methodology and classification of...

METHODOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION OF HOUSEHOLDS

The fieldwork for the thesis involving a rural household survey was

undertaken between February, 2006 and August, 2006 in the district of Bardhaman in

West Bengal and Anantapur and Karimnagar districts in Andhra Pradesh. Bardhaman

is one of the most prosperous districts in West Bengal. The eastern and south-eastern

part of the district is almost entirely covered by highly fertile young and old alluvial

soil with a multi-crop characteristic. The district has a net sown area of 466630 ha., {)f

which 71.98 percent is irrigated (District Statistical Handbook, Bureau of Applied

Economics and Statistics, GoWB). Rice and potato are the main crops cultivated in

the district. The yield rate of rice in the district stood at 3063 kg/ha. in 2003-04 and

compared favourably with the average yield for West Bengal, which was 2504 kg/ha.

in the same year (DSH, BAE&S, Go WB). It is also worth taking note that the district

yield for rice grew at a trend growth rate of 3.29 percent between 1999-00 and 2003-

04, which is slightly higher than that for the state. Although the yield for potato, the

{)ther major crop, has remained stagnant during this period, it has been consistently

higher than the state average. In 2003-04, the yield rate for potato in the district was

27135 kglha. compared to 24711 kg/ha. for the state (DSH, BAE&S, GoWB). These

figures clearly point towards the advanced nature of agriculture in the district. The

enhanced agricultural activity in the district actually absorbs seasonal labour supply

from other districts of the state and occasionally from outside the state as well.

Given the fact that Bardhaman is one of the agriculturally advanced district in

the state, we have purposively chosen the district for our study in West Bengal. The

Methodology & Classification of Households 69

district also has a few industrial centers like Durgapur, Asansol, Chittaranjan, etc. as

well as the ECL coalfields in its western part, which still absorbs a considerable share

of the workforce in spite of rising number of sick units and closures that has been

witnessed in the region over the last decade. According to the 2001 Census, the share

of Cultivators and Agricultural Workers to Total Workers in the district was 14.8

percent and 29.9 percent respectively. This indicates that more than half of the

workforce is employed in sectors other than agriculture. Within West Bengal,

Bardhaman has a stronger economic situation, which provides us with an appropriate

area required for the study. It would be necessary for us to examine the impact of neo- ,

liberal economic policies on the viability of agriculture in such an agriculturally

prosperous area. It would be equally interesting to determine the production relations

that predominate in such a region, which bas witnessed agricultural growth, especially

post Operation Barga, and has somewhat maintained it during the era of deflationary

economic policies in the period since 1991.

On the other hand, Andhra Pradesh ts one of first states that saw the

precipitation of the agrarian crisis m the country. The phenomenon of rising

indebtedness and farmer suicides were almost synonymous with cotton farming,

especially the BT cotton variety in the mid-nineties when it started. Gradually, the

crisis has spread to encompass regions growing other crops and in other states as well.

For our purpose, we have selected the advanced region from Karirnnagar district.

Situated in the Telengana region of the state, the district is a primarily black-soil

region and has an irrigated area of 49.77 percent (District Census Handbook, 2001).

The yield of the primary crop, cotton in the district has been volatile at 261, 373 and

212 Kg/ha for the years 2002-03, 2003-04 and 2004-05 respectively (DSH, 2004-05,

Karirnnagar) indicating a certain degree of instability in cultivation. Between 1998

and 2002, the number of farmer suicides was 1297 in this district (Patnaik, 2005).

The volatile cotton prices in the world market adversely affected the

cultivators in the early nineties. The subsequent losses in cotton cultivation converted

this region into a zone of debt-driven farmer suicides by the latter half of the nineties.

There were high default rates of the cultivators in dearing their debt commitments

and citing this, the banks stopped providing credit to farmers. This was an added blow

for the cultivators given the already low institutional credit availability in Andhra

Pradesh (already discussed in Chapter 2). This led to a dominance of the credit market

by private moneylenders pushing the farmers into a more vulnerable situation. The


impact of this situation on the production relations in cultivation and on market

interactions of rural households needs to be assessed.

The backward region has been selected from the Anantapur district. It is one

of the most dry districts in the country with only 11.85 percent of irrigated land

(DCH, 200 l ). It is primarily a groundnut-growing region, a crop that was protected at

least in the initial years of liberalization through comparatively higher tariff rates.

However, over the years the groundnut production in this district has also plunged

into a crisis. The number of farmers committing suicides in this region has also shown

a rising trend in the recent years. During the eighties and early nineties, there was a

decline in the domestic demand for groundnut and a majority of the oil mills, which

absorbed the supply of groundnuts from the farmers, were closed down. The prices of

groundnuts consequently declined and adversely affected the profitability of

cultivation. The gradual worsening of the agricultural situation over a long period

turned into a crisis after 2000 due to the successive drought years in 2002 and 2003 in

the region. Repeated crop failures due to insufficient rainfall and lack of adequate

groundwater led to indiscriminate investments by farmers in digging bore wells, most

of which did not yield any water. The returns to such investments have been close to

nil and have led to an accumulation of farm indebtedness and increasing distress in

the region. The frequent crop failures, low prices, high cost structures and paltry

returns to private investments in irrigation were factors contributing to the crisis and

has caused increasing number of farmers to commit suicide in this region in the recent

past.

Selection of Regions

A two-tier selection process was adopted to identify an economically

advanced and backward region, primarily in terms of agriculture, in each of the states.

While in West Bengal, the advanced and the backward regions have been selected

from the same district, in case of Andhra Pradesh; we have chosen the advanced

region from the cotton growing district of Karimnagar and the backward region from

the Anantapur district. We have used the block level data published in the District

Census Handbook, 2001 to calculate certain variables and used the latter to rank the

blocks and select them.


Table 3.1.1: First tier selection ranks for different blocks: Bardhaman district

No. of No. of First tier Percentage Percentage of educational medical Gross

S.No. Block of cultivable irrigated area institutions care Rank on area to total to total per '000 centers per scale of 1 area cultivable area '000 persons persons {Rl)

1 SALANPUR 66.28 22.31 1.114 0.190 0.934 2 BARABANI 76.09 32.62 0.916 0.436 0.811 3 JAMURIA-1 78.56 6.09 1.128 0.344 0.792 4 RANIGANJ 37.13 27.07 1.026 0.205 0.991 5 ONDAL 54.29 21.34 1.112 0.126 1.000

6 FARIDPUR- 68.52 8.58 1.248 0.708 0.726 DURGAPUR 7 KANKSA 51.20 37.58 1.204 0.291 0.830 8 AUSGRAM-11 56.18 45.98 1.710 1.115 0.491 9 AUSGRAM-1 78.97 77.46 1.703 0.431 0.434 10 MANGOLKOTE 80.84 72.01 1.402 0.782 0.425 11 KETUGRAM-1 81.39 91.31 1.337 0.185 0.528 12 KETUGRAM-11 83.61 87.84 1.448 0.971 0.236 13 KAlWA-I 80.48 72.96 1.099 0.307 0.679 14 KAlWA-II 78.62 73.68 1.280 0.191 0.679

15 PURBASTHAU- 84.11 67.00 1.051 0.169 0.736 I

16 PURBASTHAU-77.02 96.19 1.035 0.643 0.566 II

17 MANTESWAR 93.73 84.16 1.349 0.206 0.453 18 BHATAR 80.83 88.52 1.446 0.947 0.302 19 -bALSI-1 74.31 71.56 1.355 0.265 0.670 20 GALSI-11 94.84 99.91 1.553 1.217 0.066 21 BURDWAN 82.60 87.47 1.249 0.358 0.472 22 MEMARI-1 82.78 92.93 1.221 0.504 0.387 23 MEMARI-11 83.69 65.40 1.275 0.295 0.538 24 KALNA-1 72.54 88.60 1.189 0.241 0.670 25 KALNA-11 88.14 85.70 1.425 0.280 0.396 26 JAMALPUR 78.77 78.08 1.265 1.183 0.453 27 RAINA-I 79.96 88.50 1.105 0.203 0.679

28 KHANDA-81.59 95.38 1.427 0.746 0.264 GHOSH

29 RAINA-II 82.64 99.58 1.638 0.655 0.208

Source: District Census Handbook, 2001

In the first tier of the selection process for West Bengal, five most advanced

blocks and five most backward blocks from Bardhaman district were identified based

on four variables namely, percentage of cultivated area to total area, percentage of

irrigated area to total cultivable area, number of educational institutions per 1000

persons and number of medical care centers per 1000 population. The first rank is

assigned to the best performing block for each variable such that each block has four

ranks for the four variables. To calculate an aggregate rank for each block, we take

the sum of the four ranks for each block and then normalize the sum on a scale of 1


for the 29 blocks in this district We call this 'First-Tier Gross Rank on scale of I'

denoted by Rl (Table 3.1.1). From this ranking, we can identify that Galsi-2, Raina-2,

Ketugram-2, Khandaghosh and Bhatar are the most advanced blocks in the region

while Jamuria-l, Barabani, Kanksa, Salanpur and Ondal are the most backward ones.

Although, Raniganj had one of the lowest five ranks, we have not selected the block

for the second tier selection process, as the percentage of cultivable area in this block

was exceptionally low at 3 7.13 percent.

