metabolism chapter 25. an introduction to cellular metabolism figure 25–1
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Metabolism
Chapter 25
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An Introduction to Cellular MetabolismFigure 25–1
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Essential Nutrients
45 – 50 molecules must be ingested.
This includes representatives from the 4 major organic molecule groups, plus a number of inorganic substances such as including water, vitamins and minerals (Na, Fe, etc.)
The USDA has made major revision in its nutritional recommendations.
http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/document/
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It was never based on solid science
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Nutrient –A substance in food used by the body for growth,
maintenance, energy and repair.
• Carbohydrates: 271g (55%) 130g (45 - 65%)
• Lipid: total 65g (17%) 20 – 25%
saturated 17g (7.8%)
• Protein: 91g (18%) 56g (10 – 35%)
• Water: 1500 ml (average) per day.
USDA IOM for young adult female
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Uses of nutrients
• Carbohydrate: Primary energy molecule. Also found on cell membranes and as part of structure of connective tissue matrix molecules
• Lipid: Energy storage, plasma membrane structure, cushioning, steroid hormones.
• Proteins: Enzymes, receptors, hormones, structures of all kinds. Must be “complete” or “complimentary” in order to supply essential amino acids.
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Nutrient Use in Cellular Metabolism
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Essential amino acids
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10 Essential Amino Acids
• 8 not synthesized: – isoleucine, leucine, lysine, threonine,
tryptophan, phenylalanine, valine, and methionine
• 2 insufficiently synthesized:– arginine and histidine
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4 Types of Nitrogen Compounds
1. Amino acids:– framework of all proteins, glycoproteins, and
lipoproteins
2. Purines and pyrimidines:– nitrogenous bases of RNA and DNA
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4 Types of Nitrogen Compounds
3. Creatine:– energy storage in muscle (creatine
phosphate)
4. Porphyrins:– bind metal ions– essential to hemoglobin, myoglobin, and
cytochromes
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Energy Metabolism
• Metabolism = catabolism + anabolism
• Cellular respiration is a series of catabolic reactions that provide energy for the production of
• This energy is used to generate ATP from phosphorylation of ADP.
• It is a series of Redox reactions.
ATP
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Energy Metabolism: Generation of ATP
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Overview of aerobic respiration
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Summary of steps of energy
metabolism
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Generation of ATP by “substrate-level phosphorylation”
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Oxidative phosphorylation
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Overview of cellular respiration
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Carbohydrate Metabolism
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 36 ATP + Heat
Oxidation of Glucose
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It is the first stage in cellular respiration
Glycolysis
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Stepsof
glycolysis
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Aerobic vs anaerobic pathways
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Overview of TCA (Krebs cycle)
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TCA(Krebs) Cycle
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Summary: The TCA Cycle
CH3CO — CoA + 3NAD + FAD + GDP + Pi + 2 H2O CoA + 2 CO2
+ 3NADH + FADH2 + 2 H+ + GTP
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The ETS creates an chemiosmotic
gradient
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The Electron Transport System
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The ETS
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Summary of ATP synthesis Gains & losses
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Visual summary of
cellular respiration
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Carbohydrate Breakdown
and Synthesis
Figure 25–7
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Glycogenesis/Glycogenolysis
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Gluconeogenesis
• Is the synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors:– lactic acid– glycerol– amino acids
• Stores glucose as glycogen in liver and skeletal muscle
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Summary of metabolic pathways
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Lipid metabolism: oxidation
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3 Energy Benefits of Beta-Oxidation
1. For each 2-carbon fragment removed from fatty acid, cell gains:
– 12 ATP from acetyl-CoA in TCA cycle– 5 ATP from NADH
2. Cell can gain 144 ATP molecules from breakdown of one 18-carbon fatty acid molecule
3. Fatty acid breakdown yields about 1.5 times the energy of glucose breakdown
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Lipid Transport
and Utilization
Figure 25–9
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5 Classes of Lipoproteins
• Chylomicrons
• Very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs)
• Intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDLs)
• Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)
• High-density lipoproteins (HDLs)
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Chylomicrons
• Are produced in intestinal tract
• Are too large to diffuse across capillary wall
• Enter lymphatic capillaries
• Travel through thoracic duct:– to venous circulation and systemic arteries
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Distribution of Other Lipoproteins: Step 1
• Liver cells synthesize VLDLs:– for discharge into bloodstream
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Distribution of Other Lipoproteins: Step 2
• Lipoprotein lipase removes many triglycerides from VLDLs:– leaving IDLs
• Triglycerides are broken down:– into fatty acids and monoglycerides
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Distribution of Other Lipoproteins: Step 3
• When IDLs reach liver:– additional triglycerides are removed– protein content of lipoprotein is altered– LDLs are created
• LDLs are transported to peripheral tissues to deliver cholesterol
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Distribution of Other Lipoproteins: Step 4
• LDLs leave bloodstream through capillary pores:– or cross endothelium by vesicular transport
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Distribution of Other Lipoproteins: Step 5
• In peripheral tissues:– LDLs are absorbed through receptor-
