17.51) "Repor t s I nt er vi ews W t h che50n and McGhee, " 25 J une, 1951,FO/ 371/ 91551; Acheson. Pr esent at t he Cr eat i on. pp. 507- 508.52) "Recor ds Mr . Har r i man' s Vi ew, " 30 August 1951, FO/ 371/ 91584;"Two Poi nt s Made by Mr . Rount r ee, " 25 September , 1951,FO/ 371/ 91472; "Message f r om S. of 5 . , " 10 September , 1951,FO/ 371/ 91463; "Encl oses Shor t Account of Tal ks, " 1 Sept ember ,1951, FO/ 371/ 91584; "Repor t s a Long Tal k w t h Mr . McGhee, " 21Sept ember . 1951, FO/ 371/ 91589; "Text of St at e Depar tment ' s Vi ews, "21 Sept ember , 1951, FO/ 371/ 91589; "Per si an Oi l Di sput e, " 28Sept ember , 1951, FO/ 371/ 91592. I53) Acheson, Pr esent at t he Cr aat i on, p. 510.54) Al exander and Hanes, The U~ t ed stat es and I r an, pP. 223- 224.55) Nat i onal Secur i t y Counci l , The Anql o- I r ani an Pr obl em NSC 117,Oct ober 18, 1951; "Record of Tal ks, " 4 Oct ober , 1951,FO/ 371/ 91S9S; nTel egram f r om Washi ngt on, " 2S Oct ober , 1951,FO/ 371/ 91607; "Amer i can Pr oposdl t hat t he Royal Dutch/ Shel l Gr oupShoul d Take Over and Operat d t he Abadan Ref i ner y Consi der edI mpr act i cal , " 6 November , 1951, i FO/ 371/ 91610.56) "Out l i ne of t he Secr et ar y of St at e' s Vi ew, " 4 November , 1951,FO/ 371/ 91608; " Pol i t i cal Aspedt s of t he Per si an Si t uat i on, " 23November , 1951, FO/ 371/ 91465; " J oi nt Angl o- Amer i can Appr eci at i onon t he Per si an Si t uat i on, " 19 November , 1951, FO/ 371/ 91472.57) The New York Ti mes, Decem~er 7, 1951, 1: 2 and 3: 5, December10, 1951, 4: 5, DQcember 15, 1951, 2: 4, and DecembQr 30, 1951, 8: 7;"Advi ses AmGr i can Opi ni on. " 19 D~cember. 1951, FO/ 371/ 91618.


25/29

58) " J oi nt Angl o / Amer i can Appr eci at i on~" 22FO/ 37l / 98608; " J oi nt Angl o/ U. S. Appr ~cj at j on, " 2FO/ 371/ 986 08.

PAGE 164J anuar y, 1952,Febr uar y, 1952,

59) " J oi nt Angl o/ Amer i can Appr eci at i on, " FO/ 371/ 98608.60) "Angl o- U. S. Tal ks i n l ondon- Si t uat i on i n Per si a, " 14 Febr uar y,1952, FO/ 37l / 98608; U. S. Depar tment of st at e, Bul l et i n, Febr uary11, 1952, pp , 217-218.61) The New Yor k Ti mes, J anuar y 11, 1952, 3: 7: J anuar y 13, 1952,1: 6, J anuary 21, 1952. 1: 3. Febr uar y 11. 1952. 1: 7. Febr uar y 16,1952, 1: 5, Mar ch 21, 1952, 3: 5, and Mar ch 29, 1952. 2: 8; Al exanderand Nanes, The Uni t ed Stat es and I r an, pp. 237- 241; "Per si an Oi lSi tuat i on, " 16 Apr i l ~ 1952, FO/ 371/ 98688; "Next St eps i n Per si a-St at e Depar tment ' s Vi ews, " 17 Apr i l , 1952, FO/ 371/ 98688; "The Textof t he J oi nt Apprai sal , " 9 May, 1952, FO/ 37l / 98689: "The J oi ntAppr ai sal by U. S. and U. K. Embassi es i n Tehr an, " 15 May, 1952,FO/ 371/ 98689; U. S. Depar tment of St at e, Of f i ce of I nt el l i gence andResear ch, I r an: An Est i mat e of Possi bl e Pol i t i cal Devel o mentsaI R No. 5861, May 16, 1952.62) U. S. Congr ess, Senat e, Subcomm t t ee on Mul t i nat i onal Cor po-r at i ons, The I nt er nat i onal Pet r ol eum Car t el , The I r ani an Consor t i -um and U. S. Nat i onal Secur i ~vt 93r d Congr ess. 2nd Sessi on,Febr uar y 21, 1974. pp. 17- 21; " I Oi l Di sput e- Conver sat i ons w t h Mr .Acheson, " 9 Oct ober , 1952, FO/ 371/ 98700; ' V~1r . Acheson' sSuggest i ons f or Set t l i ng t hel Oi l Di sput e, " 9 Oct ober . 1952,FO/ 371/ 98700.63) U. S. Congr ess, The I nt er nat i onal Pet r ol eum Car t el , p. 20.

