memory memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

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Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

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Page 1: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Memory

Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Page 2: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Stages of memoryPsychologists believe that the process of memory involves three stages: encoding, storage and retrieval.

Encoding: Put in memoryStorage: Maintain in memoryRetrieval: Recover from memory

For anything to be remembered it must go through all of these stages.If failure occurs at any of these stages, the information will not be retrieved- will be forgotten.

Page 3: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

How good is your memory?

• The experimenter will read out a list of numbers from 1 number to 17 numbers.

• Starting from the top, the experimenter will read out one line of numbers to the participants, who will then have to write them down correctly.

• How many numbers do you think the participants will be able to remember?

Page 4: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

A psychological experiment...

• What did we find?

• In an experiment in 1956, George Miller, a psychologist discovered that the capacity of short term memory was limited. He came up up with the magical number 7 +/- 2 (basically between 5-9) units of information. Do our results fit with his?

• How would this information be useful in everyday life?• Phone numbers?

Page 5: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

How about this?• What about the letters below? How many can you

remember. You have 10 seconds to learn them.

DCS LOL OMG FBI CIA USA BBC IBM ABC

• Could you remember more? Why?

• Miller stressed the importance of “chunking” information.

• Could you use this information in everyday life?

Page 6: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Short-term memory and long-term memory

• Psychologists distinguish between short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM)

• STM cannot hold as much information and has a limited capacity.

• LTM memory can hold an apparently an unlimited amount of information and has a vast capacity.

Page 7: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

The Generation Game

Page 8: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Contestants…Ready?

Page 9: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Generation Game

Page 10: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Now write down your answers!

Page 11: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Swap and Mark…

HairdryerTomatoLamp GnomeCupCheeseBeansBBQTelephoneJeansTelevisionKitten/CatSunglassesCupcakeWheelie Bin

Page 12: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Primacy and Recency Effect

Glanzer & Cunitz (1966)

They carried out a similar experiment using lists of words. They found the following:

Early and later words, in the sequence, are more likely to be recalled (primacy and recency effect) due to the long term and short term memory effects.

Primacy effect occurs because the first words are likely to have been transferred into the long term memory store.

Recency effect occurs because the last words in the sequence are likely to be still in the short term memory store.

Glanzer & Cunitz additionally found that if there was a 10 second delay while a distraction task was performed, preventing rehearsal before recall, there was only primacy effect – the first few words were transferred into LTM only STM was effected.

This supports the idea that the STM and LTM are separate memory stores.

Page 13: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

How does your memory work?

Page 14: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Cognitive Psychology - memoryCognitive Psychologists try to use MODELS in order to try and illustrate human cognitive functioning e.g. memory.

Models of memory:

•The multi-store model

•The working memory model

•Levels of processing model

Page 15: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

What is a “Model”?

The Cognitive Psychologists tried to develop computer programs to mimic human cognitive functioning – however this didn’t work as the programs ended up being very time consuming & complex to operate…so…

They use flow charts (models) to illustrate the process…e.g. Multi Store Model

(Not this type)

Long Term Memory

Sensory Memory

Short TermMemory

Page 16: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Basically think of “models” like the tube map…

•Not an EXACT copy, but a representation of something

•Helps us understand how something works

Page 17: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

The First Memory Model

Multi-store Model(Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968)

Page 18: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Multi-store Model(Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968)

Sensory Memory (SM)

Short Term Memory (STM)

Long Term Memory (LTM)

Capacity

Duration

Attention Rehearsal

Rehearsal Loop

Terms

Encoding

Model

Decay

Interference

Displacement

Page 19: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

The Multi-store Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin1968)

SensoryMemory

(SM)

Short TermMemory(STM)

Long TermMemory(LTM)

SensoryInput

AttentionRetrieval

Rehearsal Loop

Tip: Remember this structural model…as it could be very useful for the future.

The model is a structural model because it focuses on the storage components of the memory system

Not attended to I.e. lost by DECAY

Lost by DECAY orDISPLACEMENT

Lost (not available)

EncodingSelective

Page 20: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Key Features of the MSM

•There are THREE different types of memory

•The Multi Store model describes the different types of memory as “memory stores”; Sensory Memory (SM), Short Term Memory (STM) and Long Term Memory (LTM)

•The model illustrates memory as a flow of information through an information processing system.

•The flow of information is fixed i.e. information can not by-pass the Sensory memory and go straight into the Short Term Memory store – has to go in sequence!!!

•At each stage of the process, there are constraints in terms of capacity,

duration and encoding.

Page 21: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

CAPACITY

DURATION

ENCODING

The length of time the information can be stored with the Individual stores

Amount of information which can be storedwithin the Individual stores

How the information is stored i.e. acoustic or semantic

What is meant by capacity, duration and encoding?

