medulla oblongata cerebellum diencephalon: cerebrum brain stem: thalamus epithalamus hypothalamus...
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Medulla oblongata
Cerebellum
Diencephalon:
Cerebrum
Brain stem:
ThalamusEpithalamusHypothalamusPineal gland
Midbrain
Pons
Spinal cord
Pituitary
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Central Nervous System (CNS)
• CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord
• Cephalization– Evolutionary development of the rostral
(anterior) portion of the CNS– Increased number of neurons in the head– Highest level is reached in the human brain
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Embryonic Development
• Neural plate forms from ectoderm
• Neural plate invaginates to form a neural groove and neural folds
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Figure 12.1, step 1
The neural plate forms from surface ectoderm.1
Head
Tail
Surfaceectoderm
Neuralplate
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Figure 12.1, step 2
The neural plate invaginates, forming the neuralgroove, flanked by neural folds.2
Neural folds
Neuralgroove
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Embryonic Development
• Neural groove fuses dorsally to form the neural tube
• Neural tube gives rise to the brain and spinal cord
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Figure 12.1, step 3
Neural fold cells migrate to form the neural crest,which will form much of the PNS and many otherstructures.
3
Neural crest
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Figure 12.1, step 4
The neural groove becomes the neural tube, whichwill form CNS structures.4
Surfaceectoderm
Head
Tail
Neuraltube
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Embryonic Development
• Anterior end of the neural tube gives rise to three primary brain vesicles– Prosencephalon—forebrain– Mesencephalon—midbrain– Rhombencephalon—hindbrain
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(a)Neuraltube
(b) Primary brainvesicles
Anterior(rostral)
Posterior(caudal)
Rhombencephalon(hindbrain)
Mesencephalon(midbrain)
Prosencephalon(forebrain)
Figure 12.2a-b
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Embryonic Development
• Primary vesicles give rise to five secondary brain vesicles– Telencephalon and diencephalon arise
from the forebrain– Mesencephalon remains undivided– Metencephalon and myelencephalon arise
from the hindbrain
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Embryonic Development
• Telencephalon cerebrum (two hemispheres with cortex, white matter, and basal nuclei)
• Diencephalon thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and retina
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Embryonic Development
• Mesencephalon brain stem (midbrain)
• Metencephalon brain stem (pons) and cerebellum
• Myelencephalon brain stem (medulla oblongata)
• Central canal of the neural tube enlarges to form fluid-filled ventricles
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(d) Adult brainstructures
(c) Secondary brainvesicles
Spinal cord
Cerebellum
Brain stem: medullaoblongata
Brain stem: pons
Brain stem: midbrain
Diencephalon(thalamus, hypothalamus,epithalamus), retina
Cerebrum: cerebralhemispheres (cortex,white matter, basal nuclei)
Myelencephalon
Metencephalon
Mesencephalon
Diencephalon
Telencephalon
Central canal
Fourthventricle
Cerebralaqueduct
Third ventricle
Lateralventricles
(e) Adultneural canalregions
Figure 12.2c-e
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Effect of Space Restriction on Brain Development
• Midbrain flexure and cervical flexure cause forebrain to move toward the brain stem
• Cerebral hemispheres grow posteriorly and laterally
• Cerebral hemisphere surfaces crease and fold into convolutions
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Figure 12.3a
Metencephalon
Anterior (rostral) Posterior (caudal)
MesencephalonDiencephalon Midbrain
Cervical
Spinal cord
Flexures
TelencephalonMyelencephalon
(a) Week 5
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Figure 12.3b
MidbrainCerebellumPonsMedulla oblongata
Spinal cord
Cerebral hemisphere
Outline of diencephalon
(b) Week 13
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Figure 12.3c
CerebellumPonsMedullaoblongata Spinal cord