I65) Wal t er S. Pool e, The Hi sto~y of t he J oi nt Chi ef s of St af f . TheJ oi nt Chi ef s of Staf f and Hai t ianal Pol i cy, Vol . I V, 1950- 1952(Hi s tor i cal Di vi si on, J oi nt s~cretar i at , J oi nt Chi ef s of St af f ,December , 1979) ~ p. 365. The Br i t i sh somehow got w nd of t heNat i onal Secur i t y Counci l del i ber at i ons over t hi s i ssue and wer ehor r i f i ed. See HAmendment t o ~ ' r .Byr oade' s Recor d, " 24 November ,1952, FO/ 371/ 98703.66) I bi d. "Not e by f ' 1r .Byr oad , " 23 November , 1952, FO/ 371/ 98703.

64) I bi d. , pp. 22- 23.

67) "Amendment t o Mr . Byr oade' s Recor d, " FO/ 371/ 98703. The not ef i nal l y r el eased i s publ i shed i n U. S. Depar tment of st at eBul l et i n, Vol . 27, No. 703, De ember I S, 1952. p, 946.68) Much of t he i nf ormat i on pr esent ed i n t hi s sect i on was obt ai nedi n i nt er vi ews w t h f ormer U. S. of f i ci al s and I r ani an pol i t i calf i gur es who pref er t o r emai n anonymous. At t hei r r equest I haveom t t ed r ef er ences t o i nf ormat i on whi ch t hey pr ovi ded. The event ssur r oundi ng t he 1953 coup ar e st i l l hi ghl y cont r over si al , and anumber of i nconsi st enci es emer ged dur i ng t hese i nt er vi ews. Onl yi nf ormat i on whi ch was cor r oborat ed by ot her sour ces or was cl ear l yconsi st ent w t h t he gener al pi ct ur e whi ch emerged has beeni ncl uded here.

I69) Woodhouse, Somethi ng Ventur~dz pp. 117- 120; Ker mt Roosevel t ,Count er coup ( New Yor k: McGr aw- Hi l l , 1979) , pp. 107- 108. The l at t ersource, whi l e gi vi ng a good over vi ew of t he CI A oper at i on, i sser i ousl Y f l awed on many det ai l s. See r evi ews of t hi s book byRi chard Cot t am i n I r ani an St udi es, Vol . XI V, Nos. 3- 4,Summer- Aut umn 1981, pp. 269- 2 2. and by Thomas Power s, i n Th~Nat i on, Apr i l 12, 1980, pp. 437- 440. Woodhouse' s account of t hecoup i t sel f f ol l ows Roosevel t ' s ver y cl osel y, even r epeat i ngsever al of Roosevel t ' s er r or s. Thi s i ndi cat es how l i t t l e t he Br i t -i sh were act ual l y i nvol ved af t er t he i ni t i al st age of t he pl ot .