Table 3.1.2: Second tier selection ranks and Gross Final Rank for different blocks: Bardhaman district

No. of No. of No. of seed No. of No. of No. of fair

fertilizer banks PACS price stores livestock Block R1 depots per'OOO per per shops R2 per '000 per '000 '000 per

'000 person person person person '000 person rson

GALSI·II 0.066 0.78 0.0000 656.7 0.045 0.403 0.403 0.609

RAINA-II 0.208 0.29 0.0728 895.9 0.073 0.400 0.284 0.457

KETU-0.236 0.50 0.0093 699.4 0.065 0.327 0.346 0.565

GRAM-II

KHANDA-0.264 0.48 0.0059 772.5 0.065 0.382 0.329 0.609

GHOSH

BHATAR 0.302 0.55 0.0930 837.1 0.055 0.283 .0.288 0.543

JAMURIA-0.792 0.11 0.0177 437.7 0.071 0.204 0.301 0.848

1

BARABANI 0.811 0.07 0.0181 477.6 0.054 0.208 0.317 0.891

KANKSA 0.830 0.34 0.0132 516.0 0.046 0.383 0.238 0.848

SALANPUR 0.934 0.03 0.0192 208.7 0.058 0.262 0.205 1.000

ONDAL 1.000 0.06 0.0474 166.9 0.030 0.509 0.326 0.804

Source: District Statistical Handbook, Bureau of Applied Economics and Statistics, Government ofWest Bengal

In the second tier of the selection process, the most advanced and most

backward blocks out of these ten blocks are determined. This is done by further using

six variables calculated from the data in the District Statistical Handbook,

Bardhaman, 2004, Govt of West Bengal. The variables that have been used are

number of fertilizer depots per 1000 population, number of seed stores per 1000

population, number of livestock per I 000 population, number of banks per I 000

Final Gross Rank

'R'

0.337

0.332

0.401

0.436

0.423

0.820

0.851

0.839

0.967

0.902

s. No.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8


population, number of PA CS per l 000 population and number of fair price shops per

l 000 population. Using the same ranking method as in the first tier, we got six ranks

for each of the ten blocks in this tier and derived the 'Second-Tier Gross Rank on a

scale of 1' denoted by R2. A 'Final Gross Rank' denoted by R was arrived at for each

block by taking a simple average of the two ranks Rl and R2. From Table 3.1.2, we

can see that Raina-2 is the most advanced block with an 'R' of 0.332 and Salanpur,

the most backward one with an 'R' of0.967.

Using the same methodology in the case of Andhra Pradesh, the advanced

region was taken from the Karimnagar district (Saidapur mandai) and the backward

from Anantapur district (Anantapur (rural) mandai). The data sources used for this

purpose was District Census Handbook, 2001 and District Statistical Handbook,

Karimnagar, 2004, GoAP and District Statistical Handbook, Anantapur, 2003-04,

GoAP. From the first level of selection, we identified five most advanced

blocks/mandals in Karimnagar district namely Julapalle, Kamalapur, Saidapur,

Pegadapalle and Ramadugu. Although, the Huzurabad mandai ranked in the top five

blocks, we have not considered it due to non-availability of data required for the

second tier selection process. While the same variables (as used for West Bengal)

have been used in the first tier of selection, in the second tier, the number of fertilizer

depots per 1 000 population and number of seed stores per 1000 population have been

replaced by the number of pump sets per 1000 persons and number of tractors and

power tillers per 1000 persons. The Saidapur block emerged as the most advanced

block among these five blocks through the second level of selection with as 'R' of

0.407 (Table 3.1.4).

Table 3.1.3: First tier selection ranks for different blocks: Karimnagar district

Percentage Percentage No. of No. of First tier of cultivable of irrigated educational medical care Gross Rank Block area to total area to total institutions centers per on scale ofl cultivable per'OOO area '000 persons (Rl) area ersons

Ibrahimpatnam 68.20 51.98 1.48 0.35 0.663

Malta pur 72.28 64.12 1.49 0.34 0.567

Raikal 43.10 44.69 1.56 0.20 0.957

Sarangapur 45.18 53.38 1.79 0.27 0.738

Dharmapuri 50.48 61.05 1.50 0.20 0.856

Velgatoor 67.65 66.16 1.67 0.25 0.636 Ramagundam 71.28 27.63 2.07 0.78 {).433

Kamanpur 36.91 37.73 1.68 0.24 0.898


Table 3.1.3 contd.

Percentage Percentage of No. of No. of First tier educational s. Block of cultivable irrigated area institutions medical care Gross Rank

No. area to total to total per '000 centers per onscaleofl area cultivable area '000 persons (Rl)

ersons 9 Manthani 52.03 38.53 2.70 0.32 0.578

10 Kataram 63.19 46.95 2.34 0.54 0.433

11 Mahadevpur 25.46 28.62 2.32 0.42 0.-679

12 Mutharam 31.43 79.% 1.63 0.56 0.604

13 Malharrao 48.97 23.72 1.64 0.34 0.909

14 Mutharam 49.73 26.31 1.92 0.24 0.834

15 Srirampur 55.48 31.46 2.23 0.24 0.706

16 Peddapalle 70.17 48.13 1.81 0.43 0.513

17 Julapalle 75.40 69.07 1.93 0.64 0.273

18 Dharmaram 68.18 64.09 1.67 0.20 0.722

19 Gollapalle 75.77 57.69 1.85 {}.31 0.444

20 Mallia! 60.72 26.91 1.55 0.20 1.000

21 Jagtial 68.71 85.23 2.12 0.22 0.422

22 Medipalle 67.62 34.63 1.65 0.72 0.610

23 Koratla 73.44 43.11 1.48 0.54 0.588

24 Metpalle 68.18 32.54 1.78 0.17 0.845

25 Kathlapur 67.41 28.74 1.47 0.68 0.733

26 Chandurthi 52.86 34.00 1.97 0.20 0.807

27 Kodimial 59.14 24.34 1.79 0.21 0.893

28 Pegadapalle 70.41 69.93 1.78 0.67 0.380

29 Gangadhara 67.81 48.72 2.09 0.62 0.401

30 Ramadugu 72.03 70.82 2.01 0.27 0.385

31 Choppadandi 78.16 53.46 1.71 0.47 0.439

32 Sultana bad 69.19 75.64 2.29 0.25 0.385

33 Odela 52.15 92.22 2.02 0.18 0.588

34 Manakondur 82.15 89.12 1.74 0.23 0.444

35 Karim nagar 48.86 64.74 1.60 0.82 0.594

36 Boinpalle 84.36 34.42 1.81 0.53 0.444

37 Vemulawada 71.88 22.25 1.88 0.33 0.647

38 Konaraopeta 56.98 23.58 1.84 0.29 0.802

39 Yellareddipet 32.26 34.09 1.47 0.44 0.882 40 Gambhiraopet 61.57 29.55 1.58 0.50 0.770 41 Mustabad 77.21 30.96 1.74 0.29 0.636 42 Sircilla 64.98 25.70 1.96 0.37 0.663

43 Ellanthakunta 28.54 40.89 2:00 0.20 0.802 44 Bejjanki 69.55 32.67 1.89 0.39 0.561 45 Timmapur 57.81 70.36 1.81 0.62 0.460 46 Veenavanka 77.77 46.32 1.95 0.25 0.487 47 Jammikunta 74.97 58.86 2.11 0.17 0.513 48 Shankarapatnam 66.89 73.01 1.47 0.23 0.733 49 Chigurumamidi 62.54 59.51 1.88 0.20 0.695 so Koheda 24.56 50.54 1.79 0.93 0.604 51 Husnabad 72.59 50.22 1.98 0.25 0.497


Table 3.1.3 contd.

Percentage Percentage of No. of No. of First tier educational s. of cultivable irrigated area medical care Gross Rank

Block institutions No. area to total to total per '000 centers per on scaleofl

52

53

54

55

56

area cultivable area rsons '000 persons (Rl)

Saidapur 87.11 40.69 2.34 0.29 0.374

Huzurabad 76.07 71.24 2.39 0.42 0.214

Kamala pur 79.60 75.74 1.68 0.71 0.289 Bheemadevarpalle 65.81 50.51 1.82 0.28 0.620

Elkathurthi 79.56 73.44 1.77 0.23 0.487


Table 3.1.4: Second tier selection ranks and Gross Final Rank for different blocks: Karimnagar district

No. of No. of No. of No. of Tractors/ No. of No. of PACS fair pump Power livestock banks price Block Rl sets per tillers per per'OOO per '000 per shops R2

'000 '000 '000 person person per'OOO person person person person

Julapalle 0.273 11.09 6~96 993.81 0.022 0.022 0.38 1.00

Kamala-pur

0.289 21.17 1.51 735.88 0.067 0.050 0.59 0.96

Sa ida- 0.374 pur 123.82 1.74 1123.51 0.078 0.104 0.62 0.44

Pegada- 0.380 69.59 1.52 1309.05 0.022 0.067 0.71 0.64 palle Rama- 0.385 67.89 1.99 1349.81 0.042 0.084 0.61 0.56 d u

Source: District Statistical Handbook, Karimnagar, 2004-05, Government of Andhra Pradesh

In case of Anantapur district, we selected the five most backward

blocks/mandals through the same process initially. These blocks were Rayadurg,

Gorantla, Kanaganapalle, Gudibanda and Anantapur (rural). Among these blocks,

Anantapur (rural) emerged as the most backward block with an 'R' of 1.00 (Table

3.1.6).