Cerebralhemisphere
(c) Week 26
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Coverings of the Brain- Meninges
skin
skulldura mater
arachnoid layer
pia mater
cerebral cortex
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Menenges:
1.Covers and protects CNS
2.Protects blood vessels and
encloses venus sinuses
3.Contains CSF
4.Forms partition within the skull
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Ventricles of the Brain
• Connected to one another and to the central canal of the spinal cord
• Lined by ependymal cells
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Ventricles of the Brain
• Contain cerebrospinal fluid– Two C-shaped lateral ventricles in the
cerebral hemispheres– Third ventricle in the diencephalon– Fourth ventricle in the hindbrain, dorsal to
the pons, develops from the lumen of the neural tube
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Cerebruspinal Fluid
Brain
Ventricles
CSF
Spinal Cord
Anterior View Saggital View
Rt. Ventricle Lf. Ventricle
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Figure 12.5
Anterior horn
Interventricularforamen
Inferiorhorn
Lateralaperture
(b) Left lateral view
Lateral ventricle
Septum pellucidum
Third ventricle
Cerebral aqueduct
(a) Anterior view
Fourth ventricleCentral canal
Inferior horn
Posteriorhorn
MedianapertureLateralaperture
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CSF • 150 ml in adult• contains: glucose, proteins,lactic acid,
urea, cations, anions, WBC Functions:
1.Reduces wt. of brain by 97%2.Prevents head injury3.Supplies brain with nutrition4.Transports hormones along
ventricular channels
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Figure 12.26a
Superiorsagittal sinus
Arachnoid villus
Subarachnoid spaceArachnoid materMeningeal dura materPeriosteal dura mater
Right lateral ventricle(deep to cut)Choroid plexusof fourth ventricle
Central canalof spinal cord
Choroidplexus
Interventricularforamen
Third ventricle
Cerebral aqueductLateral apertureFourth ventricleMedian aperture
(a) CSF circulation
CSF is produced by thechoroid plexus of eachventricle.
1
CSF flows through theventricles and into the subarachnoid space via the median and lateral apertures. Some CSF flows through the central canal of the spinal cord.
2
CSF flows through thesubarachnoid space. 3
CSF is absorbed into the dural venoussinuses via the arachnoid villi. 4
1
2
3
4
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Figure 12.26b
Ependymalcells
Capillary
Connectivetissue ofpia mater
Wastes andunnecessarysolutes absorbed
Sectionof choroidplexus
(b) CSF formation by choroid plexuses
Cavity ofventricle
CSF forms as a filtratecontaining glucose, oxygen, vitamins, and ions(Na+, Cl–, Mg2+, etc.)
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Blood-Brain Barrier
1. Protects the brain from "foreign substances" in the blood that may injure the brain.
2. Protects the brain from hormones and neurotransmitters in the rest of the body.
3. Maintains a constant environment for the brain.
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Blood-Brain Barrier
• Composition– Continuous endothelium of capillary walls– Basal lamina– Feet of astrocytes
• Provide signal to endothelium for the formation of tight junctions
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Figure 11.3a
(a) Astrocytes are the most abundantCNS neuroglia.
Capillary
Neuron
Astrocyte
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Blood-Brain Barrier: Functions
• Selective barrier– Allows nutrients to move by facilitated
diffusion– Allows any fat-soluble substances to pass,
including alcohol, nicotine, and anesthetics
• Absent in some areas, hypothalamus, pitutary, pineal body and vomiting center
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The BBB can be broken down by
1. Hypertension (high blood pressure): high blood pressure opens the BBB.
2. Development: the BBB is not fully formed at birth.3. Hyperosmolitity: a high concentration of a substance in
the blood can open the BBB.4. Microwaves: exposure to microwaves can open the BBB. 5. Radiation: exposure to radiation can open the BBB.6. Infection: exposure to infectious agents can open the
BBB.7. Trauma, Ischemia, Inflammation, Pressure: injury to the
brain can open the BBB.