26/29

PAGE 165For an at t empt t o i dent i f y s ome of t he MI 6 of f i c i al s who ar e gi venps eudonyms i n Ro o s evel t ' s account s ee The Guar di an ( Manc hes t e r ) ,J ul y 28, 1980, p , 11.70) Woodhous e, Somet h i no Vent u r ed, pp . 121 - 122.71) Roos ev el t , Coun t e r coup, pp. 120- 124. I n hi s account Roos evel ti nexpl i c abl y con f u s es t he Ra shi di an br o t he r s wi t h t he t wo pr i nc i -pa l U. S. agent s i n I r an. The l at t er ar e r e f e r r ed t o as t he Bos cob r o t h er s , whi l e t he Ras hi di ans ar e cal l ed Hos s ey and Gaf f r on ( whoar e s ai d no t t o be r el at ed) . No1t onl y cH' e t he names conf used, buti n Some pl ac es t he ac t ua l r o l es pl ayed by t he t wo set s of agent sar e m s i dent i f i ed as wel l . I72) F i t z r oy Mac l ean, Eas t er n Appr oaches ( London: J onat han Cape,1950) , p. 266. ~73) " Conver s at i o n wi t h Gener al Zahedi , " 31 May, 1951, F O/ 248/ 1514.74 ) " Desc r i be s Cur r ent Po l i i c al Si t uat i on, " 20 Apr i l . 1951 .F0/371/91456; " Oi l Si t uat i on. " 24 May. 1951. F0/371/91536;" As s es s es t he Per s i an Si t uat i on. " FO/ 371/ 91461; " Po l i t i c al Devel -opment s i n Per s i a, " C( 52) 275; 1 Akhavi , Rel i qi on and Po l i t i c s i nCont empor ar y I r an, p. 67; " P~r s i an Oi l Di sput e : Vi ews of Mi s sLambt on, " 2 Nov embe r , 1951, FO/ 371/ 91609; " KashBni i s Known t oHave Recen t l y Had Deal i ngs wi t h t he Rus s i ans , " 10 Sept embe r , 1951,FO/ 371191587.75) Roos evel t us es ps eudonyms f o r t he maj or char ac t er s i n hi sbook . I n mos t cas es i t i s pos s i bl e t o mat ch t he pseudonyms andphy s i c al des c r i pt i ons he gi ves wi t h t hose o f t he CI A peopl e oper -at i ng under cover i n t he embas s y. Roosevel t ' s ps eudonyms wi l l beus ed her e i n orde r t o pr o t ec t t he i dent i t i es o f t he peopl ei nvo l ved .76) Roosevel t , Coun t e r c oup, p.c onf us ed i n Roos evel t ' s account . 128. Thes e ~wo ar e f r e q uen~l y77) Ner r en and Ci l l ey ar e t he I r ani ans Ro o s evel t m s t akenl y i den -t i f i es as t he B05coe br o t h er s . See f oo t n o t e 71, above. Ner r en andCi l l ey wer e br o t her s - i n- l aw. Nel r r en had been an edi t o r f o r a maj o rI r ani an news paper i n t he l at e 19405, at whi ch t i me he had becomeacquai nt ed wi t h Bi l l Her man , t he CI A s t at i on chi ef i n Augus t 1953 .78) Anot her ope r at i on under t aken by t he CI A at t hi s t i me was a" s t ay- behi nd" net wor k de s i gned t o pr o vi de ar ms f or an I r ani anr es i s t anc e movement i n t he event of a Sovi et i nvas i on. Th i s ope r -at i o n was r un t hr ough t he Ar meni an i ndependenc e movemen t i n I r anby CI A o f f i c er s not i nvo l ved i r TPAJ AX. The ar ms caches pl ant edunder t hi s ope r at i on wer e even~ual l y s ei z ed by t he Tudeh par t y,who had appa r ent l y i nf i l t r a t e d bot h t he CI A s t at i on and t he Ar me-ni an movemen t . The CI A al s o had at l eas t one deep- cover oper at i veas s i gned t o i nf i l t r a t e s t udent gr oups at t he Uni v er s i t y o f Tehr an,as wel l as numer ous pl ant s i n t he Tudeh par t y and t he gover nmentbu r eauc r acy.79) The mai n pr o paganda ac t i v i t y under t aken t hr ough TPBEDAMN wasan ongoi ng pr ogr am i n whi ch ant i - Sovi et and ant i - Tudeh s t o r i eswer e pl ant ed i n t he I r an i an pr es s . A numbe r o f bo oks wr i t t e n i nt he Wes t wer e t r ans l at ed i nt o Far s i and di s t r i but ed under t hi spr ogr am I t s mos t dr amat i c ef f or t was t he pr oduc t i on o f a f al s i -f i ed aut obi o gr aphy o f t he wel l - kno wn I r ani an poet Lahut i ,appa r ent l y wr i t t en by t he " Per s~a exper t . " I n t hi s book Lahut i , aTudeh member l i vi ng i n t he So vi et Uni on at t ha t t i me, gi ves a ver ybl eak des c r i pt i on of hi s l i f e t her e. Af t er i t appea red Lahu t ideno unc ed t he f o r ged aut obi ogr aphy over So vi e t r adi o .


