memory and forgetting
TRANSCRIPT
Memory is our ability to encode, store,retain and subsequently recall information and past experiences in the human brain.
Ryburn defines memory as “the power we have to store our experiences and to bring them into the field of consciousness sometimes after the experiences have occurred”
The process of memorization , can not be viewed merely in terms of reproduction or revival of past experiences or learning. It is quite a complex process which involves factors like learning, retention, recall and recognition .
Memory is the sum total of what we remember, and gives us the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as to build relationships.
It is the ability to remember past experiences, and the power or process of recalling to mind previously learned facts, experiences, impressions, skills and habits.
Our mind possesses a special ability by which every experience or learning leaves behind memory images or traces which are conserved in the forms of engrams .
Thus what is learned leaves its after effect which is conserved in the form of engrams composed of memory traces. This preservation of the memory traces by our central nervous system or brain is known as retention of the learned or experienced act
Learning Memory depends upon learning. It is not
possible to keep memorized any thing without learning. Learning by understanding and learning mechanically have significance in learning.
Retention Keeping the learnt things in the rain is its
retention. If the retention power of a person is weaken, his related memory also weaken. There are found individual difference in the retention power
Recall Remembering a prior experience is its recall.
Recall is such a mental process by which we bring to our present consciousness the past incidents and experiences without presenting a physical stimuli.
Recall classified into two: Natural or Dispositional : Natural recall occurs by itself when we let the thought flow freely, any thought can come to the mind. Reflective or Deliberative : here the thought occur to the mind on making effort. Eg. student recall the answer pertaining to the question given to the question paper.
Recognition It is a mental process by which an individual
separates or distinguishes recognized objects and places from unknown objects and places from a new objects or places.
Recognition is the completeness of memory
Here is a simplified description of how memory works:
Encoding: the information gets into our brains in a way that allows it to be stored
Storage: the information is held in a way that allows it to later be retrieved
Retrieval: reactivating and recalling the information, producing it in a form similar to what was encoded
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Encoding is based on perception and is the first step to creating a memory.
The strength of the memory depends on how much attention is paid to the stimuli.
During encoding memories are developed in the hippocampus by using the language of electricity and chemicals.
When we create new memories with words and images it adds strength to our encoding abilities.
LIONLION BEARBEAR PIGPIG
COWCOW CHICKENCHICKEN BIRDBIRD
ELEPHANTELEPHANT GIRAFFEGIRAFFE DOGDOG
Which of the following words was not on the list?
A. Lion B. Chicken C. Elephant D. Tiger E. Dog
HATEHATE IRATEIRATE HAPPYHAPPY
MADMAD FURIOUSFURIOUS MEANMEAN
CALMCALM ENRAGEDENRAGED FUMINGFUMING
Storage is the process of retaining the information gathered in the initial stages of encoding.
Memory storage is made up of three memory systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
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Sensory memory extends the duration of the perception of stimuli long enough that they can be recognized, transformed (encoded), and relayed to conscious awareness.
Short-term memory (STM) has a limited duration (15 to 30 seconds) and a limited capacity, believed to be about seven pieces of information.
Long-term memory (LTM) has an unlimited capacity and a very long duration; it is virtually limitless
Retrieval is the process of getting information out of memory.
Retrieval cues are stimuli that can be used to help retrieve memories.
Priming is the process of identifying that lead to a memory.
Memory: Active system that receives, stores, organizes, alters, and recovers (retrieves) information
Encoding: Converting information into a useable form
Storage: Holding this information in memory for later use
Retrieval: Taking memories out of storage
Types/ Kinds of memoryHabit Memory and True MemoryHabit memory is depends upon mere motor
mechanism and the true memory depends on independent recollections
Immediate memory : Here we learn and remember a thing for a short time and forget it
Permanent memory: Here retention is of a permanent nature. It is also known as stable memory. Here we memories things for a lifetime/long time
Rote memory: Here things are learned without understanding their meaning
Active memory : when we are able to bring the past experience to the upper level of consciousness with effort , it is called active memory
Passive memory : when our past experiences surface to the upper level of consciousness without any effort, it is called passive memory
Logical memory: materials are learned with insight, understanding and logical thinking is known as logical memory
Associate memory: Here the individual associate newly learned things so many related things existing in the memory and then establish a multiple connections
Immediate understanding Immediate recall Immediate recognition Stability of recognition Forgetting useless things
Stages of Memory According to the most acceptable model of memory, there are
three major systems of memory : The Sensory Memory; Short-term memory(STM), and Long-Term Memory(LTM). Information moves successively through these three systems,
if attention is given to the material. If attention (focused awareness) is not given, information does not move further into the system.
