metabolism and enzymes. metabolism- the total of all chemical reactions done in an organism to store...

Metabolism and Enzymes

• Metabolism- the total of all chemical reactions done in an organism to store or release energy. (the number of molecules built vs. the amount of molecules broken down) ex. Digestion or building muscle.

• A metabolic pathway begins with a specific molecule and ends with a product and is carried out by enzymes.

Metabolism

• Catabolic pathways release energy by breaking down molecules into simpler compounds.

• Ex. Cellular respiration, the breakdown of glucose to release energy in humans.

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Catabolic Pathways

• Anabolic pathways use energy to build molecules.

• The synthesis of protein from amino acids to be used in muscles is an example of anabolism.


Anabolic Pathways

Thermodynamics• Thermodynamics is the study of energytransformations


The First Law of Thermodynamics• 1st Law – energy cannot not by created or

destroyed, just transformed.


The Second Law of Thermodynamics• 2nd Law- Every energy transfer increases the

entropy (disorder) of the universe and makes things unstable. (energy will seek to get back into a stable form or equilibrium)


Free Energy• free energy - energy available to do work• ∆G = change in free energy• If ∆G is negative energy was released (becomes

more stable) • If ∆G is positive energy was stored (becomes less

stable)


Spontaneous Change• Releasing free energy is known as a spontaneous

change. The energy released in a spontaneous change can be harnessed to do work.


Fig. 8-5

(a) Gravitational motion (b) Diffusion (c) Chemical reaction

• More free energy (higher G)• Less stable• Greater work capacity

In a spontaneous change• The free energy of the system decreases (∆G < 0)• The system becomes more stable• The released free energy can be harnessed to do work

• Less free energy (lower G)• More stable• Less work capacity

• An endergonic reaction absorbs free energy from its surroundings and is nonspontaneous. (Anabolic)

Energy in Cells

Energy in Cells• An exergonic reaction proceeds with a net

release of free energy and is spontaneous. (Catabolic)


Energy Coupling • energy coupling - the use of an exergonic process to

drive an endergonic one

• Most energy coupling in cells is done by ATP (the cells energy molecule).


ATP • ATP (adenosine triphosphate) - ATP made of

ribose (a sugar), adenine (a nitrogenous base), and three phosphate groups.


• ATP powers cells by breaking off a phosphate group. This lowers free energy and releases energy. (exergonic)


ATP at Work

ATP at Work• The released phosphate combines with a reactant

(phosphorylation) to make it unstable.• This endergonic reaction makes the recipient

molecule unstable with extra stored energy and able to do work.


Fig. 8-11

(b) Mechanical work: ATP binds noncovalently to motor proteins, then is hydrolyzed

Membrane protein

P i

ADP+

P

Solute Solute transported

Pi

Vesicle Cytoskeletal track

Motor protein Protein moved

(a) Transport work: ATP phosphorylates transport proteins

ATP

ATP

Fig. 8-12

P iADP +

ATP + H2O

Energy Coupling • Dephosphorylation (exergonic)

• Phosphorylation (endergonic)

Enzymes• catalyst - is a chemical agent that speeds up a

reaction (can be reused)• An enzyme is a catalytic proteinEx. Hydrolysis of sucrose by the enzyme sucrase

Activation Energy• activation energy (EA) -The initial energy needed

to start a chemical reaction

• Activation energy can by supplied in the form of heat from the surroundings

Fig. 8-14

Progress of the reaction

Products

Reactants

∆G < O

Transition state

Fre

e en

erg

y EA

DC

BA

D

D

C

C

B

B

A

A

Enzymes Lower the EA• Enzymes catalyze reactions by lowering the EA

barrier*


Substrate Specificity of Enzymes• substrate -reactant that an enzyme acts on enzyme-• substrate complex – enzyme and substrate together• active site – part of the enzyme the substrate binds to• Induced fit – “lock and key” matching shape of

enzyme and substrate


How EA is lowered • The active site can lower an EA barrier by

– Orienting substrates correctly

– Straining substrate bonds

– Providing favorable pH

– Covalently bonding to the substrate


Fig. 8-17

Substrates

Enzyme

Products arereleased.

Products

Substrates areconverted toproducts.

Active site can lower EA

and speed up a reaction.

Substrates held in active site by weakinteractions, such as hydrogen bonds andionic bonds.

Substrates enter active site; enzyme changes shape such that its active siteenfolds the substrates (induced fit).

Activesite is

availablefor two new

substratemolecules.

Enzyme-substratecomplex

5

3

21

6

4

Enzyme Denature• An enzyme’s activity can be affected by general

environmental factors, such as temperature, pH, salinity, and solute concentration.


Cofactors• Cofactors - are nonprotein enzyme helpers

• Coenzyme - An organic cofactor (ex. Vitamins)


Enzyme Inhibitors• Competitive inhibitors bind to the active site of

an enzyme, competing with the substrate• Noncompetitive inhibitors bind to another part of

an enzyme, causing the enzyme to change shape and making the active site less effective

• Examples of inhibitors include toxins, poisons, pesticides, and antibiotics

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings=

Allosteric Regulation of Enzymes• Enzyme activity is controlled to regulate metabolism.• Allosteric regulation - occurs when a regulatory

molecule binds to a protein at one site and affects the protein’s function at another site.

• Inhibitors make enzymes inactive • Activators make enzymes active


Cooperativity• Cooperativity is a form of allosteric regulation

where the presence of the substrate makes the enzyme active.


Feedback Inhibition• In feedback inhibition, the end product of a metabolic pathway shuts down the pathway.Ex. thermostat.


You should now be able to:

1. Distinguish between the following pairs of terms: catabolic and anabolic pathways; exergonic and endergonic reactions

2. In your own words, explain the laws of thermodynamics.

3. Explain in general terms how cells obtain the energy to do cellular work


4. Explain how ATP performs cellular work

5. Explain why an investment of activation energy is necessary to initiate a spontaneous reaction

6. Describe the mechanisms by which enzymes lower activation energy

7. Describe how allosteric regulators may inhibit or stimulate the activity of an enzyme


metabolism and enzymes. metabolism- the total of all chemical reactions done in an organism to store...

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