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Cerebral Hemispheres
• Surface markings– Ridges (gyri), shallow grooves (sulci), and
deep grooves (fissures)– Five lobes
• Frontal• Parietal • Temporal • Occipital• Insula
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Cerebral Hemispheres
• Surface markings– Central sulcus
• Separates the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe and the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe
– Longitudinal fissure• Separates the two hemispheres
– Transverse cerebral fissure• Separates the cerebrum and the cerebellum
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Figure 12.6a
Postcentralgyrus
Centralsulcus
Precentralgyrus
Frontallobe
(a)
Parietal lobeParieto-occipital sulcus(on medial surfaceof hemisphere)Lateral sulcus
Transverse cerebral fissure
Occipital lobeTemporal lobe
CerebellumPons
Medulla oblongataSpinal cord
Cortex (gray matter)
Fissure(a deepsulcus)
Gyrus
SulcusWhite matter
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Figure 12.6b
Centralsulcus
(b)
Frontal lobe
Temporal lobe(pulled down)
Gyri of insula
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Figure 12.6c
Parietallobe
Frontal lobe
Right cerebralhemisphere
Occipitallobe
Left cerebralhemisphere
Cerebral veinsand arteriescovered byarachnoidmater
Longitudinalfissure
Posterior(c)
Anterior
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Figure 12.6d
Left cerebralhemisphere
TransversecerebralfissureCerebellum
Brain stem
(d)
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Cerebral Cortex
• Thin (2–4 mm) superficial layer of gray matter• 40% of the mass of the brain• Site of conscious mind: awareness, sensory
perception, voluntary motor initiation, communication, memory storage, understanding
• Each hemisphere connects to contralateral side of the body
• There is lateralization of cortical function in the hemispheres
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Functional Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
• The three types of functional areas are:– Motor areas—control voluntary movement– Sensory areas—conscious awareness of
sensation– Association areas—integrate diverse
information
• Conscious behavior involves the entire cortex
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Motor Areas
• Primary (somatic) motor cortex
• Premotor cortex
• Broca’s area
• Frontal eye field
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Figure 12.8a
Gustatory cortex(in insula)
Primary motor cortex
Premotor cortex
Frontal eye field
Working memoryfor spatial tasksExecutive area fortask managementWorking memory forobject-recall tasks
Broca’s area(outlined by dashes)
Solving complex,multitask problems
(a) Lateral view, left cerebral hemisphere
Motor areas
Prefrontal cortex
Sensory areas and relatedassociation areas
Central sulcus
Primary somatosensorycortexSomatosensoryassociation cortex
Somaticsensation
Taste
Wernicke’s area(outlined by dashes)
Primary visualcortexVisualassociation area
Vision
Auditoryassociation areaPrimaryauditory cortex
Hearing
Primary motor cortex Motor association cortex Primary sensory cortex
Sensory association cortex Multimodal association cortex
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Primary Motor Cortex
• Large pyramidal cells of the precentral gyri• Long axons pyramidal (corticospinal) tracts • Allows conscious control of precise, skilled,
voluntary movements• Motor homunculi: upside-down caricatures
representing the motor innervation of body regions
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Figure 12.9
Toes
Swallowing
Tongue
Jaw
Primary motorcortex(precentral gyrus)
MotorMotor map inprecentral gyrus
Posterior
Anterior
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Premotor Cortex
• Anterior to the precentral gyrus
• Controls learned, repetitious, or patterned motor skills
• Coordinates simultaneous or sequential actions
• Involved in the planning of movements that depend on sensory feedback
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Broca’s Area
• Anterior to the inferior region of the premotor area
• Present in one hemisphere (usually the left)
• A motor speech area that directs muscles of the tongue
• Is active as one prepares to speak
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Frontal Eye Field
• Anterior to the premotor cortex and superior to Broca’s area
• Controls voluntary eye movements
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Sensory Areas
• Primary somatosensory cortex
• Somatosensory association cortex
• Visual areas• Auditory areas
• Olfactory cortex• Gustatory cortex• Visceral sensory
area• Vestibular cortex
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Figure 12.8a
Gustatory cortex(in insula)
Primary motor cortex
Premotor cortex
Frontal eye field
Working memoryfor spatial tasksExecutive area fortask managementWorking memory forobject-recall tasks
Broca’s area(outlined by dashes)
Solving complex,multitask problems
(a) Lateral view, left cerebral hemisphere
Motor areas
Prefrontal cortex
Sensory areas and relatedassociation areas
Central sulcus
Primary somatosensorycortexSomatosensoryassociation cortex
Somaticsensation
Taste
Wernicke’s area(outlined by dashes)
Primary visualcortexVisualassociation area
Vision
Auditoryassociation areaPrimaryauditory cortex
Hearing
Primary motor cortex Motor association cortex Primary sensory cortex
Sensory association cortex Multimodal association cortex
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Motor, Sensory & Association Cortex
Motor, Sensory & Association Cortex
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Primary Somatosensory Cortex
• In the postcentral gyri