Methods of MemoryWhole method Under this method the whole subject matter is learnt
at a time. Under this method the lesson is read from beginning to end repeatedly. This method is quite useful for smaller lessons
Part method Here the subject matter is divided into separate
parts. Eg learning long poetry in parts. This method is simple and convenient
Break/interval method Here the subject matter is learnt by taking intervals .
Learning things over long time continuously may weaken memory. It relaxes the mind and readies learning.
Continuous Method Under this method the whole subject matter is
memorized in one sitting without giving a break in between.
This method is effective for immediate memoryActive method Under this method the subject matter is memorized by
speaking loudly . This method is more beneficial for children.
Passive method Under this method the subject matter is learnt silently.Association method Here the subject matter is correlated to any other
important subject matter , by which there are less chance of forgetting the subject matter.
Learning by activity Here the subject matter is learned through an
activity by which all senses of the child become active and it helps to memorize easily and conveniently.
Repetition method Here the subject matter is repeated at the
end of the lesson. Generally the more the time given to repetition of a subject, the more it is memorized
Factors influencing memoryPhysical and mental health A physically and mentally healthy individual
can learn a new topic soon. Diseased body and mind weaken memory
MotivationMotivation occupies a very prominent place
in memory. Motivation makes a difficult task easy .
Desire to learn Desire or curiosity to learn also influence on
memory . No task can be accomplished by pressure.
Subject matter If the subject matter is simple, clear,
interesting and useful, the child memorize subject mater easily.
Method of learningThe method of learning has influence on
memory. If the method suitable to the subject is not adapted the children never learn or memorize it
Testing Child memory can be developed by testing,
so testing and evaluation should continue in order to keep memory active .
Sensory memory holds representations of sensory input for brief periods of time, depending upon the modality involved.
There are different sensory registers for each of the senses.
The visual register is called iconic memory and auditory register, echoic memory.
The iconic memory lasts about half a second and the echoic memory lasts several seconds.
Most of the information that enters our sensory registers is lost because we do not attend to all that is registered, whatever we attend to moves on to the next stage of memory.
Visual sensory memory—brief memory of an image or icon. Also called iconic memory.
Auditory sensory memory—brief memory of a sound or echo. Also called echoic memory.
Auditory sensory memories may last a bit longer than visual sensory memories
In this memory , the retention time is extremely brief. Old sensory impressions are disappear as they are erased by new memory.
Here we learn a thing immediately with speed and accuracy, remember it for a short duration and forget it rapidly after usage.
A second type of memory is known as short-term memory or STM. It holds relatively small amounts of information for brief periods of time, usually 30 seconds or less.
Where sensory data is first transmitted to for processing and evaluation
This is the memory system we use when we look up at the phone number and dial it. If we are connected on the first instance the telephone number is forgotten. However, if we get the line engaged for some time, we keep on dialing the number and through repeated dialing rehearsal of the telephone number pushes it to the long-term memory (LTM) storage.
Short term Memory holds small amounts of information briefly◦ Working Memory is the another name for STM◦ Selective Attention: Focusing (voluntarily) on a
selected portion of sensory input (e.g., selective hearing)
◦ Phonetically: Storing information by sound; how most things are stored in STM by sound (phonetically)
Long - Term Memory (LTM) : It is a memory system for the retention of large amounts of information for long periods of time. It is the memory system that permits us to remember events that happened many years ago, yesterday, last year, and so on.
It is the long term memory that allows you to remember factual information that makes it possible for us to
LTM codes information according to meaning, pattern and other characteristics
learn different subjects, appear in the examinations and perform communication with others etc. It brings continuity and meaning in our life.