mediated endocytosis
• Amino acids and cholesterol enter the cytoplasm
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Distribution of Other Lipoproteins: Step 6 & 7
• Cholesterol not used by the cell:– diffuses out of cell
• Cholesterol reenters bloodstream:– is absorbed by HDLs and returned to liver
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Distribution of Other Lipoproteins: Step 8
• In the liver:– HDLs are absorbed – cholesterol is extracted
• Recovered cholesterol is used:– in synthesis of LDLs– in excreted in bile salts
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Distribution of Other Lipoproteins: Step 9
• Free HDLs are released into bloodstream:– travel into peripheral tissues– absorb additional cholesterol
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Composition of
Lipoproteins
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Proteins
• The body synthesizes 100,000 to 140,000 proteins:– each with different form, function, and
structure
• All proteins are built from the 20 amino acids
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Amino Acid CatabolismFigure 25–10 (Navigator)
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AminationFigure 25–11
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Amino acid use in TCA
cycle
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Protein metabolism in the Liver
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Summary: Pathways of Catabolism and Anabolism Figure 25–12
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5 Metabolic TissuesEach tissue has its own requirements
1. Liver
2. Adipose tissue
3. Skeletal muscle
4. Neural tissue
5. Other peripheral tissues
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Other Peripheral Tissues
• Do not maintain large metabolic reserves
• Can metabolize glucose, fatty acids, and other substrates
• Preferred energy source varies:– according to instructions from endocrine
system
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Metabolic Interactions
• Relationships among 5 components change over 24-hour period
• Body has 2 patterns of daily metabolic activity:
1. absorptive state 2. postabsorptive state
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Regulatory Hormones: Effects on Peripheral Metabolism
Table 25–1
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Pathways of the
Absorptive state
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The effects of insulin on
metabolism
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The Postabsorptive state
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Influences of
Glucagon on blood glucose levels
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Lipid and Amino Acid Catabolism
• Generates acetyl-CoA
• Increased concentration of acetyl-CoA:– causes ketone bodies to form
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Ketone Bodies
• Acetoacetate
• Acetone
• Betahydroxybutyrate
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Ketone Bodies
• Liver cells do not catabolize ketone bodies:– compounds diffuse into general circulation– peripheral cells absorb ketone bodies
• Cells reconvert ketone bodies to acetyl-CoA for TCA cycle
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Ketone Bodies
• Are acids that dissociate in solution
• Fasting produces ketosis:– a high concentration of ketone bodies in body
fluids
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Ketonemia
• Is the appearance of ketone bodies in bloodstream
• Lowers plasma pH, which must be controlled by buffers
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Ketoacidosis
• Is a dangerous drop in blood pH:– caused by high ketone levels– exceeding buffering capacities
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Severe Ketoacidosis
• Circulating concentration of ketone bodies can reach 200 mg dl:– pH may fall below 7.05– may cause coma, cardiac arrhythmias, death
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Minerals and Vitamins
• Are essential components of the diet
• The body does not synthesize minerals
• Cells synthesize only small quantities of few vitamins
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Minerals and Mineral ReservesTable 25–3
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Minerals
• Are inorganic ions released through dissociation of electrolytes
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Importance of Minerals
• Ions such as sodium, chloride and potassium determine osmotic concentrations of body fluids
• Ions are essential:– cofactors in many enzymatic reactions– in many important physiological processes
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Metals
• Each component of ETS requires an iron atom
• Final cytochrome of ETS requires a copper ion
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Mineral Reserves
• The body contains significant mineral reserves:– that help reduce effects of variations in diet
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The Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Table 25–4
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Fat-Soluble Vitamins
• Vitamins A, D, E, and K:– are absorbed primarily from the digestive tract
along with lipids of micelles– normally diffuse into cell membranes and
lipids in liver and adipose tissue
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Vitamin A• A structural component of visual pigment
retinal
Vitamin D• Is converted to calcitriol:
– which increases rate of intestinal calcium and phosphorus absorption
Vitamin E• Stabilizes intracellular membranes
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Vitamin K
• Helps synthesize several proteins:– including 3 clotting factors
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Vitamin Reserves
• The body contains significant reserves of fat-soluble vitamins
• Normal metabolism can continue several months without dietary sources
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The Water-Soluble VitaminsTable 25–5
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Metabolic Rate
• If daily energy intake exceeds energy demands:– body stores excess energy as triglycerides in
adipose tissue
• If daily caloric expenditures exceeds dietary supply:– body uses energy reserves, loses weight
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Hormonal Effects
• Thyroxine:– controls overall metabolism
– T4 assay measures thyroxine in blood
• Cholecystokinin (CCK):– suppresses appetite
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH):– suppresses appetite
• Leptin:– released by adipose tissues during absorptive
state– binds to CNS neurons that suppress appetite
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Heat Balance
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Regulatory pathways for homeostatic
control of body
temperature
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Temperature regulation mechanisms
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Maynard or Hans?