Table 3.1.5: First tier selection ranks for different blocks: Anantapur district

Percentage No. of

Final Gross Rank 'R'

0.636

0.624

0.407

0.510

0.473

Percentage No. of of of irrigated educational medical First tier

s. Block cultivable area to institutions care Gross Rank No. area to total per '000 centers per on scaleofl

cultivable '000 (Rl) total area persons area rsons 1 0. Hirehal 74.91 11.84 1.015 0.228 0.746 2 Rayadurg 71.49 7.49 1.043 0.182 0.912 3 Kanekal 80.67 18.33 1.234 0.938 0.356


Table 3.1.5 contd

Percentage Percentage No. of No. of

of of irrigated educational medical First tier s. Block cultivable area to institutions care Gross Rank No. area to total per '000 centers per on scaleofl

cultivable '000 (Rl) total area .persons

area rsons 4 Bommanahal 82.83 32.62 0.977 0.718 0.341

5 Vidapanakal 93.61 19.14 0.745 0.207 0.634

6 Guntakal 70.72 8.46 2.262 0.141 0.732

7 Gooty 60.85 12.49 1.239 0.375 0.741

8 Peddavadugur 76.15 13.04 4.165 0.238 0.420

9 Yadiki 45.99 6.60 1.587 0.542 0.790

10 Tadipatri 73.02 15.59 2.904 0.922 0.273

11 Peddapappur 69.67 24.36 3.010 1.192 0.229

12 Pamidi 58.15 22.93 1.542 0.203 0.780

13 Vajrakarur 78.98 1.67 0.850 0.580 0.707

14 Uravakonda 87.30 2.26 0.876 0.639 0.649

15 Beluguppa 78.31 2.19 1.406 0.493 0.678

16 Gummagatta 63.49 18.07 1.230 0.189 0.839

17 Brahmasamudram 74.08 14.01 1.493 0.531 0.507

18 Kalyandurg 75.99 3.49 1.447 0.540 0.659

19 Atmakur 58.49 14.15 1.778 0.639 0.576

20 Kudair 66.07 5.92 2.987 0.251 0.654

21 Garladinne 65.41 29.61 1.587 0.244 0.585

22 Singanamala 51.92 28.93 1.918 0.291 0.605

23 Putlur 65.92 21.54 1.684 0.217 0.639

24 Yellanur 64.89 22.31 1.778 0.296 0.556

25 Narpala 63.85 26.42 4.176 0.213 0.493

26 Bukkarayasamudram 78.79 31.72 0.981 0.528 0.424

27 Anantapur (rural) 59.42 9.64 1.091 0.125 1;000

28 Rapthadu 83.88 7.77 3.046 0.205 0.517

29 Settur 75.38 2.82 1.463 0.549 0.668

30 Kundurpi 75.51 6.50 1.016 0.768 0.624

31 Kambadur 73.52 4.34 1.091 0.663 0.688

32 Kanaganapalle 61.73 4.23 1.465 0.244 0.922

33 Dhamavaram 68.97 7.36 1.278 0.205 0.863

34 Bathalapalle 77.58 11.50 4.049 0.510 0.322

35 Tadimarri 65.19 10.17 2.364 0.315 0.580 36 Mudigubba 74.93 2.98 2.027 0.395 0.629 37 Talupula 64.10 8.98 5.283 0.428 0.512 38 Nambulapulikunta 49.03 11.09 2.555 0.232 0.722 39 Gandlapenta 55.86 6.03 2.571 0.290 0.751 40 Kadiri 73.58 7.19 1.658 0.438 0.624 41 Nallamada 55.14 10.40 2.350 0.511 0.615 42 Bukkapatnam 38.09 8.38 1.794 0.344 0.805 43 Kothacheruvu 64.28 12.40 3.052 0.310 0.517

Methodology & Classification of Households n

Table 3.1.5 contd

Percentage Percentage

No. of No. of

of of irrigated

educational medical First tier

s. Block cultivable

area to institutions

care Gross Rank No.

area to total

per'OOO centers per on scale of 1

cultivable '000 {R1) total area persons

area ersons

44 Chennekothapalle 66.48 6.54 1.915 0.591 0.590

45 Ramagiri 75.81 4.76 2.415 0.667 0.459

46 Roddam 76.09 7.54 1.721 0.218 0.683

47 Madakasira 80.33 9.18 3.141 0.205 0.502

48 Amarapuram 71.93 5.40 1.138 0.209 0.898

49 Gudibanda 61.62 5.83 1.5~ 0.167 0.976

50 Rolla 63.64 30.55 2.150 0.287 0.507

51 Agali 71.10 15.72 2.110 0.251 0.527

52 Parigi 52.31 24.49 2.516 0.189 0.673

53 Penukonda 39.80 13.13 1.851 0.630 0.620

54 Puttaparthi 39.56 14.94 1.238 0.260 0.824

55 Obuladevaracheruvu 65.24 13.84 2.192 0.226 0.620

56 Nallacheruvu 77.43 10.42 1.888 0.663 0.400

57 Tanakal 78.10 14.07 2.865 0.293 0.376

58 Amadagur 64.66 14.63 2.644 0.268 0.532

59 Gorantla 60.58 6.40 1.807 0.201 0.917

60 Somandepalle 58.92 9.85 1.442 0.348 0.785

61 Hindupur 66.58 21.71 1.931 0.395 0.463

62 lepakshi 78.19 21.46 2.043 0.214 0.468

63 Chilamathur 63.50 8.83 2.134 0.431 0.629


Table 3.1.6: Second tier selection ranks and Gross Final Rank for different blocks: Anantapur district

No. of No. of No. of

No~ of No. of fair pump Tractors/ No. of

banks PACS price Final

sets Power livestock Gross Block R1 tillers per per'OOO

per per shops R2 Rank per

'000 '000 '000 '000 per

'R' person person person '000 person person

rson Raya-

0.912 18.76 0.19 495.3 0.065 0.032 0.46 0.92 0.916 durg

Gorantla 0.917 10.28 1.39 735.1 0.086 0.072 0.56 0.60 0.759

Kanaga-0.922 40.34 0.87 3890.8 0.054 0.109 0.87 0.40 0.661 napalle

Gudi-0.976 30.52 0.52 1420.5 0.042 0.063 0.73 0.68 0.828 banda

Ananta-1.000 3.74 0.32 265.2 0.097 0.013 0.41 1.00 1.000 pur

Source: Handbook ofStatistics, 2003-04, Anantapur, Government of Andhra Pradesh


Design of the Sample

The field enquiry comprised of a survey of 254 households in the two states,

132 in West Bengal and 122 in Andhra Pradesh. A stratified random sampling

methodology has been adopted for this household survey. The stratification is done on

the basis of operated area in order to include in the sample, households from the

groups with large land-holdings, which due to their thinness always have the

possibility of being left out when a simple random sampling is employed. In West

Bengal, the stratification is defined by households below 5 acres of operated area and

those above 5 acres. In case of Andhra Pradesh, the same is determined by households

below and above 12 acres. The precise reason for using different definitions for

stratification for the two states is due to the significant difference in the average size

of land holding. In fact, these definitions have been arrived at after analyzing the

house listing data and demarcating the operational holding size above which the top

I 0 per cent households were placed.

The surveyed households have been classified according to two criteria,

specifically operated area size-class and economic classes. The classification of the

households into economic classes has been done on the basis of hired-labour use and

land-lease relations by employing Patnaik's Labour Exploitation Criterion, which has

been briefly mentioned in Chapter 1. The application of this criterion resulted in 3

households being classified as petty employers while another 3 are found to be

unclassifiable. As we have excluded these households from our structure of analysis,

the sample size of our analysis stands at 248, 128 in West Bengal and 120 in Andhra

Pradesh. The break-up of the sample is given in the following Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Sample Design

Type of Sample Population State

region District Block Villages House- House-

holds holds

Advanced Bardhaman Raina-2 Deno 24 209 West Adampur 53 446 Bengal

Backward Bardhaman Salanpur Kalishanko 32 173 Seakulberia 19 75

Ramchandra-28 291

Advanced Karim-

Saidapur pur

Andhra nagar Ghanpur 13 489 Pradesh Bommakal 19 637

Backward Anantapur Anantapur Katiganikalva 27 272 (rural) Mannila 33 397

Source: Primary Field Survey


Cross-classification of the Households

As mentioned earlier, the households have been cross-classified in a matrix

framework. The classification according to operated area size-class is a

straightforward exercise based on the primary data collected on Owned Area, Land

leased in and Land leased out using the relation-

Operated area= Owned Area+ [Land leased in- Land leased out]

The households have been grouped into six size-classes starting with zero or nil

operated area up to the size-class operating more than I 0 acres.

The classification of the households into peasant classes has been done by

calculating the Labour Exploitation Index (E) considering both direct labour

exploitation through hiring-in and hiring-out as well as indirect exploitation of labour

through leasing-out and leasing-in of land. The Labour Exploitation Index is given by

the following expression,

E = XIF = [(Hi- Ho) + (Lo- Li))/F

where, Hi, Hoare labour days hired in and out respectively, Lo, Li are the total labour

days on land leased out and land leased in respectively and F is the family labour in

self-employment. Although leasing-out of land is not very significant in our sample

but leasing-in plays an important role in determining the class positions of the

households, more of which has been discussed later. This index is a measure of the

net exploitation of labour by a household relative to the self-exploitation of labour.

Table 3.3: Details of Economic Classification

Economic Class Value ofE Comments

Rural labour E =- ro X < 0 and lXI is very large, F = -o. Poor Peasant E ::>- 1 X < 0, F > 0, lXI is large and lXI ~ F.

Small Peasant O~E>-1 X ::> 0, F > 0 and lXI < F.

Middle Peasant 1>E>O X > 0, F > 0 and X < F.

Rich Peasant E~1 X > 0, F > 0, X is large and X ~ F.

Landlord E = ro X > 0 and X is very large, F = 0.

Source: Adopted from Patnaik (1976)

The economic classes into which the households have been classified are rural

labour (RL), poor peasant (PP), small peasant (SP), middle peasant (MP), rich peasant

(RP) and landlords (LLD), each class -determined by the actual value of E (See Table


3.3). The poor and small peasants are the labour hiring out classes and belong to the

lower peasantry. We differentiate between them by the quantum of labour they hire

out relative to their family labour. On the other hand, the middle and rich peasants are

the labqur hiring in classes and comprises the upper peasantry. The rural labour and

the Landlord class both have zero family labour as the former is not able to cultivate

mostly due to landlessness and the latter does not toil in the fields. The rural labour

hires out large quantum of labour while the landlords employs large amount of hired

labour for cultivation on their fields or leases out land to tenants in exchange of

ground rent.