27/29

80) By compar i s on, t he Ras hi di ans10, 000 Engl i s h pounds per mont h bySomet hi nq Ven t u r ed, p. 118.

PAGE 166r e po r t edl y wer e onl y gi vent he Br i t i s h. See Woodhous e,

81) Roos evel t , Count er coup, pp. 3- 19. Par t i ci pat i on i n t he coup byt he pr o- Br i t i sh t r i bes had eVi d~nt l Y been r ul ed out by t hi s t i me.I t i s no t ent i r el y c l ear what t he pl an cons i s t ed o f at t hi s po i nt .The r e wer e pl ans f or t he depl o y ent i n and ar ound Tehr an o f l oyal -i st m l i t ar y uni t s . However , when t he coup ac t ual l y began n6ne o ft he s e uni t s ac t ed. Ther e wer e appar ent l y no cont i ngency pl ans t ocover unf o r seen c i r cums t ances . I n f ac t , t he coup was car r i ed outhaphaz ar dl y, wi t h no pr ea r r anged pl an.82) I bi d. , chs . 9- 10; Woodhouse, Somet hi nq Vent ur ed, p. 126; Thel'le~" Yo r k Ti mes , J ul y 27, 1953, 14: 2 ; and Augus t 9, 1953 , 1'f:zXRoos evel t pl aces t he As hr af and Schwar t z kopf v i s i t s s ever al weeksear l i er t han t he y ac t ual l y t oo1k pl ace, and s ays t hat t he As hr afmeet i ng t ook pl ace i n Swi t zer l and ( pp. 145- 149) . A popul ar myt hho l ds t hat As hr af , Al l en DUl l es l ' Hender s o n , and, by s ome account s ,Ri char d Hel ms ( l at er t he Di r ec t o r o f Cent r al I nt el l i gence) met i nSwi t z er l and i n ea r l y Augus t t o f - oo r di nat e pl ans f or t he coup. Thi ser r oneous s t or y a~par ent l or i gi nat es i n Ri char d and Gl a?ys . Ha.r ~-nes s , " The MYS~er l 0us DOI ngs 0 CI A, " The Sat u rday Evenl na Pos~,November 6, 1954, pp . 66- 68. Oddl y eno ugh, t he i nf o r mat i o npr es ent ed i n t hi s ar t i c l e came f r om t he CI A i t s el f , whi ch appar -ent l y s ought t o publ i c i ze i t s a~t i - c ommuni s t ac t i vi t i es on t he eveo f t he 195tt m d - t er m el ec t i ons . On t he day 01' t he coup, Pr avdac o r r ec t l y i dent i f i ed Schwar t z ko f ' s m ss i on and char ged t hat U. S.agent s i n I r a~ had engi neer ed I I he coup. See The New Yor k Ti mes !August 19, 195~, 3: 1.83) Roo sevel t , ~ount er c o uPt p p . 169- 175. The New Yor k Ti mes ,Augus t 17, 1953, 1: 4, Augus t 18, 1953, 1: 7; and Augus t 19, 1953,6: 3, 4. Co l one l Mumt az was l at e~ " l i t er al l y t o r n t o pi eces " by apr o- Zahedi c r owd. See The New ~or k Ti mes , August 20, 1953, 1: 8.t ' l os s adeqpubl i cl y deno unc ed t he l f i rman s as f o r ger i es at hi s t r i a l .One f o r mer CI A o f f i c er who par ~i c i pat ed i n t he coup c l ai ms t hatt he f i r mans wer e f or ge d by t h[ e C I A " Per s i a exper t . . " The s hah' sul t i mat e des t i nat i o n was appar ent l y London. See The New Yor kTi mes , Augus t 19, 1953, 1: 3- 4.84) Not al l o f t he par t i c i pant s wer e t o be evacuat ed. At l eas t oneCI A empl oyee wi t hout di pl omat i l cover was t o be l ef t behi nd, aswer e s ever al o f t he I r ani an o f ~i cer s i nvo l ved. The account gi v enher e di f f er s s ubs t ant i a l l y f r o~ t hat gi v en by Roos evel t . I t waspi eced t oget her pr i mar i l y f r om ~nt e r v i ews wi t h s ever al o f t he keypa r t i c i pant s . The mai n poi nt s wer e conf i r med i ndependent l y by atl eas t t wo s our ces . I85) The Pet er St oneman i nvo l v e~ her e was t he younger o f t he t wo.Ner r en and Ci l l ey wer e empl oyedl by t he CI A s t at i on at t hat t i me i na l ar ge pr opa ganda oper at i on ( s ee f oo t no t es 77 and 79, above) , s ot ~ey wer e i de al l y s ui t ed t o d~s t r i but e t he f i r mans . One par t i c -i pant c l ai ms t hat Her r en and C~l l e y want ed t o end t hei r i nvo l v e-ment i n TPAJ AX at t hi s po int] but l >J er epe r s u aded t o r emai n byRoos evel t , who t hr eat ened t o k l i l l t hem I t i s no t c l ear whet herbot h f i r mans wer e copi ed. I f 50, t hen at l eas t t he one di sm s s i ngMossadeq mus t have been r et ypedl and Tor ge d, s i nce t he or i gi nal hadal r eady been del i v er ed. Roos e~el t s ays t hat t hey! : : : ! . ! : . . ge t yped( Count er c oul b. p. 178) , but doef 5n' t expl ai n how t he s ha h' s s i gna-t ur e was put on t he copi es . An o t her s our ce bel i eves t hat onl y t hef i r man appoi nt i ng Zahedi was co~i ed and di s t r i but ed.86) Se e The New Yor k Ti mes , A~9Us t 17, 1953, 1: 4. The i nt er v i ewwi t h Ar deshi r Zahedi i s de s c r i bed i n Kenne t t l ove, HThe Amer i c anRol e i n t he Pahl evi Res t o r a t i oh On 19 Augus t 1953" ( unpubl i s hedmanus cr i pt , The Al l en Dul l es Pa~er s, Pr i ncet on Uni ver s i t y L i br a r y ,1960), pp. 31- 32. Love i mp1i e t hat onl y t he f i r man appo i nt i ng