Each memory store differs in terms of the concepts above..so we are going to BREAK THE MODEL DOWN

Page 22: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

SENSORY MEMORY

Page 23: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

The Multi-store Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968)

SensoryMemory

(SM)

Short TermMemory(STM)

Long TermMemory(LTM)

SensoryInput

Attention

Encoding

Rehearsal Loop

Not attended to I.e. lost by DECAY

Lost by DECAY orDISPLACEMENT

Lost (not available)

Retrieval

Selective

Page 24: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Sensory Memory

Information coming from the external environment firstly goes into the SENSORY STORE. The store holds information for a fraction of a second after the physical stimulus is no longer available.

There are three separate sensory stores to hold different kinds of input:

ICONIC STORE:

ECHOIC STORE:

HAPTIC STORE:

e.g. colours, shapes, faces

e.g. music, voices, alarms

e.g. texture

Stored as images

Stored as sounds

Stored as feelings

Page 25: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

The Sensory Store sifts through a huge amounts of incoming sensory information in order to avoid overloading the system. The sensory memory holds on to an image/sound of the environment for a few milliseconds whilst they are scanned to decide which ones should be given attention and passed through the system for further processing.

Attention is an important term in the model. The sensory information,

given attention, pass through to the Short Term Memory.

Sensory Memory Store

Page 26: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

SENSORY MEMORY

CAPACITY Information enters the system from the environment and first registers on the sensory memory store. It is thought that there is unlimited capacity. However, it is hard to measure as it decays too quickly to be remembered.

DURATION Sensory memory holds information for a fraction of a second after the physical stimulus is no longer available. It is either attended to and passed to the STM or decays in a matter of seconds.

ENCODING Echoic store: auditory inputHaptic store: tactile inputIconic store: visual input

Page 27: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Sensory Memory

Look out for what colour the EXIT sign is?

Page 28: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information
Page 29: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Questions

• How many glasses were on the table?

• Were there any men in the picture? If so how many?

• What colour flowers were on the table?

• Was the lady in the black dress, in the centre of the picture, wearing a necklace?

Page 30: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

3 glasses

White flowers

Two men

Necklace

Page 31: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

You remember this because….

Your ATTENTION was focused on the question “what colour was the EXIT sign? ”

Therefore, according to the Multi Store Model, the information went from your SENSORY MEMORY STORE (ICONIC STORE) and filtered into your SHORT TERM MEMORY because you paid ATTENTION to the stimulus.

Input Stimulus(Party Scene)

Sensory StoreFiltering Party Scene

Exit Sign

Attention Short Term MemoryExit Sign

Long TermMemory

Encoding

Page 32: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

SHORT TERM MEMORY

Page 33: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

The Multi-store Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968)

SensoryMemory

(SM)

Short TermMemory(STM)

Long TermMemory(LTM)

SensoryInput

Attention Retrieval

Rehearsal Loop

Not attended to I.e. lost by DECAY

Lost by DECAY orDISPLACEMENT

Lost (not available)

Selective Encoding

Page 34: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Material given ATTENTION in the Sensory Memory (SM) will pass through to the Short Term Memory.

The Short Term Memory holds the information an individual is consciously thinking about at any one time.

Page 35: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Changing information to be remembered into a form which makes it suitable for the memory to deal with.

Short Term Memory prefers to encode information according to it’s sound – echoic.

Example

Your friend asks you to get them Subway sandwich – they ask for ….

Encoding

You have to wait in a very long queue.

How are you going to remember them???

No Pickles

Page 36: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

I would repeat them in my head – SUBVOCALLY – slightly to ourselves

You may choose to repeat them out loud – EXPLICITY VOCALISE

Encoding - STM

Page 37: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

It therefore suggests that the Short Term Memory (STM) prefers to code things

acoustically (in sounds).

This preference for sound was demonstrated by Conrad (1964)

Conrad (1964) •Used a string of letters to investigate short term memory

•A typical string maybe “AKJBSL”

•Letters presented very quickly on screen

•Results were very interesting….

•The letters B and V were muddled with P – sound the same

•But P was very rarely muddled with S

•Conrad said that it was the sound of the letters that mattered in encoding in the STM.

•Even though the visual information was presented on screen it must have been changed into sound for the errors to have occurred

Encoding - STM

Page 38: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Capacity - STM

Capacity is the amount of information which can be held.

“THE MAGIC number 7+/-2” Miller (1956)

Miller suggested that we could hold between five and nine items of information.

Example: try to remember one of these telephone numbers-

Mila Kunis’s telephone number:

0 7 7 8 9 9 5 6 7 6 5 1

Or, Ashton Kutcher’s telephone number:

0 7 7 9 5 1 6 8 6 9 0 1

Page 39: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

It’s difficult isn’t it…

Now try “CHUNKING”

Mila Kunis’s telephone number:

0 7 7 8 9 9 5 6 7 6 5 1

Or, Ashton Kutcher’s telephone number:

0 7 7 9 5 1 6 8 6 9 0 1Before the telephone numbers were too long – but – by CHUNKING the information into meaningful chunks should make it easier toremember!!!

Page 40: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Duration – STM

The length of time or duration that information can be held on to the STM is also limited

If a memory is not in use, it will quickly disappear

By repeating the information we are effectively making it re-enter the STM

Rehearsal prevents the information from disappearing and we can hold onto it for longer.