Table 3.4.1a : Number of households by size-class and peasant class: All region

RL pp SP MP RP LLD Total

0 13 0 0 0 0 0 13 0.01-1.0 1 32 13 11 6 0 63 1.01-2.5 4 20 14 10 15 0 63 2.51-5.0 0 20 13 16 11 0 60 5.1-10.0 0 6 7 6 7 1 27 10.1 &. above 0 2 1 4 13 2 22 Total 18 80 48 47 52 3 248


Table 3.4.1b: Percentage of households by size-class: All region

RL pp SP MP RP LLD Total 0 72.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.2 0.01-1.0 5.6 40.0 27.1 23.4 11.5 0.0 25.4 1.01-2.5 22.2 25.0 29.2 21.3 28.8 0.0 25.4 2.51-5.0 {).0 25.0 27.1 34.0 21.2 0.0 24.2 5.1-10.0 0.0 7.5 14.6 12.8 13.5 33.3 10.9 10.1 &. above 0.0 2.5 2.1 8.5 25.0 66.7 8.9 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0


Table 3.4.1 c: Percentage of households by peasant class: All region

RL pp SP MP RP LLD Total 0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.01-1.0 1.6 50.8 20.6 .17.5 9.5 0.0 100.0 1.01-2.5 6.3 31.7 22.2 15.9 23.8 0.0 100.0 2.51-5.0 0.0 33.3 21.7 26.7 18.3 0.0 100.0 5.1-10.0 0.0 22.2 25.9 22.2 25.9 3.7 100.0 10.1 &. above 0.0 9.1 4.5 18.2 59.1 9.1 100.0 Total 7.26 32.26 19.35 18.95 20.97 1.21 100.0


The cross-classification of the household for the entire sample as well as for

the different regions based on this twin-classification is given in Tables 3.4.l.a to


3.4.5.c. As is evident from the Table 3.4.l.c, rural labour forms 7.26 percent of the

total sample. The poor peasant dass is the broadest strata in the sample constituting

32.26 percent of all househoids. The small peasant and the middle peasant classes

respectively comprise 19.35 and 18.95 percent ofthe entire sample. The rich peasant

class forms 20.97 percent of the sample while the landlord class is found to be the

thinnest strata of the sample with a size of only 1.21 percent. Alternatively, it can also

be stated that, not considering the rural labour and the landlord class, 51.61 percent of

the sample are cultivators who are net hirer-out of labour while cultivators who are

net hirer-in oflabour constitute 39.92 percent of the sample.

On the other hand, 5.2 percent of the sample has nil operated area but it should

be noted that this size-class does not cover the entire rural labour class, as there are

another 5 rural labour households in different regions, which has positive operated ~

area but shows characteristics of rural labour due to the fact that these lands are not

cultivated and left fallow for the entire year. The size-classes between 0.01 to 5.0

acres covers 75 percent of the sample almost equally divided between the three

classes. 10.9 percent of the sample lies in the bracket of 5.1 acres to I 0 acres and 8.9

percent of the households are operating more than I 0 acres.

In the advanced region of West Bengal i.e. Raina-2 block, a significant feature

of the sample is the small size of land holdings. The 0.01-1.0 acre and 1.01-2.5 acre

classes enclose 77.9 percent of the households and another 11.7 percent of the

households are operating land between 2.51-5.0 acres. While land holdings have been

historically smaller in West Bengal, this also indicates the lesser variation or

inequality of land distribution that have emerged due to the land struggles and land

reforms programme that the state has experienced. An examination of the distribution

of operated area amongst the households provides a more concrete picture regarding

this aspect, which we would discuss subsequently. The other very striking feature of

this region is that the rich peasant class forms the largest economic class, close to

around 39 percent and comparatively higher than any other region that has been

covered in the survey. The field investigations revealed the high levels of demand for

labour in this region due to the cultivation of two to three crops in a year, which is not

sufficed by local supply of labour alone and depends on migration of labour from

other parts of the state. This high level of net hiring-in of labour is obviously a major

reason for a large rich peasant class.

Methodology & Classification of Households BZ

Table 3.4.2a: Number of households by size-class and peasant class: West Bengal advanced region

RL pp SP MP RP LLD Total 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0.01-1~0 0 24 2 11 4 0 41 1.01-2.5 0 1 2 3 13 0 19 2.51-5.0 0 0 0 2 7 0 9 5.1-10.0 0 0 0 0 3 0 3 10.1 &above 0 0 0 0 3 0 3 Total 2 25 4 16 30 0 77


Table 3.4.2b: Percentage of households by size-class: West Bengal advanced region


0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 il.O 2.6 0.01-1.0 0.0 96.0 50.0 68.8 13.3 0.0 53.2 1.01-2.5 0.0 4.0 50.0 18.8 43.3 0.0 24.7 2.51-5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.5 23.3 0.0 11.7 5.1-10.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.0 0.0 3.9

10.1& 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.0 0.0 3.9 above

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 0.0 100.0


Table 3.4.2 c: Percentage of households by peasant class: West Bengal advanced region


0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.01-1.0 0.0 58.5 4.9 26.8 9.8 0.0 100.0 1.01-2.5 0.0 5.3 10.5 15.8 68.4 0.0 100.0 2.51-5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 22.2 77.8 0.0 100.0 5.1-10.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 100.0 10.1 &above 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 100.0 Total 2.60 32.47 5.19 20.78 38.96 0.00 100.0


In fact, the higher peasant classes (RP and MP) constitute a much higher

percentage (59.74 percent) of the sample households than the lower ones (SP and PP,

37.66 percent). More interestingly, while 96 percent of the poor peasant households

are concentrated in the lowest size-class (0.01 to 1.00 acres), the rich peasant

households are distributed between all the size-classes. This indicates that higher

demand for labour is being generated not only from the larger land-holdings but also

from holdings of all sizes, an issue which we discuss below.

In the advanced region of Andhra Pradesh, a primarily cotton growing region,

the distribution of the households across land size-classes is more spread out

compared to that of West Bengal (Table 3.4.3b). The percentage of households


operating 5 acres and above in this region was 25 percent, which is significantly

higher than the 7.8 percent in the advanced region in West Bengal. The rural labour

class comprises 11.67 percent of the households, which is higher than the average for

the entire sample. The small peasant class, the largest class in the region, is 41.67

percent. It is also found to be spread out among the four size-classes between 0.01 and

10 acres with its percentage share in each class falling as we move towards the higher

size-classes. Unlike the advanced region of West Bengal, the rich peasant class is not

only thinner at 13.33 percent but is also confined to the two highest size-class

brackets (5 acres and above). The poor peasant and middle peasant classes constitute

11.67 percent and 20 percent of the households respectively. The small peasant and

the middle peasant classes jointly comprise more than sixty percent of the households.

This indicates that in spite of being a region primarily growing commercial crop, the

use of family labour is at least as important as hired labour for a significant number of

households. The landlord class is only 1.67 percent of the sample in this region.

Table 3.4.3a: Number of households by size-class and peasant class: Andhra Pradesh advanced region

RL pp SP MP RP LLD Total 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 6 0.01-1.0 0 3 8 0 0 0 11 1.01-2.5 1 1 6 2 0 0 10 2.51-5.0 0 3 9 6 0 0 18 5.1-10.0 0 0 2 4 4 0 10 10.1&

0 0 0 0 4 1 5 above Total 7 7 25 12 8 1 60


Table 3.4.3b: Percentage of households by size-class: Andhra Pradesh advanced region

RL pp SP MP RP LLD Total 0 85.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 .. 0 0.0 10.0 0.01-1.0 0.0 42.9 32.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.3 1.01-2.5 14.3 14.3 24.0 16.7 0.0 0.0 16.7 2.51-5.0 0.0 42.9 36.0 50.0 0.0 0.0 30.0 5.1-10.0 0.0 0.0 8.0 33.3 50.0 0.0 16.7

10.1&above 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 50.0 100.0 8.3

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0



Table 3.4.3 c : Percentage of households by peasant class: Andhra Pradesh advanced region

RL pp SP MP RP LLD Total 0 100.{) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.01-1.0 0.0 27.3 72.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 1.01-2.5 10.0 10.0 60.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 2.51-5.0 0.0 16.7 50.0 33.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 5.1-10.0 0.0 0.0 20.0 40.0 40.0 0.0 100.0

10.1 &above 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 80.0 20.0 100.0

Total 11.67 11.67 41.67 20.00 13.33 1.67 100.0


Salanpur, the backward region in West Bengal exhibits stark differences with

the advanced region of the same state and the other regions also. With subsistence

farming playing a predominant role in this region and hiring out of labour to non

agricultural activities being equally important, the rural labour and poor peasant

classes comprise dose to sixty percent of the households. The rural labour, poor

.. peasant and small peasant classes are 13.73 percent, 45.1 percent and 17.65 percent of

the households respectively (Table 3.4.4c). The rich peasant and middle peasant

classes i.e. the net labour hiring-in classes are 13.73 percent and 9.8 percent of the

households and are much smaller in size compared to the net labour hiring-out

classes. In fact, the size of the upper peasantry classes in this region is also smaller

compared to that for the entire sample. Typical to the character of West Bengal, in

this region also, the land holdings are small to the_ e~tent that we fmd only one

household operating more than 5 acres. In other words, 98 percent of the households

are found in the size-classes between 0 to 5 acres.