• Receives sensory information from the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints
• Capable of spatial discrimination: identification of body region being stimulated
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Figure 12.9
Genitals
Intra-abdominal
Primary somato-sensory cortex(postcentral gyrus)
SensorySensory map inpostcentral gyrus
Posterior
Anterior
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Somatosensory Association Cortex
• Posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex
• Integrates sensory input from primary somatosensory cortex
• Determines size, texture, and relationship of parts of objects being felt
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Visual Areas
• Primary visual (striate) cortex– Extreme posterior tip of the occipital lobe– Most of it is buried in the calcarine sulcus– Receives visual information from the
retinas
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Visual Areas
• Visual association area– Surrounds the primary visual cortex– Uses past visual experiences to interpret
visual stimuli (e.g., color, form, and movement)
– Complex processing involves entire posterior half of the hemispheres
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Auditory Areas
• Primary auditory cortex– Superior margin of the temporal lobes– Interprets information from inner ear as
pitch, loudness, and location
• Auditory association area– Located posterior to the primary auditory
cortex– Stores memories of sounds and permits
perception of sounds
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OIfactory Cortex
• Medial aspect of temporal lobes (in piriform lobes)
• Part of the primitive rhinencephalon, along with the olfactory bulbs and tracts– (Remainder of the rhinencephalon in
humans is part of the limbic system)
• Region of conscious awareness of odors
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Gustatory Cortex
• In the insula
• Involved in the perception of taste
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Visceral Sensory Area
• Posterior to gustatory cortex
• Conscious perception of visceral sensations, e.g., upset stomach or full bladder
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Vestibular Cortex
• Posterior part of the insula and adjacent parietal cortex
• Responsible for conscious awareness of balance (position of the head in space)
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Figure 12.8a
Gustatory cortex(in insula)
Primary motor cortex
Premotor cortex
Frontal eye field
Working memoryfor spatial tasksExecutive area fortask managementWorking memory forobject-recall tasks
Broca’s area(outlined by dashes)
Solving complex,multitask problems
(a) Lateral view, left cerebral hemisphere
Motor areas
Prefrontal cortex
Sensory areas and relatedassociation areas
Central sulcus
Primary somatosensorycortexSomatosensoryassociation cortex
Somaticsensation
Taste
Wernicke’s area(outlined by dashes)
Primary visualcortexVisualassociation area
Vision
Auditoryassociation areaPrimaryauditory cortex
Hearing
Primary motor cortex Motor association cortex Primary sensory cortex
Sensory association cortex Multimodal association cortex
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Figure 12.8b
Frontal eye field
Prefrontalcortex
Processes emotionsrelated to personaland social interactions
(b) Parasagittal view, right hemisphere
Olfactory bulbOrbitofrontalcortex
Olfactory tractFornix
Temporal lobe
Corpuscallosum
Premotor cortexPrimarymotor cortex
Cingulategyrus Central sulcus
Primary somatosensorycortex
Parietal lobe
Parieto-occipitalsulcus
Somatosensoryassociation cortex
OccipitallobeVisualassociationarea
Calcarine sulcusParahippocampalgyrus
UncusPrimaryolfactory cortex
Primaryvisual cortex
Primary motor cortex Motor association cortex Primary sensory cortex
Sensory association cortex Multimodal association cortex
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Multimodal Association Areas
• Receive inputs from multiple sensory areas
• Send outputs to multiple areas, including the premotor cortex
• Allow us to give meaning to information received, store it as memory, compare it to previous experience, and decide on action to take
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Multimodal Association Areas
• Three parts–Anterior association area
(prefrontal cortex)
–Posterior association area
–Limbic association area
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Anterior Association Area (Prefrontal Cortex)
• Most complicated cortical region• Involved with intellect, cognition, recall,
and personality• Contains working memory needed for
judgment, reasoning, persistence, and conscience
• Development depends on feedback from social environment
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Posterior Association Area
• Large region in temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes
• Plays a role in recognizing patterns and faces and localizing us in space
• Involved in understanding written and spoken language (Wernicke’s area)
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Limbic Association Area
• Part of the limbic system
• Provides emotional impact that helps establish memories
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The Limbic SystemThe Limbic SystemThe Limbic System
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cerebrum corpus callosum
thalamus
cerebellum
medulla oblongata
hypothalamus
pituitary
pons
spinal cord
Pineal glandmid brain
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Cerebrum
• Involved with higher brain functions.• Processes sensory information.• Initiates motor functions.• Integrates information.
