meta-cognition, motivation, and affect psy504 spring term, 2011 march 14, 2010
TRANSCRIPT
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Meta-Cognition, Motivation, and Affect
PSY504Spring term, 2011March 14, 2010
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Theories of Intelligence(Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Dweck, 2000)
• Theory of Fixed Intelligence– “Entity Theory”
• Theory of Malleable Intelligence– “Incremental Theory”
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Theories of Intelligence(Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Dweck, 2000)
• Theory of Fixed Intelligence– “Entity Theory”– Intelligence is not changeable– Some people are smart and some people are dumb
• Theory of Malleable Intelligence– “Incremental Theory”– Intelligence can be increased through one’s efforts– Everyone can become smarter
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Effects of different theories of intelligence(Mueller & Dweck, 1988 Study 1)
• 5th-grade students given easy logic problems in lab setting
• Student performance praised based either on– Intelligence
• “Wow, you did very well on these problems. You got [number of problems] right. That's a really high score. You must be smart at these problems.”
– Effort• “Wow, you did very well on these problems. You got [number of
problems] right. That's a really high score. You must have worked hard at these problems.”
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Effects of different theories of intelligence
• Intelligence praise– Associated with subsequent self-report of
performance goals
• Effort praise– Associated with subsequent self-report of mastery
goals
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Effects of different theories of intelligence
• Next, students given very difficult problems and told they performed poorly
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Effects of different theories of intelligence
• Intelligence praise– Associated with subsequent attribution that poor
performance was due to lack of intelligence
• Effort praise– Associated with subsequent attribution that poor
performance was due to lack of effort
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Effects of different theories of intelligence
• Next, students once again given very easy problems
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Effects of different theories of intelligence
• Intelligence praise– Associated with completing fewer problems in this
phase– Associated with lower self-reported enjoyment of
problems in this phase
• Effort praise– Associated with completing more problems in this phase– Associated with higher self-reported enjoyment of
problems in this phase
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(Mueller & Dweck, 1988 Study 4)
• Same Design– Except every set of problems was easy
• No differences between conditions in terms of persistence or self-reported enjoyment in third set of problems
• Suggesting model– Entity Theory of Intelligence + Failure = Less Persistence and
Enjoyment– Whereas students with Incremental Theory of Intelligence are
more resilient in face of failure
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(Mueller & Dweck, 1988 Study 6)
• Same Design– Except problems in phase 3 were a different kind of
problem (math instead of logic, different appearance)
• Same result as study 1
• Suggesting that effects of entity theory of intelligence transfer– At least to a new task in the same lab setting where the
theory was induced…
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Effects of different theories of intelligence(Cury, Da Fonseca, Zahn, & Elliot, 2008)
• 13-15 year old students given IQ test problems in lab setting
• Students given two tests, with opportunity to practice items in between (or could sit doing nothing)
• Students asked about their theory of intelligence through questionnaire measure– Entity example: “In this session, I think that even if I put in a lot of
effort, it’s difficult for me to change my performance on the intelligence task”
– Incremental example: “In this session, I think I can change my performance on the intelligence task easily”
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Effects of different theories of intelligence
• (Blackwell et al., 2007 Study 1)
• 373 genuine junior high school students– public school in New York City– Ethnically diverse population
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Effects of different theories of intelligence
• Theory of intelligence measured through questionnaire– Entity example: ‘‘You have a certain amount of
intelligence, and you really can’t do much to change it”
– Incremental example: “You can always greatly change how intelligent you are”
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Effects of different theories of intelligence
Measured using PALS
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Effects of different theories of intelligence
Students’ belief that effort leads to positive outcomes
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Effects of different theories of intelligence
Students’ belief that failure due to personal (lack of) ability
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Positive Strategy Scale
• “Positive” strategies– “I would work harder in this class from now on”– “I would spend more time studying for tests”
• “Negative” strategies– “I would try not to take this subject ever again”– “I would spend less time on this subject from now
on”– “I would try to cheat on the next test”
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Effects of different theories of intelligence
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Results: Grades
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Note: Use of model may obscure irregularities in pattern!
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Questions? Comments?
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Impacting Theories of Intelligence in the Real World
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Impacting Theories of Intelligence in the Real World
• (Blackwell et al., 2007 Study 2)
• 99 students in 7th grade in a public school in New York City
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Questions? Comments?
