Memory

What the heck is going on in there?

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Name the Seven Dwarves Name the Seven Dwarves

Take out a piece of paper

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Difficulty of TaskDifficulty of Task

• Was the exercise easy or difficult.Was the exercise easy or difficult.

It depends on what factors?

•Whether you like Disney movies

•how long ago you watched the movie

•how loud the people are around you when you are trying to remember

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The Memory processThe Memory process

•EncodingEncoding

•StorageStorage

•RetrievalRetrieval

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EncodingEncoding

• The processing of information into The processing of information into the memory system.the memory system.

Typing info into a computer Getting a girls name at a party

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StorageStorage

•The retention of encoded material The retention of encoded material over time.over time.

Pressing Ctrl S and saving the info.

Trying to remember her name when you leave the party.

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RetrievalRetrieval• The process of getting the The process of getting the

information out of memory information out of memory storage.storage.

Finding your document and opening it up.

Seeing her the next day and calling her the wrong name (retrieval failure).

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Now pick pick out the Now pick pick out the seven dwarves.seven dwarves.

Turn your paper over.

Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy

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Seven DwarvesSeven Dwarves

Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful

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Recall v. RecognitionRecall v. Recognition• With recall- you must retrieve the With recall- you must retrieve the

information from your memory (fill-information from your memory (fill-in-the blank tests).in-the blank tests).

• With recognition- you must identify With recognition- you must identify the target from possible targets the target from possible targets (multiple-choice tests).(multiple-choice tests).

• Which is easier?Which is easier?

Did you do better on the first or second dwarf memory exercise?

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Memory

23: Introduction

24: Encoding - Getting Info In

25: Storage - Retaining

26: Retrieval: Getting Info Out

27: Forgetting, Memory

Construction, and Improving

Introduction

Memory Loss & Feats

Information Processing

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Memoriad 2008Memoriad 2008

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RecordsRecords

• Andi Bell – memorizing a single deck Andi Bell – memorizing a single deck of cards in 34 secondsof cards in 34 seconds

• 1840 random digits in one hour1840 random digits in one hour

• 23.02 packs of cards in one hour23.02 packs of cards in one hour

• 2889 binary digits in 30 minutes2889 binary digits in 30 minutes

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Case of Clive WearingCase of Clive Wearing

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Flashbulb MemoriesFlashbulb Memories

• Car accident – 85%Car accident – 85%

• Early romantic experience – 77%Early romantic experience – 77%

• Speak in front of audience – 72%Speak in front of audience – 72%

• First date – 57%First date – 57%

• 9/11 – 95%9/11 – 95%

Beryl Benderly – “It’s as if our nervous system takes a multimedia snapshot of the sounds, sights, smells, weather, emotional climate, even the body postures we experience at certain moments.”

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Memory ProcessMemory Process

• Memory - an active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage.

• Processes of Memory:– Encoding - the set of mental operations that

people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems.

– Storage - holding onto information for some period of time.

– Retrieval - getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used.

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Models of MemoryModels of Memory• Information-processing model - model of

memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages.

• Levels-of-processing model - model of memory that assumes information that is more “deeply processed,” or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time.

• Parallel distributed processing (PDP) model - a model of memory in which memory processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections.

LO 6.2 Different models of how memory works

Menu

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Types of Memory

Sensory Short Term Long Term

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Sensory MemorySensory Memory• The immediate, initial recording of sensory

information in the memory system.• Stored just for an instant, and most gets

unprocessed.

Examples:•You lose concentration in class during a lecture. Suddenly you hear a significant word and return your focus to the lecture. You should be able to remember what was said just before the key word since it is in your sensory register. •Your ability to see motion can be attributed to sensory memory. An image previously seen must be stored long enough to compare to the new image. Visual processing in the brain works like watching a cartoon -- you see one frame at a time. •If someone is reading to you, you must be able to remember the words at the beginning of a sentence in order to understand the sentence as a whole. These words are held in a relatively

unprocessed sensory memory.

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Short-Term MemoryShort-Term Memory

•Memory that holds a few items briefly.

•Seven digits (plus of minus two).

•The info will be stored into long-term or forgotten.

How do you store things from short-term to long-term?

RehearsalYou must repeat things over and over to put them into your long-term memory.

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Working MemoryWorking Memory(Modern day STM)(Modern day STM)

• Another way of describing the use of short-term memory is called working memory.