Table 3.4.4a: Number of households by size-class and peasant class: West Bengal backward region


0 5 0 0 0 0 0 5 0.01-1.0 1 4 3 0 2 0 10 1.01-2.5 1 10 5 3 2 0 21 2.51-5.0 0 8 1 4 1 0 14 5.1-10.0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 10.1 &above 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 7 23 9 7 5 0 51



Table 3.4.4b: Percentage of households by size-class: West Bengal backward region


0 71.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 9.8

0.01-1.0 14.3 17.4 33.3 0.0 40.0 0.0 19.6

1.01-2.5 14.3 43.5 55.6 42.9 40.0 0.0 41.2 2.51-5.0 0.0 34.8 11.1 57.1 20.0 0.0 27.5 5.1-10.0 0.0 4.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 10.1& 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 above Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 0.0 100.0

Source: Primary Field Suroey

Table 3.4.4 c :Percentage of households by peasant class: West Bengal backward region


0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0

0.01-1.0 10.0 40.0 30.0 0.0 20.0 0.{) 100.0 1.01-2.5 4.8 47.6 23.8 14.3 9.5 0.0 100 . .0

2.51-5.0 0.0 57.1 7.1 28.6 7.1 0.0 lOO.O

5.1-10.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 o.o 0.0 0.0 100.0 10.1 &above 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0:0 0.0 Total 13.73 45.10 17.65 13.73 9.80 0.00 100.0


Anantapur (rural), the backward region surveyed in Andhra Pradesh clearly

reveals the differences with the advanced region in the state. The poor peasant and

small peasant classes are 41.67 percent and 16.67 percent of the households

respectively. This is a clear indication of the higher levels of hiring out of labour in

this region compared to the advanced region of the state. The rich peasant and the

middle peasant classes account for 15 percent and 20 percent of the households

respectively. Also, both rural labour and the landlord classes are considerably thin in

this region each having a size of 3.33 percent. The rich peasant and the landlord

households are found to be concentrated only in the higher size-classes. Unlike the

backward region of West Bengal, the average land holdings are larger in this dryland

region. In fact, around 45 percent of the households operate at least 5 acres of land or

more. The corresponding figure for the backward region in West Bengal is only 2

percent.


Table 3.4.5a: Number of households by size-class and peasant class: Andhra Pradesh backward region

RL pp SP MP RP UD Total

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.01-1.0 0 1 0 0 0 1) 1 1.01-2.5 2 8 1 2 0 0 13 2.51-5.0 0 9 3 4 3 0 19 5.1-10.0 0 5 5 2 0 1 13 10.1 &above 0 2 1 4 6 1 14 Total 2 25 10 12 9 2 60


Table 3.4.5b: Percentage of households by size-class: Andhra Pradesh backward region

RL pp SP MP RP LLD Total 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.01-1.0 0.0 4.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.7 1.01-2.5 100.0 32.0 10.0 16.7 0.0 0.0 21.7 2.51-5.0 0.0 36.0 30.0 33.3 33.3 0.0 31.7 5.1-10.0 0.0 20:0 50.0 16.7 0.0 50.0 21.7 10.1 &above 0.0 8.0 10.0 33.3 66.7 50.0 23.3 Total 100.0 100.0 100.n 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0


Table 3.4.5 c: Percentage of households by peasant class: Andhra Pradesh backward region


0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.01-1.0 0.0 100.0 0.{} 0.0 n.o 0.0 100.0 1.01-2.5 15.4 61.5 7.7 15.4 0.0 0.0 100.0 2.51-5.0 0.0 47.4 15.8 21.1 15.8 0.0 100.0 5.1-10.0 0.0 38.5 38.5 15.4 0.0 7.7 100.0 10.1 &above 0.0 14.3 7.1 28.6 42.9 7.1 100.0 Total 3.33 41.67 16.67 20.00 15.00 3.33 100.0


As is evident from Table 3.5, the average operated area (Avg. OA) bears a

direct relationship with the peasant classes with the higher economic classes operating

a higher average area. This is true for all regions except the backward region in West

BengaL In the latter region, agriculture is nearly at a subsistence level and non

agricultural activities are almost equally important. This ensures that the latter also

plays a more or less significant role in determining the class positions of the

households and hence there is an absence of any clear relationship between the

economic classes and the average operated area in this region.


Table 3.5: Average and Total Operated Area by peasant class and size-class: All regions

Region WBAdvanced APAdvanced WB Backward APBackward

No. Total Avg. No. Total Avg. No.

Total Avg. No. Total Avg. Class of of of of

hh OA OA hh

OA OA hh OA OA hh

OA OA

RL 2 0.00 0.00 7 1.50 0.21 7 2.40 0.34 2 3.76 1.88 PP 25 12.12 0.48 7 16.50 2.36 23 56.80 2.47 25 115.62 4.62 SP 4 4.70 1.18 25 67.00 2.68 9 13.20 1.47 10 67.75 6.78 MP 16 19.44 1.22 12 55.50 4.63 7 17.00 2.43 12 95.13 7.93 RP 30 110.92 3.70 8 85.00 10.63 5 9.00 1.80 9 126.93 14.10 LLD 0 0.00 0.00 1 26.00 26.00 0 0.00 0.00 2 83.00 41.50 Total 17 147.18 1.91 60 251.50 4.19 51 98.40 1.93 60 492.19 8.20

0 2 0.00 0.00 6 0.00 0.00 5 0.00 0.00 0 0.00 0.00 0-1.0 41 23.68 0.58 11 9.50 0.86 10 6.60 0.66 1 0.70 0.70 1-2.5 19 29.50 1.55 10 18.00 1.80 21 36.00 1.71 13 26.19 2.01 2.5-5 9 34.80 3.87 18 64.00 3.56 14 48.00 3.43 19 79.83 4.20 5-10 3 20.80 6.93 10 75.00 7.50 1 7.80 7.80 13 95.02 7.31 >10 3 38.40 12.80 5 85.00 17.00 0 0.00 0.00 14 290.45 20.75 Total 17 147.18 1.91 60 251.50 4.19 51 98.40 1.93 60 492.19 8.20


Table 3.5 also suggests that the average size of operated area in West Bengal

(both regions) is smaller when compared to Andhra Pradesh. The figure is 1.91 acres

and 1.93 acres for the advanced and backward region respectively in West Bengal. In

case of Andhra Pradesh, the average operated area is 4.19 acres and 8.20 acres

respectively for the advanced and backward region. It must of course be mentioned

that the advanced area in West Bengal has a multi-crop soil characteristic and has a

higher Gross Sown Area, which clearly differentiates it from the backward area.

In Table 3.6. I to 3.6.4, we have presented the net labour days hired-in per

household for the four regions. From these results, it is evident that in the advanced

region in West Bengal, the net hiring-in of labour-days increases from the lower

economic classes to the higher ones and turns positive for the middle peasants, rich

peasants and landlords. The net hiring-in oflabour days also increases across the size

classes and only the two lowest size-classes are hiring out labour in the net while the

others are hiring in. In the advanced region in West Bengal (Table 3.6.1), we observe

that the poor peasants are hiring out their labour at a quantum slightly more than the

rural or agricultural labour. This implies that a significant number of households in

the poor peasant class bears the characteristics of rural proletariat but owns small

plots of land, which gives them food security to an extent and also classifies them as


poor peasants. A majority of these small plots of land were acquired by this class as

pattas (plots of land distributed by the government) through the Operation Barga

programme. The other noteworthy feature of this region is the high level of net labour

hiring-in by the rich peasants at around 437.41 labour-days per holding. In fact, the

net labour hiring-in by the rich peasants starts from 72.55 labour-days per holding for

the lowest size-class, increases upwards and is as high as 1693.67 labour-days per

holding for those households operating more than 10 acres. On the whole, the

households in this region are net labour hiring-in with 114.12 net labour-days hired in

per holding annually.

The advanced area in Andhra Pradesh is also a net labour hiring-in region. The

households annually hire in 67.65 labour-days per holding in the net. Unlike the

advanced region of West Bengal, only the highest two size-classes are hiring in labour

in the net while the rest are hiring out. The reason for this of course is the

concentration of the rich peasants and the landlords, which use large quantum ofhired

labour in their land, in the two highest size-classes. An important observation in this

region is the significantly low net hired-out labour among the poor peasants, which

suggest that a number of households in this class is leasing in land from others to

cultivate (with family labour or hired labour) instead of directly selling their labour In

the labour market. In other words, a significant number of households in this region

resort to an indirect exploitation of their labour through rent payments, as they do not

have sufficient employment opportunities in the labour market. In fact, the uppermost

size-classes for both the poor peasant and the small peasant are hiring in labour in the

net. This implies that the land-lease market also plays a significant role in determining

the economic positions of the households in this region.