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Cerebrum Cross-SectionCerebrum Cross-Section
basal ganglia ventricles
corpus callosum
white matter
cerebral cortex
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Right-Left Specialization of the Cerebrum
left side– language development– mathematical & learning capabilities– sequential thought processes
right side– visual spatial skills– musical and artistic activities– intuitive abilities
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
• Records electrical activity that accompanies brain function
• Measures electrical potential differences between various cortical areas
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Figure 12.20a
(a) Scalp electrodes are used to record brain waveactivity (EEG).
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Brain Waves
• Patterns of neuronal electrical activity
• Generated by synaptic activity in the cortex
• Each person’s brain waves are unique
• Can be grouped into four classes based on frequency measured as Hertz (Hz)
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Types of Brain Waves
Alpha waves: • 8-13 Hz• awake or resting w/eyes closed• disappear during sleep
Beta Waves:• 14-30 Hz• sensory input and mental activity
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Brain WavesTheta Waves: • 4-7 Hz• emotional stress
Delta Waves:• 1-5 Hz• deep sleep in adults• normal in awake infants
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Figure 12.20b
Alpha waves—awake but relaxed
Beta waves—awake, alert
Theta waves—common in children
Delta waves—deep sleep
(b) Brain waves shown in EEGs fall intofour general classes.
1-second interval
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Brain Waves: State of the Brain
• Change with age, sensory stimuli, brain disease, and the chemical state of the body
• EEGs used to diagnose and localize brain lesions, tumors, infarcts, infections, abscesses, and epileptic lesions
• A flat EEG (no electrical activity) is clinical evidence of death
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Epilepsy
• A victim of epilepsy may lose consciousness, fall stiffly, and have uncontrollable jerking
• Epilepsy is not associated with intellectual impairments
• Epilepsy occurs in 1% of the population
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Epileptic Seizures
• Absence seizures, or petit mal– Mild seizures seen in young children where
the expression goes blank
• Tonic-clonic (grand mal) seizures– Victim loses consciousness, bones are
often broken due to intense contractions, may experience loss of bowel and bladder control, and severe biting of the tongue
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Control of Epilepsy
• Anticonvulsive drugs
• Vagus nerve stimulators implanted under the skin of the chest can keep electrical activity of the brain from becoming chaotic
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DiencephalonDiencephalon• Thalamus• Epithalamus:
- pineal- habenular nuclei
• Hypothalamus• Subthalamus
- subthalamic nuclei
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Diencephalon
thalamus
hypothalamus
pituitary
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Diencephalon
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Thalamus
• Relay center for sensory tracts from the spinal cord to the cerebrum.
• Contains centers for sensation of pain, temperature, and touch.
• Involved with emotions and alerting or arousal mechanisms.
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Thalamus
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The Reticular Formation
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Epithalamus
Pineal gland & habenular nuclei
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Subthalamus• Subthalamic nuclei• Portions of red nucleus• Portions of substantia nigra (dopamine)
Substantia nigraSubthalamic nuclei
Red nucleus
Substantia nigra
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Hypothalamus
• autonomic control center- blood pressure, autonomic control center- blood pressure, rate and force of heart contraction, center rate and force of heart contraction, center for emotional response and behaviorfor emotional response and behavior
• body temperaturebody temperature• water balance and thirstwater balance and thirst• sleep/wake cyclessleep/wake cycles• appetiteappetite• sexual arousalsexual arousal• control of endocrine functioning:control of endocrine functioning:Acts on the pituitary gland through the Acts on the pituitary gland through the
release of neurosecretions.release of neurosecretions.
Regulates:Regulates:
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Hypothalamus
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Pituitary
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• Cerebellar peduncles• Tectum• Superior colliculi• Inferior colliculi• Substantia nigra• Red nuclei
Midbrain
thalamus
Red nucleus
Substantia nigra
Tectu
mPosterior
Anterior
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Midbrain
• Contains ascending and descending tracts to the cerebrum and thalamus.
• Reflex center for eye muscles.• Also involved with processing visual
and auditory information (connects head movements with visual and auditory stimuli).