• Storing information relatively permanently • Stored on basis of meaning and importance
Three memory stores that differ in function, capacity and duration
Long-term memory
Working orShort-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
AttentionEncoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Function —process for basic physical characteristics
Capacity—large◦ can hold many items at once
Duration—very brief retention of images◦ .3 sec for visual info◦ 2 sec for auditory info
Divided into two types:◦ iconic memory–visual information◦ echoic memory– auditory
information Attention is needed to
transfer information to working memory
Sensory
InputSensoryMemory
Working orShort-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
Attention
Function—conscious processing of information◦ where information is actively worked on
Capacity—limited (holds 7+/-2 items) Duration—brief storage (about 30 seconds)
Working orShort-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
Attention
Mental or verbal repetition of information allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds
Working orShort-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
Attention
Maintenance Rehearsal
Grouping small bits of information into larger units of information
Some people are able to retain much more information in their short term memories by the process of chunking, which groups information by coding ◦ expands working memory load
Which is easier to remember?◦ 4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6◦ 483 792 516◦ 1491625364981◦ As 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81
Once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory
Long-term memory
Working orShort-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
AttentionEncoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Function—organizes and stores information◦ more passive form of storage than working memory
Unlimited capacity Duration—thought by some to be permanent
Long-term memory
Working orShort-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
AttentionEncoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Encoding—process that controls movement from working to long-term memory store
Retrieval—process that controls flow of information from long-term to working memory store
Long-term memory
Working orShort-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
AttentionEncoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Episodic and semantic memory Episodic memory is connected with episodes
and events. It my consist of personal events and experiences associated with one’s life.
What event has happened during one’s life is stored in the shape of episodic memory traces organized according to time ,space and other characteristics.
Thus episodic memory is the memory which depends on retrieving the particular events or episodes experienced by a person through his direct or indirect experiences.
Semantic memory helps in storing as well as retrieving a collection of relationships between events or association of ideas
Semantic memory is based on general knowledge coupled with meaningful interpretation, generalized rules, principles and formulae. Eg CO2, name of capital of the state
Semantic memory impressions are more or less permanent. Their recall does not necessarily depends on the retrieval of some specific episodes from the past.
Semantic memory is not as personal as episodic .
Eg meaning of the symbol CO2, name of capital of the state are common to each individuals semantic memory
Photographic memory The term Photographic memory stands for
a kind of memory possessed by an individual who can remember a scene in photographic detail. The technical term used for such memory is eidetic imagery
Paranormal memory This distinctive and unusual type of
memory, popularly known as reincarnation has emerged as result of research in the filed of psychology. This memory reflects an individuals regression not only in terms of time but also in terms of space and matter.
Techniques for memorisation Improvement of memory mainly influenced by – A, the techniques and methods of learning B, the learning situation and environment C, the learners state of mindAssociation Association is technique for memorisation in which the
new information that needs to be memorised is associated/linked to information that is not likely to forget.
Mnemonics Mnemonics are techniques for improving
memory. It is Greek word meaning “aid” to memory. A mnemonics is defined as some device which aids the memorisation of something. This system usually makes use of visual imaginary to provide useful association.
Common mnemonic techniquesAcronym: it is a technique for remembering
names, phrases etc by using the first letter of each word to form a new word.
Acrostic : it is an invented where the first letter of each word is a cue to an idea we need to remember. YIBGYOR
Chunking
Method of loci. The word loci means location or places in Latin and the loci method is based on the assumption that location can be serve as an effective cue for remembering the material.
INTEREST: For proper memorizing, interest in the topic or
subject is essential. There is a popular saying "we can take the horse to water for drinking but we can not make him drink unless he is interested in drinking." Similar is the case with the children.
REPETITION: Repetition and its quality affect memorizing.
Several psychological experiments have shown that the items repeated more often are remembered longer than those repeated less. However, repetition should be with understanding.
RECITATION: In this method, the learner tries to recite and recall the subject matter without looking at
the paper. In this method, the learner checks up from time to time. According to A. I. Gates (1942), in this method, weak connections are easily discovered and more attention is paid to them. The sense of accomplishment encourages the learner to make greater effort. Errors are easily detected and are soon eliminated.
Forgetting Forgetting is inability to recall a learnt topic or
inability recognize a seen object.“Forgetting means failure at any time to recall
an experience when attempting to do so or to perform an action previously learned” – Drever
“forgetting is the failure of the individual to revive in consciousness an idea or group of ideas without the help of the original stimuli”- Bhatia
Types of forgetting Forgetting may be broadly classified into
natural and morbid forgetting in natural or passive forgetting, forgetting
occurs with the lapse of time in a quite normal way without any intention of forgetting on the part of the individual
In morbid or abnormal forgetting one deliberately tries to forget something.