Table 3.6.1: Net Labour-days hired in per holding by size-class and by peasant class: West Bengal advanced region


0 -190.00 0.00 0.{)0 0.00 0.00 0.00 -190.00 0.01-1.0 0.00 -205.67 -48.75 53.50 72.55 0.00 -101.34 1.01-2.5 0.00 -59.00 -83.73 80.50 187.38 0.00 129.00 2.51-5.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 237.50 448.21 o,oo 401.39 5.1-10.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 725.83 0.00 725.83 10.1&

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 •1693.67 0.00 1693.67 above

Total -190.00 -199.80 -66.24 81.56 437.41 0.00 114.12



Table 3.6.2: Net Labour-days hired in per holding by size-class and by peasant class: Andhra Pradesh advanced region


0 -241.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -241.67 0.01-1.0 0.00 -176.00 -128.63 0.00 0.00 0.00 -141.55 1.01-2.5 -360.00 -185.00 -105.75 50:00 0.00 0.00 -107.95 2.51-5.0 0.00 9.67 -117.00 109.67 0.00 0.00 -20.33 5.1-10.0 0.00 0.00 231.50 305.38 371.75 0.00 317.15 10.1& 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 855.28 1919.00 1068.02 above Total -258.57 -97.71 -90.14 164.96 613.51 1919 . .00 67.65


Table 3.6.3: Net Labour-days hired in per holding by size-class and by peasant class: West Bengal backward region

RL pp SP MP RP LLD Total 0 -318.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -318.00 0.01-1.0 -240.00 -352.50 3.33 0.00 32.25 0.00 -157.55 1.01-2.5 -140.00 -183.50 -69.20 15.50 119.25 0.00 -96.95 2.~1-5.0 0.00 -251.00 -34.00 90.74 280.00 0.00 -99.93 5.1-10.0 0.00 -67.50 0.00 0.00 .0.00 0.00 -67.50 10.1& 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 above Total -281.43 -231.33 -41.11 58.50 116.60 0.00 -130.75


Table 3.6.4: Net Labour-days hired in per holding by size-class and by peasant class: Andhra Pradesh backward region

RL pp SP MP RP LLD Total 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01-1.0 0.00 -387.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -387.00 1.01-2.5 -375.00 -338.56 -89.00 59.00 0.00 0.00 -263.81 2.51-5.0 0.00 -409.17 -94.33 51.38 189.00 0.00 -168.05 5.1-10.0 0.00 -240.70 43.30 99.50 0.00 1830.00 80.15 10.1&

0.00 -100.25 -58.00 245.13 467.25 1091.00 329.75 above Total -375.00 -327.28 -21.35 125.25 374.50 1460.50 -22.52


The backward region in West Bengal due to the lower absorption of labour in

its near subsistence level agricultural activities, is a predominantly labour hiring-out

region. On the whole, the households in this region are hiring out 130.75 labour-days

per holding in the year. The quantum of net labour days hired-out by the rural labour

and poor peasant classes are high enough so as not to be offset due to the moderate

hiring-in by the middle and rich peasants in agricultural activity. In fact; this is the

only region where all the size-classes are net labour hiring-out classes although the

quantum of net labour hired out declines as we move up to the higher classes. The


non-agricultural sector ensures that hiring out of labour is significantly high in this

region.

111 the backward region of Andhra Pradesh, the hiring in of labour by the

middle peasant, rich peasant and the landlords is moderately high but so is the hiring

out of labour days by the rural labour and poor peasant classes. The region emerges as

a marginally labour hiring-out region. The households in this region in the net

analysis are hiring out only 22.52 labour days per holding yearly. Like the advanced

region of the state, here also we find evidences of households (not finding enough

direct employment on their own land or on others' land) interacting more with the

land-lease market instead of the labour market. The households in the 5 to 10 acre

bracket in the small peasant class are actually hiring in a net 43.3 labour days per

'holding annually. The only reason for such households to be classified as small

peasant is that they are indirectly allowing the exploitation of their labour through

leasing in land from others for cultivation. In fact, there is evidence of interaction with

the land-lease market among the other economic classes as welf1•

Test for Association Between the Twin Classification and its Measurement

The two methods that we have used to classifY the households i.e. into

economic classes and size-classes are expected to have some association between

themselves. We use the Chi-Square test of Association for inquiring whether there

exists any such association or not. First, we will test for the null hypothesis that the

two classification methods are independent of each other. For the Chi-Square test to

be valid, it is required that none of the frequencies should be less than 5. For this

purpose, we have grouped the rural labour and the poor peasant classes together on

one hand and the rich peasant and landlord classes on the other. Among the size

classes, we have also clubbed together the zero size-class and 0.1-1.0 size-class on

one hand and the 5.1-10 size-class and the 10 & above size-class on the other.

Through these modifications, we have formed a contingency table with 9 degrees of

freedom (Table 3.7.1). We have also formed a contingency table with 1 degree of

21 The fact is that among different classes (all regions), both economic and size-class, there are evidences of leasing in of land by cultivators. This can be checked by comparing the value of net labour days hired-in or out per holding with X per holding. X is the numerator of the Labour Exploitation Index (E) and also captures the indirect exploitation of labour through the land-lease market apart from the direct exploitation of labour. The X per holding values for all classes for all regions is provided in the Appendix A (Tables AIS to Al8).


freedom by a further grouping of the economic and size-classes as can be seen in

Table 3.7.2. We perform the chi-square test for these two contingency tables with

different degrees of freedom at 5 percent and I percent levels of significance.

Table 3.7.1: Contingency Table with 9 DF

Rl+ PP SP MP RP + LLD Total

0-1.0 46 13 11 6 76 1.01-2.5 24 14 10 15 63 2.51-5.0 20 13 16 11 60 5.1 &above 8 8 10 23 49 Total 98 48 47 55 248

Table 3.7.2: Contingency Table with 1 DF

Rl + PP + SP MP + RP + LLD Total 0-5.0 130 69 199

5.1 &above 16 33 49 Total 146 102 248

In the case of the test with 9 DF, the Chi-Square (X2) value is computed to be

40. 71. As the critical values for 9 DF at 5 % and I % levels of significance are 16.92

and 21.67 respectively, the null hypothesis that the two classification methods are

independent gets rejected at both levels of significance. Rather, we conclude that there

exists some association between the two. The Chi-Square value for the test with I DF

is 17.34, which is also higher than the critical values for 1 DF at 5 % and I % levels

of significance (Table 3.7.3). The critical values for 1 DF at 5 % and 1 % levels of

significance are 3.84 and 6.64 respectively. The null hypothesis gets rejected in this

case also.

Table 3.7.3: Results of Chi-Square Test of Association and Pearson's Coefficient of Contingency

Degree Chi-Square Critical value Critical value Pearson's of Value at at Coefficient of Freedom 5 °/o level 1 °/o level Contin en 9 40.71 16.92 21.67 0.38 1 17.34 3.84 6.64 0.26

In order to make an estimate of the degree of association, we use the measure

Pearson's Coefficient of Contingency (C). The value of C is 0.38 for the contingency

table with 9 DF and is considerably less at 0.26 for the contingency table with 1 DF.

The maximum value that C would have assumed if the two methods were identical is


0.87. Therefore, a Pearson's C of 0.38 indicates that the two classification methods

are moderately associated.

Structure of households and Work Participation Rates

In Tables 3.8.1 to 3.8.4, we have presented the data on the structure of

households in the different regions. We have calculated the consumer-worker ratio,

worker per household and consumer per household according to the economic classes

and size-classes. The work participation rates have also been derived by multiplying

the worker-consumer ratio by 100. In the advanced regions of both the states (Tables

3.8.1 and 3.8.2), we find that both the consumer-worker ratio and the consumer per

household broadly increases from lower to higher economic classes. Consequently,

the participation rate falls as we move into the higher economic classes (except for

small peasants in West Bengal advanced region, which has a higher participation rate

than the trend). It emerges clearly from the data that the higher economic classes are

not only maintaining larger families (family size represented by consumers per

household here) but also using larger amounts of hired labour in their economic

activities and have lower than average participation rates.

Table 3.8.1: Household structures and Work Participation Rates by economic class and size-class: West Bengal advanced region

Consumer Worker Consumer No. of Total Total Participation

Class hh Workers Consumers I Worker per per Rate

Ratio Household Household

RL 2 5 9 1.80 2.50 4.50 55.56 pp 25 39 125 3.21 1.56 5.00 31.20 SP 4 10 24 2.40 2.50 6.00 41.67 MP 16 21 71 3.38 1.31 4.44 29.58 RP 30 60 211 3.52 2.00 7.03 28.44 LLD 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 77 135 440 3.26 1.75 5.71 30.68 0 2 5 9 1.80 2.50 4.50 55.56 0-1 41 59 189 3.20 1.44 4.61 31.22

1-2.5 19 29 87 3.00 1.53 4.58 33.33 2.5-5 9 22 84 3.82 2.44 9.33 26.19 S-10 3 5 21 4.20 1.67 7.00 23.81 > 10 3 15 50 3.33 5.00 16.67 30.00 Total 77 135 440 3.26 1.75 5.71 30.68


When we look at the same variables across size-classes, we find that the

participation rates have more of an ambiguous relationship with the size-classes. The

family size exhibits a clear direct relationship with the size-classes in Andhra Pradesh


advanced region but the same cannot be said for West Bengal. This indicates that the

family size and work participation rates are determined primarily by the economic

position of the households in these two regions. The overall work participation rate in

the advanced region, West Bengal is 30.68, significantly lower than the advanced

region in Andhra Pradesh, where it stands at 57.43. This may be due to the higher use

of hired labour in the former region, which we shall discuss in a short while.

Table 3.8.2: Household structures and Work Participation Rates by economic class and size-class: Andhra Pradesh advanced region

Consumer Consumer No. of Total Total Worker per Participation Class

hh Workers Consumers I Worker Household per

Rate Ratio Household

RL 7 16 23 1.44 2.29 3.29 69.57 pp 7 18 28 1.56 2.57 4.00 64.29 SP 25 63 105 1.67 2.52 4.20 60.00 MP 12 27 48 1.78 2.25 4.00 56.25 RP 8 17 38 2.24 2.13 4.75 44.74 LLD 1 2 7 3.50 2.00 7.00 28.57

Total 60 143 249 1.74 2.38 4.15 57.43 0 6 12 19 1.58 2.00 3.17 63.16

0-1 11 27 43 1.59 2.45 3.91 62.79 1-2.5 10 24 39 1.63 2.40 3.90 61.54 2.5-5 18 49 74 1.51 2.72 4.11 66.22 5-10 10 20 49 2.45 2.00 4.90 40.82 > 10 5 11 25 2.27 2.20 5.00 44.00 Total 60 143 249 1.74 2.38 4.15 57.43


In case of the backward regions in both West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh

(Tables 3.8.3 and 3.8.4), we find that neither the family size nor the participation rates

have any clear relationship with the economic or size-classes. A plausible reason for

this can be the relative importance of non-farm activities in these regions; However, a.

noteworthy fact is that in the backward region, West Bengal, the participation rates

for the lower peasant classes (PP and SP) are higher than the average while that for

the higher peasant classes .(MP and RP) are lower than the average. In case of the

backward region in Andhra Pradesh, while the poor peasants have a higher than

average participation rate, the next three higher peasant classes have a lower than

average figure. Such similar relationship however, -cannot be traced out between the

size-classes and the participation rates in either of the two regions.