Page 41: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Duration – STM

STUDY – Peterson & Peterson (1959)

•Presented participants in their study with a TRIGRAM (three letters in alphabet – GLC)

•Then asked them to count backwards in threes

•It was found after 18 seconds of counting backwards they could notremember the trigrams

•The study by Peterson & Peterson suggested that STM has a limited duration.

•If we do not use information in our STM quickly it decays and is lost.

•The study also shows that STM is sensitive to INTERFERENCE

Page 42: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Maintenance Rehearsal – just keeps information in the Short Term Memory – Example repeating something over and over

Elaborative Rehearsal – the information is used and changed in someway. The way the information is rehearsed is important in whether it becomes more permanent. It is through elaborative rehearsal that information is passed into the LONG TERM MEMORY

Some researchers have distinguished between the types of rehearsal:

Page 43: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Short-termMemory

Capacity 7+/-2 itemsMiller proposed that most people have a digit span of 7+/-2 (i.e. 5-9). However he also suggested that if information is put into “CHUNKS” then we can hold 7+/-2 of these chunks in our STM

Duration Up to 30 seconds. After this, it is lost unless it is maintained in the store by rehearsal.

Peterson & Peterson (1959)Participants shown trigrams and asked them to recall them after a distraction (counting backwards in threes). They were able to recall about 80% after 3 seconds and only 10% after 18 seconds.

Encoding Mainly Acoustic

With enough rehearsal information is transferred into the LTM

Page 44: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

LONG TERM MEMORY

Page 45: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

The Multi-store Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968)

SensoryMemory

(SM)

Short TermMemory(STM)

Long TermMemory(LTM)

SensoryInput

Attention

Rehearsal Loop

Not attended to I.e. lost by DECAY

Lost by DECAY orDISPLACEMENT

Lost (not available)

Selective Encoding

Retrieval

Page 46: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Long Term Memory is where information is held for some period of time. It could be held for a few seconds to a life time.

Where all our knowledge/skills are held – swimming/cycling/cooking/names.

Without the Long Term Memory we would not be able to do even the simplest task.

Page 47: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Encoding - LTM

Information in the Long Term Memory is encoded in terms of meaning.

Another term for “meaning” is “semantic”

An example –

If people from the UK are trying to remember the word “barn” we are more likely to say “shed” or “hut” rather than “barn” – therefore we are looking at meaning rather than sound.

Page 48: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Capacity – LTM

UNLIMITED – estimating a upper limited is IMPOSSIBLE!!!

The amount of information that the LTM can hold is certainly very large indeed.

Example:

Luria (1968) studied a Russian journalist called Solomon Shereshevesky who appeared to have a limitless memory capacity. It is claimed that his memory was so perfect, he could remember nearly every detail of his life.

Page 49: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Duration - LTM

STUDY – Bahrick et al (1975)

•Bahrick et al (1975) 392 people were asked to name ex class mates.

•They were then given photos and asked to recall the names of the people shown (photo recognition test) or given the names and asked to match them to a photo (name recognition test).

•Within 15 years of leaving school, participants could still recognise 90% of names and faces. After 48 years recognition was still good at about 75%

Page 50: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Long-termMemory

Capacity Unlimited

Duration Can last up to a lifetime

Encoding Mainly Semantic

Page 51: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Summary-main theoretical claims.

• Memory is not unitary but comprises Three different memory stores. Namely Sensory, Short tem and Long term.

• These stores differ from each other in a number of respects including duration, capacity and encoding.

• Information flows between these stores in ways controlled by control processes such as attention, rehearsal and retrieval.

Page 52: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Experimental studies relevant to MSM

Over to you!

Each individual or pair will have to present the AMFE’s for the following studies:

Peterson and Peterson-PrindaMiller-JessBaddeley-Isabelle STM/Sofia LTMGlanzer and Cunitz-RonaldoHM and Clive Wearing–Maddy

In addition you will provide a summary of the study and explain why it is relevant to MSM.

Page 53: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Evaluating MSM

Strengths:

•The model pioneered the new approach to memory where humans are seen as information processors.•The model is supported by research which shows there are 3 distinctly different memory stores.•It has been possible to make predictions based on the model and to design experiments.•It could be argued that newer models simply elaborate on the MSM.

Page 54: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Evaluating MSM

Weaknesses:

•Offers too simplistic a view of how memory works. It does not fully account for how information is passed between stores, (e.g. how information from LTM may indicate what is important and relevant to pay attention to in the sensory memory). It is too simplistic to think that the stores can only communicate with each other in a linear fashion.•The importance of rehearsal for encoding into the LTM has been doubted. We can remember things when they are not rehearsed (e.g. flashbulb memory).

Page 55: Memory Memory is the process of taking in, storing and retrieving information

Evaluating MSM

Weaknesses continued:

•Research into encoding of LTM has challenged the single store version of LTM. It is now accepted that LTM contains several stores (e.g. semantic, episodic, procedural).•Too much emphasis on structures (the stores) at the expense of investigating processing in any detail (attention and rehearsal are mentioned not explained).