28/29

Zah~dif i rman was copi ~d. Heat t h~ Par k Hot el

PAGE 167di st r i but~d copi ~s of t h~

87) The New Yor k Ti mes, August 19, 1953, 1: 3- 4; U. S. Senat e,House, Comm t t ee on For ei gn Af f ai r s, The Mut ual Secur i t y Act of195~, Hear i nqs, 33r d Congr~ss, 2nd Sessi on, Apr i l 3, 1954, pP.503- 504, 509; Ar deshi r Zahedi , Fi v~ Deci si ve Davg, AUGust 14- 18.1952 ( unpubl i shed manuscr i pt , n. d. ) . The l at t er sour ce, gr aci ousl ymade avai l abl e t o me by t he aut hor , i s an Engl i sh t r ansl at i on of aser i al i zed memoi r or i gi nal l y p~bl i shed i n Et t el a' at . I t di f f er ssubst ant i al l y f r om the account si of Roosevel t and l ove r ef er r ed t oabove, and f r om t he account s I pbt ai ned i n i nt er vi ews. Many I r ani -ans vi ew Zahedi ' s account as acpur at e, and hence di scount t he r ol epl ayed by t he CI A i n t he over t hrOL< of Mossadeq.Zahedi d~scr i b~s an ~ abor at ~ pl an f or mul at ed by hi s f at heraf ter t he ar r est of Nassi r i ~o est abl i sh an i ndependent st at ecal l ed " f ree I r an" i n t he mouht ai nous r egi on ar ound Ker manshah.Thi s st at e was t o be f or t i f i ed ki t h l oyal army and ai r f or ce uni t s( i ncl udi ng sever al ai r f or ce p~anes) and used as a base t o gai ncont rol over he count ry. Pl ans ~er e appar ent l y al so made t o sabo-t age key oi l and r ai l i nst a[ l at i ons i n Tehr an t o cr eat ~ adi ver si on t o ai d t he escape 6f Zah~di ' s gr oup f r om Tehr an t oKer manshah. Whi l e a number of bl ans wer e di scussed by t he Amer i -cans and I r ani ans i nvol ved i n t he coup, none of t he CI A sour ces Ii nt er vi ewed coul d r ecal l such al pl an.