Table 3.8.3: Household structures and Work Participation Rates by economic class and size-class: West Bengal backward region

No. Total Total Consumer Worker per

Consumer Participation Class I Worker per

ofhh Workers Consumers Ratio Household Household

Rate

RL 7 14 43 3.07 2.00 6.14 32.56 pp 23 77 155 2.01 3.35 6.74 49.68

SP 9 18 34 1.89 2.00 3.78 52.94 MP 7 16 41 2.56 2.29 5.S6 39.02 RP 5 15 36 2.40 3.00 7.20 41.67 LLD 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 51 140 309 2.21 2.75 6.06 45.31

0 5 11 33 3.00 2.20 6.60 33.33 0-1 10 23 53 2.30 2.30 5.30 43.40

1-2.5 21 54 108 2.00 2.57 5.14 50.00 2.5-5 14 47 102 2.17 3.36 7.29 46.08 5-10 1 5 13 2.60 5.00 13.00 38.46 > 10 0 0 0 0.00 0;{)0 0.00 0.00 Total 51 140 309 2.21 2.75 6.06 45.31


Table 3.8.4: Household structures and Work Participation Rates by economic class and size-class: Andhra Pradesh backward region

No. Total Total Consumer

Worker per Consumer Participation Class ofhh Workers Consumers I Worker Household per Rate

Ratio Household

RL 2 7 16 2.29 3.511 8.00 43.75 pp 25 81 138 1.70 3.24 5.52 58.70 SP 10 22 so 2.27 2.20 5.00 44.00 MP 12 26 56 2.15 2.17 4.67 46.43 RP 9 14 43 3.07 1.56 4.78 32.56 LLD 2 5 16 3.20 2.50 8.00 31.25 Total 60 155 319 2.06 2.58 5.32 48.59 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0-1 1 2 5 2.50 2.00 5.00 40.00 1-2~5 13 31 66 2.13 2.38 5.08 46.97 2.5-5 19 50 91 1.82 2.63 4.79 54.95 5-10 13 33 64 1.94 2.54 4.92 51.56 > 10 14 39 93 2.38 2.79 6.64 41.94 Total 60 155 319 2;{)6 2.58 5.32 48.59


Next, we analyze the household data on family labour (FL), labour-days hired

in (Hi) and hired-out (Ho), which has been grouped by economic classes and size

classes (Tables 3.9.1 to 3.9.4). This will be insightful in not only comprehending the

dynamics of interactions of the households from different class with the labour market

but also in detecting the more specific characteristics of some of the peasant classes in

the different regions.


In the advanced region of West Bengal, the most important feature is the high

levels of labour hiring-in. We have earlier cited this to be a credible reason for the

rich peasant class being as large as 39 percent of the -households in this region. From

Table 3.9.I, we can observe that the labour-days hired in per household annually is

28.72 for the poor peasant and increases up to 448.57 for the rich peasant. It also has a

direct relationship and a higher range with the size-classes starting from 4 7.54 for

those households operating less than I acre and rising to 1693.67 for the households

with more than I 0 acres of operated area. The overall percentage share of hired labour

in the total labour employed in one's own operating area i.e. family labour and hired

labour taken together is as high as 7I.26 percent for this region.

While this share of hired labour broadly increases for the higher classes of

households, both economic and size-classes, the interesting feature of this region is

the incidence of a high share of hired labour in all size-classes. Even the households

operating less than 1 acre are using 47.67 percent of hired labour in their operated

area and this figure steadily rises across the size-classes reaching more than 80

percent for the households with operated area more than 5 acres. This implies that the

high demand for hired labour in this region is generated from all sizes of land

holdings. This further illustrates the reason why the large rich peasant class in this

region is spread across the different size-classes as we have mentioned earlier.

Again, if we look at the figures of labour days hired out by the households, we

find that the share of hired labour in the total labour worked by a household strictly

declines from lower to higher peasant classes (in fact, the same is true for all the

regions). This share of hired labour in the total labour worked by a household in one's

operated area or in the labour market for other employers (i.e. taking family labour

and hired-out labour together) is as high as 90.48 percent for the poor peasant class. A

point that we have made earlier about the poor peasant class in this region being more

proximate to the rural labour class in its characteristics, is amply exemplified by this

figure. We have also calculated the percentage share of labour hired in to the total

labour worked by a household (i.e. Hi/(FL + Ho) multiplied by I 00) in order to

capture the different patterns of interactions with the labour market that the different

classes demonstrate. This figure not only rises from lower to higher classes but also

shows a great degree of variation. While this percentage is only 1I.37 for the poor

peasants, the same is as high as 337.61 for the rich peasants. This indicator displays


approximately the same trend across the size-classes and for the other regions also

(Tables 3.9.1 to 3.9.4).

In the advanced region in Andhra Pradesh, it is observed that the use of family

labour at 240.17 labour days per household annually in one's operated area is the

highest amongst the four regions. However, the high quantities of labour hired in

annually per household (from 62.29 labour days for the poor peasants to as high as

613.51 and 1919.0 for the rich peasant and landlord class respectively) still leads to

the percentage of hired labour out of the total labour used on the household operated

area to be moderately high at 44.57 percent. This is lower when compared to the

advanced region in West Bengal but that is mainly on account of higher amount of

family labour employed in cultivation.

It is in fact associated with this that the percentage of labour hired out of the

total labour days worked by the households is also the lowest among the four regions

at 34.31 percent. Actually, if we compare this region with the backward region of

Andhra Pradesh, we find that the share ofhired labour in household cultivation in the

latter is higher at 56.07 percent. Moreover, the share of hired-out labour in the total

labour worked by the household is also much higher at 58.72 percent. This divergent

behaviour in the labour market actually prevents the peasant classes in the advanced

region from being worse-off when -compared with those in the backward one. This is

captured by the percentage share of labour hired in for cultivation to the total labour

worked by the households. The figure is 52.81 for the advanced region and marginally

higher than the 52.68 percent of the backward region.

A further comparison of the share of labour hired-out m the total labour

worked by the households of the poor peasant class in these two regions give a better

insight into the whole issue. While the poor peasants in the advanced region are hiring

out only 44.27 percent of the total labour worked by them, the same figure for this

class in the backward region is 82.72 percent. This revelation point towards the sharp

difference in the characteristic of the poor peasants, which is one of the labour hiring

out classes in the two regions. While the poor peasants in the advanced region are

closer to the small peasants in their economic behaviour, a point we have made

earlier, the same class in the backward region bears the attributes of a rural proletariat.


Table 3.9.1: Labour-days per holding: West Bengal advanced region

FL Ho FL + Ho FL Hi FL +Hi per Share Hoper FL +Hoper Share per per per Share

Class per hh per hh hh Hi hh hh Ho worker worker worker Hi/FL+HO

RL 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 190.00 190.00 100.00 0.00 76.00 76.00 0.00 pp 24.04 28.72 52.76 54.44 228.52 252.56 90.48 15.41 146.49 161.90 11.37

SP 154.25 113.76 268.01 42.45 180.00 334.25 53.85 61.70 72.00 133.70 34.04

MP 106.00 102.88 208.88 "49.25 21.31 127.31 16.74 80.76 16.24 97.00 80.81

RP 121.70 448.57 570.27 78.66 11.17 132.87 8.40 60.85 5.58 66.43 337.61

LLD 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Total 85.26 211.38 296.64 71.26 97.26 182.52 53.29 48.63 55.47 104.10 115.81 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 190.00 190.00 100.00 0.00 76.00 76.00 0.00

0.01·1.0 52.20 47.54 99.74 47.67 148.88 201.07 74.04 36.27 103.46 139.73 23.64 1.01· 2.51 92.00 166.11 258.11 64.36 37.11 129.11 28.74 60.28 24.31 84.59 128.66

2.51·5.0 143.67 434.72 578.39 75.16 33.33 177.00 18.83 58.77 13.64 72.41 245.61 5.01· 10.0 138.00 725.83 863.83 84.02 0.00 138.00 0.00 82.80 0.00 82.80 525.97

>10.0 323.33 1693.67 2017.00 83.97 0.00 323.33 0.00 64.67 0.00 64.67 523.81

Total 85.26 211.38 296.64 71.26 97.26 182.52 53.29 48.63 55.47 104.10 115.81



Table 3.9.2: Labour-days per holding: Andhra Pradesh advanced region

FL Ho FL + Ho FL Hi FL +Hi per Share Hoper FL +Hoper Share per per per Share

Class per hh per hh hh Hi hh hh Ho worker worker worker Hi/FL+HO

RL 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 .. 258.57 258.57 100.00 0.00 113.13 113.13 0.00 pp 201.43 62.29 263.71 23.62 160.00 361.43 44.27 78.33 62.22 140.56 17.23 SP 292.00 91.30 383.30 23.82 181.44 473.44 38.32 115.87 72.00 187.87 19.28

MP 298.33 169.96 468.29 36.29 5.00 303.33 1.65 132.59 2.22 134.81 56.03

RP 265.00 613.51 878.51 69.84 0.00 265.00 0.00 124.71 0.00 124.71 231.51

LLD 0.00 1919.00 1919.00 100.00 o.oo 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Total 240.17 193.09 433.25 44.57 125.43 365.60 34.31 100.77 52.63 153.40 52.81 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 241.67 241.67 100.00 0.00 120.83 120.83 0.00 0.01-1.0 230.91 24.45 255.36 9.58 166.00 396.91 41.82 94.07 67.63 161.70 6.16 1.01-2.51 212.00 43.05 255.05 16.88 151.00 363.00 41.60 88.33 62.92 151.25 11.86 2.51· 5.0 328.89 101.89 430.78 23.65 122.22 451.11 27.09 120.82 44.90 165.71 22.59 5.01· 10.0 263.00 371.15 634.15 58.53 54.00 317.00 17.03 131.50 27.00 158.50 117.08