• Working-Memory has three parts:1. Audio2. Visual3. Integration of audio and visual

(controls where you attention lies)

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Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory

•The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

Oops, Retrieval FailureOops, Retrieval Failure

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24: Encoding24: Encoding

Memory

23: Introduction

24: Encoding - Getting Info In

25: Storage - Retaining

26: Retrieval: Getting Info Out

27: Forgetting, Memory

Construction, and Improving

Encoding

How we encode What we encode

RehersalSerial Position

Effect

Visual vs Auditory

Information

Self Reference

Meaning

Mnemonic Devices

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Clive 13 years later - Clive 13 years later - Clive Wearing

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How We EncodeHow We Encode

•Rehearsal– Write down each of the gifts from

The Twelve Days of Christmas

•Demonstrate the forgetting curve using the data collected

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Serial Position EffectSerial Position Effect

•Write down as many Presidents as you can.

•Distinguish between same last names

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What we encode -What we encode -

•Visual vs Auditory

•Activity – 24-1

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What we encode -What we encode -

• Meaning and Memory Activity– Right half of room – heads down– Left half take a look at this slide

• Remember 24-3?– Reproduce the two figures– Compare the drawings with the actual

figures– The semantic and visual encoding

endured longer

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Mnemonic DevicesMnemonic Devices

•Method of loci

•First letter technique– Richard of York Gains Battles in Vain

•Colors of spectrum

– My Very Earnest Mother Just Showed Us Nine Planets•Planets in Solar System

– On Old Olympia’s Towering Top A Finn and German Vault and Hop•Cranial Nerves

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Cranial NervesCranial Nerves

•Olfactory, optic, oculomoter, trochlear, tirgeminal, abducens, facial, auditory, glossophyngeal, vagus, accessory, and hypoglossal

•Check out:

•www.happychild.org.uk/acc/tpr/mne/index.htm

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•The Context is Kite Flying

Good Morning!Good Morning!

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Remember – rules of Remember – rules of behavior?behavior?

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Storage: Retaining Storage: Retaining InformationInformation

Memory

23: Introduction

24: Encoding - Getting Info In

25: Storage - Retaining

26: Retrieval: Getting Info Out

27: Forgetting, Memory

Construction, and Improving

Storage: Retaining

Information

Sensory Memory

Short-Term Memory

Long-Term Memory

Types of Memory

Storage Systems

Episodic

Semantic

Procedural

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Hierarchiescomplex information broken down into broad

concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

Encoding(automatic or effortful)

Imagery(visualEncoding)

Meaning(semanticEncoding)

Organization

Chunks Hierarchies

StorageStorage

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Storage-Short Term MemoryStorage-Short Term Memory

Short Term Memory

– limited in duration and capacity

– “magical” number 7+/-20

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

3 6 9 12 15 18

Time in seconds between presentationof contestants and recall request

(no rehearsal allowed)

Percentagewho recalledconsonants

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Storage- Retaining InformationStorage- Retaining Information

Sensory Memory– the immediate, initial recording of sensory

information in the memory system

Iconic Memory– a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli– a photographic or picture image memory

lasting no more than a few tenths of a second– Registration of exact representation of a scene

Echoic Memory– momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

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Storage--Long Term MemoryStorage--Long Term Memory

Synaptic changes– Long-term Potentiation

•increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

Strong emotions make for stronger memories– some stress hormones boost

learning and retention

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Storage- Long Term MemoryStorage- Long Term MemoryAmnesia- the loss of memoryExplicit Memory

– memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare

– Also called declarative memory

– hippocampus- neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

Implicit Memory– retention without conscious

recollection– motor and cognitive skills– dispositions- conditioning

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Storage- Long Term Storage- Long Term Memory SubsystemsMemory Subsystems

Types oflong-termmemories

Explicit(declarative)

With consciousrecall

Implicit(nondeclarative)

Without conscious recall

Facts-generalknowledge(“semanticmemory”)

Personally experienced

events(“episodic memory”)

Skills-motorand cognitive

Dispositions-classical and

operant conditioning

effects

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Quick ReviewQuick Review

•What are the 3 processes?

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The Memory processThe Memory process

•Encoding

•Storage

•Retrieval

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Quick ReviewQuick Review

•What are the 3 theories?

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Models of MemoryModels of Memory

• Information-processing model

•Levels-of-processing model

•Parallel distributed processing (PDP)

LO 6.2 Different models of how memory works

Menu

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Quick ReviewQuick Review

•What are the 3 types of memory?