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Stereotype Threat
• A person belongs to a group for which society at large has a negative stereotype
• “Standardized and simplified conception of groups based on some prior assumptions” – Wikipedia
• Stereotype Threat: “The existence of such a stereotype means that anything one does or any of one's features that conform to it make the stereotype more plausible as a self-characterization in the eyes of others, and perhaps even in one's own eyes.” (Steele & Aronson, 1995)
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Stereotype Threat
• Every group is vulnerable to stereotype threat, to at least some degree
• Although stereotype threat can be rather comical for privileged/powerful groups
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For instance…
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For instance…
• My dream of being an NBA star may have been crushed by stereotype threat
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For instance…
• My dream of being an NBA star may have been crushed by stereotype threat
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For instance…
• My dream of being an NBA star may have been crushed by stereotype threat
• Or alternatively by the fact that I’m 5’9”
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Groups Most Affected
• This problem is of specific salience to – African-Americans in the USA (Steele & Aronson, 1995)– Latinos in the USA (Aronson & Salinas, 1999)
• Other groups which are discriminated against often have stereotypes that differ in key ways from the stereotypes applied to these groups today– In the past, Irish-Americans suffered from the exact
same stereotype
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Groups Most Affected
• These groups face negative stereotypes about their group’s intelligence
• In the light of these stereotypes, many African-American and Latino students experience anxiety – About whether they will be judged and treated stereotypically– And even about their own intelligence in the light of these
stereotypes (Steele, 1990)
• Person affected does not need to believe the stereotype, just that other people believe it
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Evidence for Stereotype Threat
• African-Americans perform better on IQ sub-tests if the test is presented as a test of eye-hand coordination (Katz et al., 1965)
• African-Americans perform better on IQ tests if told they will only be compared to other African-Americans (Katz et al., 1964)
• African-Americans perform worse on GRE items if told these items measure intelligence, than if told these items are given purely to study psychological factors (Steele & Aronson, 1995)
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Evidence for Stereotype Threat
• Results for Latinos contained in an “unpublished manuscript” (Aronson & Salinas, 1999)
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Questions? Comments?
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Obama Effect
• Will highly publicized success of African-American reduce stereotype threat?– By concretely challenging stereotypes
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(Marx, Ko, & Friedman, 2009)
• At four points in time– Early in presidential campaign– Right after Obama accepted presidential
nomination with speech at Democratic National Convention
– Middle of campaign– Right after Obama won presidency
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Procedure
• Adults nationwide recruited over internet– European-American and African-American
• Given “test of verbal problem-solving ability”
• Then asked about concerns about performance and stereotypes
• Example: ‘‘I worry that if I perform poorly on this test, others will attribute my poor performance to my race”
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Questions? Comments?
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Impacting Stereotype Threatin the Real World
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Reducing Stereotype Threat(Good, Aronson, & Inzlicht, 2003)
• Junior high school students in rural Texas– 63% Latino, 15% African-American, 22% European-
American
• Taking computer skills class
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Four conditions
• Incremental – Students taught incremental theory of intelligence
• Attribution – Students taught that 7th grade difficult, but everyone learns to adjust and improves
• Combination – Both• Control – Students taught to not use drugs
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Mentors
• Every student mentored by undergraduate at the University of Texas
• Mentors supported students in class project and implemented conditions– Through two face-to-face meetings, and support over
internet• Class project was to create web page teaching
other students message of condition (e.g. incremental theory of intelligence, anti-drug message, etc.)
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Dependent measure
• Performance on state standardized exam for reading and mathematics– Actual exam scores used (e.g. not administered by
researchers but by state of Texas)
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Results
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Results
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Results
• No effect for race – Results not reported
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Question
• Is there any evidence that this study impacted stereotype threat in specific?
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Attempt at Experimental Manipulation: The Obama Effect
• (Aronson et al., 2009)
• Conducted with undergraduates at 3 universities participating in pre-med school program
• Conducted during late phase of 2008 presidential election
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• Students asked to read a set of speeches attributed to either Barack Obama, John McCain, or “an american politician”– Actually was none of them
• Students also shown pictures of candidates in moment of success, and asked to list two positive things about candidate’s speeches
• Also control condition with no text
Attempt at Experimental Manipulation: The Obama Effect
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• Then students given test of verbal ability
Attempt at Experimental Manipulation: The Obama Effect
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Results
• African-American students performed worse than European-American students in all conditions
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Questions? Comments?
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Next Class (MARCH 15)• Affect Models
• Readings• Ekman, P. (1992) An Argument for Basic Emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 6
(3/4), 169-200.• Clore, G.L., Ortony, A. (2000) Cognition in Emotion: Always, Sometimes, or
Never? In Lane, R.D., Nadel, L. (Eds.) Cognitive Neuroscience of Emotion, ch.3, 24-61.
• Russell, J., 2003. Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion. Psychological Review 110, 145-172.
• Baker, R.S.J.d., D'Mello, S.K., Rodrigo, M.M.T., Graesser, A.C. (2010) Better to Be Frustrated than Bored: The Incidence, Persistence, and Impact of Learners' Cognitive-Affective States during Interactions with Three Different Computer-Based Learning Environments. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 68 (4), 223-241.