>10.0 240.00 1068.02 1308.02 81.65 0.00 240.00 0.00 109.09 0.00 109.09 445.01

Total 240.17 193.09 433.25 44.57 125.43 365.60 34.31 100.77 52.63 153.40 52.81



Table 3.9.3: Labour-days per holding: West Bengal backward region

FL Ho FL + Ho FL Hi FL +Hi per FL +Hoper per per per Share

Class per hh- per hh hh Share Hi Hoper hh hh Share Ho worker worker worker Hi/FL+HO RL 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 281.43 281.43 100.00 0.00 140.71 140.71 0.00 pp 182.22 31.07 213.28 14.57 262.39 444.61 59.02 54.43 78.38 132.81 6.99 SP 176.00 13.33 189.33 7.04 54.44 230.44 23.63 88.00 27.22 115.22 5.79 MP 126.43 62.78 189.21 33.18 4.29 130.71 3.28 55.31 1.88 57.19 48.03 RP 53.00 116.60 169.60 68.75 0.00 53.00 0.00 17.67 0.00 17.67 220.00 LLD 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 135.78 36.41 172.20 21.15 167.16 302.94 55.18 49.46 60.89 110.36 12.02 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 318.00 318.00 100.00 0.00 144.55 144.55 0.00 0.01·1.0 89.40 13.45 102.85 13.08 171.00 260.40 65.67 38.87 74.35 113.22 5.17 1.01· 2.51 155.05 29.71 184.76 16.08 126.67 281.71 44.96 60.30 49.26 109.56 10.55 2.51·5.0 189.64 57.57 247.21 23.29 157.50 347.14 45.37 56.49 46.91 103.40 16.58 5.01· 10.0 120.00 292.50 412.50 70.91 360.00 480.00 75.00 24.00 72.00 96.00 60.94 >10.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 135.78 36.41 172.20 21.15 167.16 302.94 55.18 49.46 60.89 110.36 12.02



Table 3.9.4: Labour-days per holding: Andhra Pradesh backward region

FL Ho FL + Ho FL HI FL +HI per FL +Hoper per per per Share

Class per hh per hh hh Share HI Hoper hh hh Share Ho worker worker worker HI/FL+HO RL 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 375.00 375.00 100.00 0.00 107.14 107.14 0.00 pp 88.80 97.92 186.72 52.44 425.20 514.00 .82.72 27.41 131.23 158.64 19.05 SP 259.50 119.65 379.15 31.56 141.00 400.50 ·35.21 117.95 64.09 182.05 29.88 MP 222.50 155.58 378.08 41.15 30.33 252.83 12.00 102.69 14.00 116.69 61.54 RP 196.00 374.50 570.50 65.64 0.00 196.00 0.00 126.00 0.00 126.00 191.07 LLD 0.00 1460.50 1460.50 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 154.15 196.72 350.87 56.07 219.23 373.38 58.72 59.67 84.86 144.54 52.68 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01·1.0 60.00 13.00 73.00 17.81 400.00 460.00 86.96 30.00 200.00 230.00 2.83 1.01-2.51 101.15 42.35 143.50 29.51 306.15 407.31 75.17 42.42 128.39 170.81 10.40 2.51·5.0 118.37 87.74 206.11 42.57 255.79 374.16 68.36 44.98 97.20 142.18 23.45 5.01· 10.0 197.31 279.69 477.00 58.64 199.54 396.85 50.28 77.73 78.61 156.33 70.48 >10.0 218.57 424.04 642.61 65.99 94.29 312.86 30.14 78.46 33.85 112.31 135.54 Total 154.15 196.72. 350.87 56.07 219.23 373.38 58.72 59.67 84.86 144.54 52.68



The backward region in West Bengal has completely different characteristics

compared to the other three regions. The agricultural activity being predominantly

subsistence in nature (except some evidences of vegetable cultivation, which is done

for the market), it leads to low levels of hired labour use in household cultivation. The

share of hired labour in household cultivation is only 21.15 percent indicating the

relatively high level of dependence on family labour for cultivation. The households

in the region also exhibit high levels ofhiring out of labour in both farm and non-farm

activities. The share of labour hired out in total labour worked by the households is

moderately high at 55.18 percent. It is noteworthy that while this share is high for the

rural labour and poor peasants and remains at a low level for other economic classes,

it is not less than around 45 percent for any of the size-classes. This indicates that

hiring out of labour by the households is predominant amongst all size-classes due to

the low employment generation from farm activities.

We have reported the employment intensities per acre for the four regions in

Tables 3.10.1 to 3.10.4. As expected, the employment generated per acre (FL +Hi per

acre) is the highest in the advanced region in West Bengal, which has a multi-crop

characteristic. In each acre, 155.19 labour-days are employed annually, of which

110.59 labour-days are hired in by the households. In sharp contrast to this, the

backward region in the state employed only 89.25 labour-days per acre in a year, of

which hired labour is rather low at 18.87 labour-days.

Table 3.10.1: Employment Intensity per acre: West Bengal advanced region

Class FL Workers Hi FL+Hi per acre per acre per acre Per acre

RL 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 pp 49.59 3.22 59.24 108.83 SP 131.28 2.13 96.82 228.10 MP 87.24 1.08 84.67 171.91 RP 32.92 0.54 121.32 154.24 LLD 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 44.61 0.92 110.59 155.19 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01-1.0 90.37 2.49 82.31 172.69 1.01-2.5 59.25 0.98 106.98 166.24 2.51-5.0 37.16 0.63 112.43 149.58 5.1-10.0 19.90 0.24 104.69 124.59 >10.0 25.26 0.39 132.32 157.58 Total 44.61 0.92 110.59 155.19

Source: Primary Field Su17Jey


Table 3.10.2: Employment Intensity per acre: Andhra Pradesh advanced region

Class FL Workers Hi FL+ Hi per acre per acre per acre Per acre

RL 0.00 10.67 0.00 0.00 pp 85.45 1.09 26.42 111.88 SP 108.96 0.94 34.07 143.02 MP 64.50 0.49 36.75 101.25 RP 24.94 0.20 57.74 82.68 LLD 0.00 0.08 73.81 73.81 Total 57.30 0.57 46.06 103.36 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01-1.0 267.37 2.84 28.32 295.68 1.01-2.5 117.78 1.33 23.92 141.69 2.51-5.0 92.50 0.77 28.66 121.16 5.1-10.0 35.07 0.27 49.49 84.55 >10.0 14.12 0.13 62.82 76.94 Total 57.30 0.57 46.06 103.36


On the other hand, in the advanced area in Andhra Pradesh, each acre

employed 103.36 labour-days annually but the hired labour (46.06 labour-days) is

lower than the family labour (57.30 labour-days) used in cultivating an acre. The

backward region's performance in employment generation through farm activities is

quite poor in comparison to all other regions. Each acre is employing an abysmally

low amount of labour at 42.77 labour-days annually. On the whole, from the

employment intensity results, we can infer that the agricultural activity in the West

Bengal regions in relatively more labour intensive.than that in the regions of Andhra

Pradesh.

Table 3.10.3: Employment Intensity per acre: West Bengal backward region

Class FL Workers Hi FL+ Hi per acre per acre per acre Per acre

RL 0.00 5.83 0.00 0.00 pp 73.79 1.36 12.58 86.36 SP 120.00 1.36 9.09 129.09 MP 52.06 0.94 25.85 77.91 RP 29.44 1.67 64.78 94.22 LLD 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 70.38 1.42 18.87 89.25 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01-1.0 135.45 3.48 20.38 155.83 1.01-2;5 90.44 1.50 17.33 107.78 2.51-5.0 55.31 0.138 16.79 72.10 5.1-10.0 15.38 0.-64 37.50 52.88 >10.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 70.38 1.42 18.87 89.25



Table 3.10.4: Employment Intensity per acre: Andhra Pradesh backward region

Class FL Workers Hi FL+ Hi per acre per acre per acre per acre

RL 0.00 1.86 0.00 0.00 pp 19.20 0.70 21.17 40.37

SP 38.30 0.32 17.66 55.96

MP 28.07 0.27 19.63 47.69

RP 13.90 0.11 26.55 40.45

LLD 0.00 0.06 35.19 35.19

Total 18.79 0.31 23.98 42.77

0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01-1.0 85.71 2.86 18.57 104.29

1.01-2.5 50.21 1.18 21.02 71.23 2.51-5.0 28.17 0.63 20.88 49.05 5.1-10.0 26.99 0.35 38.27 65.26 >10.0 10.54 0.13 20.44 30.97 Total 18.79 0.31 23.98 42.77


An important pattern that emerges from the employment intensity results is the

roughly lower employment intensities of the higher economic and size-classes as

compared to the lower classes. Although there is no strict inverse relationship

between employment intensity and the economic or size-classes, a tendency of the

higher classes to use less labour-intensive cultivation techniques and replace labour

with capital as compared to the lower classes can be definitely affirmed.

The cross-classification of the households in the different regions that we have

discussed in this chapter provides us with our basic framework of analysis. The

economic classification of the rural households based on labour-use defines the

exploitative relationships that exist between the various peasant classes. A detailed

discussion of the labour-use patterns by the economic classes and size-classes also

equips us with a comprehensive understanding of the economic behaviour and

characteristics of the households in the different peasant classes. The knowledge of

the pattern of their interaction with the labour market and the land-lease market,

which is determined by the class position of the households, will complement our

analysis of the asset structure, cost structure of cultivation, farm income and

indebtedness in the subsequent chapters.

methodology and classification of...

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