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Types of Memory

Sensory Short Term Long Term

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Quick ReviewQuick Review

•What are the 3 storage systems?

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Storage: Retaining

Information

Sensory Memory

Short-Term Memory

Long-Term Memory

Types of Memory

Storage Systems

Episodic

Semantic

Procedural

End of Mod 25End of Mod 25

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MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)

Hippocampus

Storage-Storage-Long Term MemoryLong Term Memory

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Recall*the ability to retrieve info learned earlier

and not in conscious awareness-like fill in the blank test

Recognition*the ability to identify previously learned

items-like on a multiple choice testRelearning

*amount of time saved when relearning previously learned information

Priming*activation, often unconsciously, of

particular associations in memory

Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues

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Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues

*Reminders of information we could not otherwise recall

*Guides to where to look for info– Context Effects

•memory works better in the context of original learning

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0

10

20

30

40

Water/land

Land/water

Water/water

Different contexts for hearing and recall

Same contexts for hearing and recall

Land/land

Percentage ofwords recalled

Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues

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Mood Congruent Memory– tendency to recall experiences that are

consistent with one’s current mood – memory, emotions or moods serve as

retrieval cues

• State Dependent Memory• what is learned in one state (while one is high,

drunk or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state

Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues

Deja Vu- (French) already seencues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience"I've experienced this before"

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After learning to move a mobile by

kicking, infants had their learning

reactivated most strongly when

retested in the same rather than

a different context (Butler &

Rovee-Collier, 1989).

Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues

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Forgetting--AmnesiaForgetting--Amnesia

Anterograde Amnesia*inability to form memories for new

information*new experiences slip away from a person

before they have a chance to store them in long-term memory. (Clive Wearing or H.M.)*H.M. (Initials for man with brain operation where hippocampus and amygdala removed…..crucial to laying down new episodic memories)

Retrograde Amnesia*inability to remember information

previously stored in memory.*causes include: blow to head, electric shock to the

brain

According to Daniel Schacter, most of our memory problems arise from the SEVEN SINS of MEMORY.

Three Sins of Forgetting

1) Transcience

2) Absent-mindedness

3) Blocking

Three Sins of Distortion

4) Misattribution

5) Suggestibility

6) Bias

One Sin of Intrusion

7) Persistence

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(1850-1909)

*Studied history and philology at the universities of Bonn, Halle and Berlin

*University of Bonn, Ph.D. in philosophy (1873)

*Independent post-doctoral study in England, France and Germany

Sin of forgetting

1) TRANSCIENCE

*Memories weaken with time

*Hermann Ebbinghaus (1908) learned lists of nonsense syllables and tried to recall them over time.

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Ebbinghaus- forgetting curve over 30 days --initially rapid, then levels off with time

12345 10 15 20 25 30

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

Time in days since learning list

Percentage oflist retainedwhen relearning

Sin of forgetting

1) TRANSCIENCE

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The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school

Retentiondrops,

then levels off

1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½Time in years after completion of Spanish course

100%

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Percentage oforiginal

vocabularyretained

Sin of forgetting

1) TRANSCIENCE

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CONCLUSION:

For relatively meaningless material, there is a rapid initial loss of memory, followed by a declining rate of loss.

HOWEVER, some memories don’t follow the classic forgetting curve.

“Just like riding a bicycle”, is a phase which indicates that motor skill memories are often retained for many years.

Sin of forgetting

1) TRANSCIENCE

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Forgetting as encoding failure*Information never enters the

memory system*Attention is selective

– we cannot attend to everything in our environment

*William James said that we would be as bad off if we remembered everything as we would be if we remembered nothing

Sin of forgetting

2) ABSENT-MINDEDNESS: Lapses of Attention

Retrieval failure caused by shifting your attention elsewhere. (ie) not paying attention when you laid your keys down

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Externalevents

Sensorymemory

Short-term

memory

Long-term

memory

Attention

Encoding

Encoding

Encodingfailure leadsto forgetting

Sin of forgetting

2) ABSENT-MINDEDNESS: Lapses of Attention

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Sin of forgetting

3) BLOCKING: Interference Causes Forgetting

*Proactive Interference

*Retroactive Interference

*Serial Position Effect …first and last parts of a poem are easier to remember or you are more likely to remember the names of those people you meet first and last than those in between.