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Pons
• Connects the two halves of the cerebellum.
• Regulates breathing.• Associated w/ cranial
nerves V, VI, VII, & VIII
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Medulla Oblongata
• Composed of nerve tracts decusate
• An extension of the spinal cord
• Almost all of the cranial nerves arise from this region
• (VIII, IX, X, XI, XII)
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Medulla Oblongata
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Medulla Oblongata
Contains control centers for Contains control centers for many subconscious activitiesmany subconscious activities• Respiratory rateRespiratory rate• Heart rateHeart rate• Arteriole constrictionArteriole constriction• SwallowingSwallowing• HiccuppingHiccupping• CoughingCoughing• SneezingSneezing
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The Cerebellum
• 11% of brain mass
• Dorsal to the pons and medulla
• Controls fine movement coordination
• Balance and equilibrium
• Muscle tone
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Anatomy of the Cerebellum
• Two hemispheres connected by vermis
• Each hemisphere has three lobes– Anterior, posterior, and flocculonodular
• Folia—transversely oriented gyri
• Arbor vitae—distinctive treelike pattern of the cerebellar white matter
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Figure 12.17b
(b)
Medullaoblongata
Flocculonodularlobe
Choroidplexus offourth ventricle
Posteriorlobe
Arborvitae
Cerebellar cortex
Anterior lobe
Cerebellarpeduncles• Superior• Middle• Inferior
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On Old Olympus Towering Tops A Fat Voracious German Viewed A Hop
1. Olfactory- smell2. Optic- vision3. Oculomotor- 4 of the 6 extrinsic eye muscles 4. Trochlear- extrinsic eye muscles5. Trigeminal- sensory fibers to the face and motor fibers to
the chewing muscles6. Abducens- controls eye muscles that turn the eye laterally7. Facial- facial expression8. Vestibulocochlear- hearing and balance9. Glosopharyngeal- tongue and pharynx10.Vagus- parasympathetic control of heart, lungs &
abdominal organs11.Accessory- accessory part of vagus nerve, neck & throat
muscles12.Hypoglossal- moves muscles under tongue
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Olfactory
Optic
Oculomotor
Trochlear
Trigeminal
Abducens
VestibulocochlearGlossopharyngeal
VagusAccessory Hypoglossal
Facial
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Olfactory bulbOlfactory tract
Olfactory receptor cell
Filaments of olfactory nerve
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Abducensnerve
Lateral rectus muscle
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Traumatic Brain Injuries• Concussion• Contusion• Subdural or subarachnoid
hemorrhage• Contrecoup injury• Punch Drunk Syndrome
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Cerebrovascular Accidents (CVAs)
• Ischemia• Thrombus• Embolism• Arteriosclerosis• Stroke
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Stroke
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Degenerative brain diseases
• Schizophrenia• Parkinson’s• Alzheimer’s• Down’s • Huntington’s Chorea• MS• Epilepsy
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Parkinson’s disease
• Substantia nigra in midbrain• Dopamine
- affects brain processes controlling:• movement• balance• walking• emotional response• ability to experience pleasure
and pain.
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Parkinson’s diseaseCauses:• Genetics• Environmental chemicals (e.g., PCBs)• Thyroid disorders• Repeated head injury
Symptoms of Parkinson's Disease: • resting tremor on one side of the body• generalized slowness of movement (bradykinesia) • stiffness of limbs (rigidity) • gait or balance problems (postural dysfunction).
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Parkinson’s disease
Treatments:• L-dopa• Deprenyl• Deep brain stimulation w/electrodes• Fetal tissue
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Parkinson’s disease
F-Dopa deficiency
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Alzheimer’s Disease
Results in dementia• 5-15% over age 65• 50% over age 85
Associated with :• Acetylcholine shortage• Amyloid plaques• Neurofibullary tangles
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PET Scans
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Huntington’s Disease
Fatal hereditary disorder• Onset at ~40 years• Fatal w/in 15 years• Dance-like movement
Associated with :• Huntingtin protein
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1. What layer of tissue adheres most tightly to the brain?
2. CSF stands for-------.
3. What does it do?
4. What does the thalamus do?
5. What does the vestibulocochlear nerve control?
6. Where is dark matter located in the spinal cord?
7. A thrombus that moves to a new site is called ----.
INQUIRY