Causes of forgetting Meaninglessness of content We forget meaningless and useless content as
compared to meaningful and useful content, because meaningless content does not leave any imprint on the mind and it fails to establish any relationship with life.
Time Lapse We forget with the passage of time. Memory
weakens with the passage of time and forgetting strengthen.
Exercise So long the knowledge or activity is not
repeatedly exercised, it gradually forget. Forgetting occurs due to the absence of exercise, therefore more exercise is helpful in memory.
Mental conflict or Mental illness Situations like mental conflicts or illness
people find himself unable to retain a thing in memory for a long time.
Anxiety Anxiety also cause in enhancing forgetting.
An individual forgets many things or does them wrongly when he is anxious.
Learning methods When the teacher does not use the method
which are according to the physical, mental, emotional and social levels of the child, then the forgetting occurs more by the use of these methods.
Intoxicants Excessive use of different type of intoxicants
has ill effect on the mind and memory power weakens.
Theories of forgetting The trace decay theory Some psychologists think that it is due to fading of
memory traces or decay that happens with lapse of time. Decay is what supposedly occur when the passage of time causes us to forget. The memory trace (or engram) fades and the memory is no longer available.
The trace decay theory of forgetting states that all memories fade automatically as a function of time. Under this theory, you need to follow a certain pathway, or trace, to recall a memory. If this pathway goes unused for some amount of time, the memory decays, which leads to difficulty recalling, or the inability to recall, the memory.
Rehearsal or mentally going over a memory, can slow this process. But disuse of a trace will lead to memory decay, which will ultimately cause retrieval failure. This process begins almost immediately if the information is not used: for example, sometimes we forget a person's name even though we have just met them.
Interference Theory It is easier to remember recent events than those further in
the past. "Transience" refers to the general deterioration of a specific memory over time.
Under interference theory, transience occurs because all memories interfere with the ability to recall other memories.
Proactive and retroactive interference can impact how well we are able to recall a memory, and sometimes cause us to forget things permanently
(i) Proactive Interference Proactive interference occurs when old memories hinder the
ability to make new memories. In this type of interference, old information inhibits the ability to remember new information, such as when outdated scientific facts interfere with the ability to remember updated facts. This often occurs when memories are learned in similar contexts, or regarding similar things. use us to forget things permanently.
Retroactive Interference Retroactive interference occurs when old memories are
changed by new ones, sometimes so much that the original memory is forgotten.
This is when newly learned information interferes with and impedes the recall of previously learned information. The ability to recall previously learned information is greatly reduced if that information is not utilized, and there is substantial new information being presented. This often occurs when hearing recent news figures, then trying to remember earlier facts and figures.
Cue-Dependent Forgetting When we store a memory, we not only record all
sensory data, we also store our mood and emotional state.
Our current mood thus will affect the memories that are most effortlessly available to us, such that when we are in a good mood, we recollect good memories, and when we are in a bad mood, we recollect bad ones. This suggests that we are sometimes cued to remember certain things by, for example, our emotional state or our environment.
Cue-dependent forgetting, also known as retrieval failure, is the failure to recall information in the absence of memory cues.
There are three types of cues that can stop this type of forgetting:
Semantic cues are used when a memory is retrieved because of its association with another memory. For example, someone forgets everything about his trip to a place until he is reminded that he visited a certain friend there, and that cue causes him to recollect many more events of the trip.
State-dependent cues are governed by the state of mind at the time of encoding. The emotional or mental state of the person (such as being inebriated, drugged, upset, anxious, or happy) is key to establishing cues.
Context-dependent cues depend on the environment and situation. Memory retrieval can be facilitated or triggered by replication of the context in which the memory was encoded. Such conditions can include weather, company, location, the smell of a particular odor, hearing a certain song, or even tasting a specific flavor.
Motivated forgetting: repression Freud emphasized the emotional basis of forgetting
and through the concept of repression suggests a means by which threatening material can be kept from consciousness — motivated forgetting. He used the term repression to describe the tendency to avoid remembering anything associated with fear or unpleasantness of kind.
This account of forgetting is highly controversial. While there is general agreement that traumatic experiences have the potential to disturb people’s memories, there are many concerns over the implications of the theory of repressed memories. One area has been the suggestion that repressed memories from childhood can be recovered using appropriate therapeutic techniques.
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