12

Percentage of

words recalled

0

908070605040302010

Position of word in list

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

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Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information

Proactive (forward acting) Interference

disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information

Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference

disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information

Sin of forgetting

3) BLOCKING: Interference causes forgetting

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Proactive (forward acting) Interference …disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information

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Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information

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Retroactive Interference

Without interferingevents, recall isbetter

After sleep

After remaining awake

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Hours elapsed after learning syllables

90%

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Percentageof syllables

recalled

Sin of forgetting

3) BLOCKING: Interference causes forgetting

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Forgetting--InterferenceForgetting--Interference

Motivated Forgetting*people unknowingly revise history

Repression*defense mechanism that banishes

anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Positive Transfer*sometimes old information facilitates

our learning of new information*knowledge of Latin may help us to learn

French

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Forgetting can occur at any memory stage

As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it

Sin of forgetting

3) BLOCKING: Interference causes forgetting

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Sensory memory - the senses momentarily register amazing detail

Short term memory - a few items are both noticed and encoded

Long-term storage - Some itemsare altered or lost

Retrieval from long-term memory - depending on interference, retrieval cuesmoods and motives, some things get retrieved, some don’t. Information bits

Sin of forgetting

3) BLOCKING: Interference causes forgetting

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Sin of Distortion

4) MISATTRIBUTION: Memories in Wrong Context

*sometimes memories are retrievable but are associated with the wrong time, place, or person.

CASE: Psychologist David Thompson was accused of rape, based on victim’s detailed description of her

assailant. Fortunately, Thompson had an indisputable alibi. At the time of the crime, he was being interviewed live on television--about memory

distortions. The victim had been watching the interview just before she was raped and had

misattributed the assault to Thompson.

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Forgetting as encoding failure

Which penny is the real thing?(a)

When retrieving the image of a penny, we automatically fill in the gaps and missing details-- without realizing how much of the memory we are actually creating.

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Loftus & Palmer (1974) set out test their hypothesis that the language used in eyewitness testimony can alter memory. So they aimed to show that leading questions could distort accounts of events, therefore making them unreliable.

Sin of Distortion

5) SUGGESTIBILITY: External Cues Distort or Create

Witnesses to crimes may be interviewed by police, who might make suggestions about the facts of the case--

deliberately or intentionally--which may impact the testimony of the witness.

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Participants were shown slides of a car accident involving a number of cars and were then asked to describe what had happened as if they were eyewitnesses.They were then asked specific questions, including the question "About how fast were the cars going when they (hit/smashed/ collided/bumped/contacted - the five conditions) each other?"

Estimating the speed of a car is generally something that people are poor at doing, suggesting that they may have been MORE OPEN TO SUGGESTION.

This distortion of memory is known as the MISINFORMATION EFFECT.

Sin of Distortion

5) SUGGESTIBILITY: External Cues Distort or Create

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Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned

Depiction of actual accident

Leading question:“About how fast were the carsgoing when they smashed intoeach other?”

Memoryconstruction

Sin of Distortion

5) SUGGESTIBILITY: External Cues Distort or Create

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This research would lead other researchers to discuss the RECOVERED MEMORY CONTROVERY, wherein some psychologists may use suggestion techniques to create false recovered memories.

Loftus then did research on FABRICATED MEMORY. She contacted parents of college students and gained TRUE information of childhood events, which the students were asked to recall. Loftus then added FALSE, but plausible, events. After many recall attempts

over a series of days, many students claimed to

recall the contrived events.

Sin of Distortion

5) SUGGESTIBILITY: External Cues Distort or Create

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Most experts agree on the following:

1) Sexual abuse of children does occur at a rate more prevalent than suspected a generation ago. (McAnulty & Burnette, 2004)

2) Memories cued by suggestion are vulnerable to distortion and fabrication. (Loftus, 2003)

3) Memories from infancy or early children are likely to be fastasies or misattributions. (Schacter, 1996)

4) There is no infallible way to be sure about abusive memories without supporting evidence. (Ceci & Bruck, 1993)

5) Although traumatic events can be forgotten, they are more likely to form persistent, intrusive memories. Such events can permanently alter the structure of the hippocampus. (Teicher, 2002)

6) There is no solid evidence for repression, in the Freudian sense of an unconscious memory. (Schacter, 1996)

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People fill in memory gaps with plausible guesses and assumptions

Imagining events can create false memoriesChildren's eyewitness recall

– Child sexual abuse does occur– Some innocent people suffer false

accusations– Some guilty cast doubt on true testimony

Sin of Distortion

5) SUGGESTIBILITY: External Cues Distort or Create

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Memories of Abuse– Repressed or Constructed?