88) The New Yor k Ti mes, August , 8, 1953, 1: 7; Loy Hender son I nt er -vi ew, Col umbi a Uni ver si t y Or al ~ st or y Resear ch Of f i c. e, 1972, pp.15- 18. Hender son had ar r i ved i n Tehr an f rom Bei r ut on Monday,August 17. Af ter t he 1953 cou t he Tudeh par t y r eeval uat ed i t sr ol e i n t h~se event s and concl uded t hat i t shoul d have been mor esuppor t i ve of Mossadeq. See Se~ehr Zabi h, The Comm0ni st Movementi n I r an ( Ber kel ey: Uni ver si t y of Cal i f or ni a Pr ess, 1966) , p. 220and el seL- l here. Some observers l have suggest ed t o me t hat t heTudeh' s di sengagement on Tuesda~ ni ght f ol l owed i t s di scover y t hatt he or i gi nal Tudeh cr owds had been pl ant ed.89) By Wednesday Mossadeq' s abent s had appar~nt l y l ocat ed t hehous~ wher e Zahedi was hi di ng, and wer e pr epar i ng t o sei ze hi m90) Love, "The Amer i can Rol e I i n t he Pahl evi Rest or at ; on, " pp.40- 41. Roosevel t cl ai ms t o have used l ess t han $100, 000 f or t heent i r e operat i on ( count ercoup, ~ p. 166) , but ot her par t i ci pant scl ai m t he f i gur e was much hi gher . The exact f i gur e i suni mpor t ant , si nc~ cr owds caul d b~ hi r ed i n Tehr an f or al mostnothi ng. Most of t he money pa~d out dur i ng t hi s oper at i on waspr esumabl y pocket ed by Ner r en and Ci l l ey and t hei r associ at es.91) Zabi h, The Mossadeg Er a, p. 121; i nt er vi ew w t h Ahmad Anvar i( London, November 12, 1983) . A si m l ar vi ew was r el at ed byHossei m Fat em t o Zabi h ( see. bi d. , p. 133) .92) Roosevel t , Counter coup, pp. i 176- 197; Abrahaman, I r an BetweenTwo Revol ut i ons, pp. 279- 280; The New York Ti mes , Augus t 20, 1953,1: 6. Ovei ssi was l at er known a~ "t he but cher of Tehr an" f or hi sr ol e i n t he bl oody event s of t he f al l of 1978. He was assassi -nat ed i n Par i s i n Febr uar y 1984~93) The New Yor k Ti mes, Augusr t 22,1: 4, August 23, 1953, 9: 1, Sept mbar28, 1953, 8: 1, 2.94) I bi d. , December 16, 1953, 1~: 1, August 28, 1953, 4: 2, Oct ober27, 1953, 6: 3, Sept ember 11, 1953, 8: 3, August 25, 1953, 1: 5, andSeptember 26. 1953, 2: 1. I n onel oper at i on, t he al der Pet er St one-man i s sai d t o have hel ped I r an/ an General Dadset an cr ush a di ssi -dent movement whi ch had begun t o devel op i n t he Tehr an bazaar . See

1953, 1: 8, August 24, 1953,26, 1953, 2: 1, and September


29/29

PAGE 168Love, "The Amer i can Rol e i n t he Pahl evi Rest or at i on, " p. 37. I nanother , St oneman and Fr ed Zi mmerman managed t o pl ant m cr ophonesi n a TudQh par t y saf Q house and over hear pl ans f or ademonst rat i on. Thi s i nf ormat i on was gi ven t o Zahedi , who had t hedemonst r at i on br oken up. Al though t he saf e house l at er t ur ned outt o be t he l ocat i on of t he pr esses USQd f or a maj or Tudehnewspaper , Bi l l Herman r ef used t o approve f undi ng t o cont i nue t hi soperat i on.95) The New Yor k Ti mes, Sept ember 30, 1953, 8: 3; Al exander andNanes. The Uni t ed St at es and I r an, pp. 232- 235, 250- 251, 253- 254;J ebhe, Nat i onal Movement of I r an ( London) , August 20, 1983, ~. 9;Hender son t o Dul l es, Di pl omat i d Post Records, No. 497, August 27,1953.

mg diss ch5ii

Documents