•Child sexual abuse does occur

•Some adults do actually forget such episodes

False Memory Syndrome– condition in which a person’s identity and

relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience

– sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

Sin of Distortion

5) SUGGESTIBILITY: External Cues Distort or Create

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Most people can agree on the following:– Injustice happens– Incest happens– Forgetting happens– Recovered memories are commonplace– Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are

unreliable– Memories of things happening before age 3 are

unreliable– Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting

Sin of Distortion

5) SUGGESTIBILITY: External Cues Distort or Create

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Sin of Distortion

6) BIAS: Beliefs, Attitudes, and Opinions Distort Memories

Influence of personal beliefs, attitudes and experiences on memory:

*Expectancy Bias --unconscious tendency to remember events as being congruent with our expectations.

*Self-Consistency Bias --avoid inconsistency. Emotions can distort our memories.

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Sin of Intrusion

7) PERSISTENCE: When We Can’t Forget

Sometimes memory works all too well when

*intense negative emotions are involved

*intrusive recollections of unpleasant events lie at the heart of several psychological disorders.

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Memory ConstructionMemory Construction

We filter information and fill in missing pieces

Misinformation Effect– incorporating misleading information

into one's memory of an event

Source Amnesia– attributing to the wrong source an

event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)

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27: Forgetting, Memory 27: Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Improving Construction, and Improving MemoryMemory

Forgetting

Encoding Failure Storage Decay Retrieval Failure

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Forgetting: Forgetting: Encoding FailureEncoding Failure – Change Blindness– Change Blindness

•Failure to detect changes in objects or scenes that occur over time

•Change Blindness Experiments– Changes in the scene– Levin and Simons Experiment –

Directions– Focus on the number of passes

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PennyPenny

• Draw both sides of a penny• Score 1 for

– Words ONE PENNY– Words UNITED STATES OF AMERICA– Words ONE NATION UNDER GOD– Right side of Washington’s face– Words ONE CENT– Date of mint (year)– Words LINCOLN MEMORIAL– Number 1 centered– Full face of Lincoln

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ForgettingForgetting Forgetting as

encoding failure

Which penny is the real thing?

Penny Activity

We do not encode information we don’t consider useful

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•Median = 3

•4 of 20 got 50%

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•Standard telephone dial has ten numbers but only 24 letters – what is missing?

•What is color of the top stripe of the American flag? Bottom stripe? How many red and how many white?

•Most wooden pencils have how many sides?

• In what hand does the Statue of Liberty hold her torch?

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RetrievalRetrievalForgetting can result from failure to retrieve

information from long-term memory

Externalevents

Attention

Encoding

Encoding

Retrieval failureleads to forgetting

Retrieval

Sensorymemory

Short-termmemory

Long-termmemory

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The technical term for “photographic memory” is EIDETIC IMAGERY.

Eidetic Imagery portrays the most interesting and meaningful parts of the scene most accurately, as compared with a photograph which renders everything in complete detail.

*possessed by about 5% of children.

*very rare past adolescence.

To produce an eidetic image, a person must

*study a scene for some time

*actively concentrate on this scene

*images fade quickly when the attention is diverted to something else.

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IMPROVING YOUR MEMORY

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Improve Your MemoryImprove Your Memory

*Study repeatedly to boost recall*Spend more time rehearsing or

actively thinking about the material (SQ3R)(study, question, read, recite, review)

*Make material personally meaningful*Use mnemonic devices

– associate with peg words- something already stored

– make up story– chunk-acronyms

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*Activate retrieval cues- mentally recreate situation and mood

*Recall events while they are fresh- write down before interference

*Minimize interference *Test your own knowledge

– rehearse– determine what you do not yet know

Improve Your MemoryImprove Your Memory

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MNEMONICS:

*Method of Loci (low-sye): Imagine a familiar sequence of places (bed, desk, chair)……to remember a grocery list, imagine tuna on the bed, shampoo spilled on the desk, and eggs open on the chair.

*Natural Language Mediators: make up a story using your list….(i..e.) The cat discovers I’m out of tuna so she interrupts me while I’m using shampoo and meows to egg me on.” OR

The teacher who used rhymes to remember (“i before e except after c”) (“thirty days hath September….)

*Remembering Names: You might visualize Bob’s face in a big “O” or Ann, you might visualize “Queen Ann sitting on a throne.”