measuring self-esteem in preschool children
TRANSCRIPT
San Fernando Valley State College
ME AS UR I NG S E LF- ESTEEM I N P R E S CH OOL CH I LDRE N \ l
A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Sci�nce in
Home Economics
by
Sandra G i 1 bert
July, 1971
r-· . -----····- ------·--··---.. ···-·,-·------.. ---·-··-·--·-·-·- ·---··----·--··--·-··----· ····------�--.. ------·--···----···--·--····-oo••··•><--••�·-····""
I .
The thesis of Sandra Gilbert is approved:
Committee Chairman
San Fernando Valley State College
July, 1971
i i
W i t h l ove t o my h u s b a n d , Mer r y ,
for h i s con s t a nt encou ragement t h r oughout
my thes i s r e s ea rch and w r i t i ng
i i i
AC KNO\�ILEDGME NTS
The a ut h or wou l d l i ke t o exp res s h e r app rec i at ion t o
t h e memb e rs o f her g raduate comm i t t e e , esp ec i a l l y t o
D r . Ma l at h i S a nd h u for h e r g u i d a nce a n d con s t a nt
encouragement wh i ch l ed t o the s ucce s s fu l comp l etion
of t h e a ut hor1s t he s i s .
S i ncere app r ec i at i on i s a l s o ext ended t o the
author's p a rents for t he i r d eep i nt erest i n h e r work
and the i r f i nanc i a l a i d wh i ch mad e her attendance i n
graduate s ch oo l p os s i b l e .
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TAB LE OF C ONT E NTS
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DED I C AT I ON • • •
ACKNOVJLEDG Et1ENTS
L I ST OF TAB LES •
L I ST OF F I G UR E S • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
ABSTRACT • • • • • . . . . • • • • • •
C HAPTER
I NTR ODUCT I ON • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
S t a t ement of P rob l em
N u 1 1 H yp othes es • • •
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Ass ump t i on s • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 3
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L i m i ta t i on s • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 4
D ef i n i t i on s • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
R EV I EW OF L I TERAT UR E . . . . . . . . . � .
T heoret i ca l F ormu l at i on s of S e l f- E s t eem • •
R e s ea rch S t ud i es i n S e l f - E s t eem • • • • • •
Popu l a r i t y and S e l f- E s teem • • • • • • •
S oc i a l C l a s s a n d S e l f-Worth • • • • • •
Fathe r ' s Occupat i ons a n d S e l f-Eva l uat i on s
Work i ng Mot hers a n d S e l f-E s teem • • • •
S chool P e rf orma nce a nd S e l f-R ega rd •
Fa i l u r e Exp e r i ences a nd S e l f-Worth •
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Ordfna l P os i t i on , F�mJ l y S i ?e_a�d _ _ S e l f- E s t e em • : • • • o • • • • • • • • 20
R e l i g i ou s Aff i l i a t i on s a n d S e l f-R ega rd . 22
Leve l of Asp i ra t i on • . . . . . . . . . . .
P R OC E D UR E • • • • . � . . . . . . . . .
S amp l e S e l ect i on . . . . . . . . . . . . I ns t rumen t s . • . • . • . •
Teacher's R a t i ngs • . •
S oc i omet r i c Rat i ngs • . •
P r oj ect i v e T e s t - D o l l P l a y
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Exp e r i menta l T a s k and B l ock D e s i gns
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R ES ULTS AND D I S C US S I ON
N u l l Hypot he s i s 1 • •
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Nu l l Hypot h es i s 2 • • • • • • • • • 0 • •
Ana l ys i s of B ackg round Va r i ab l es
S UMMARY AND C ONCL US I ONS . . . . . . .
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Purpos e • • • • • • • o • o • •
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P r ocedure of I nves t i ga t i on • • • • • • • •
Conc l us i on s • • o
Recommendat i ons •
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B I B L I OGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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APP E ND I X A
Teacher's R a t i ngs of C h i l d r e n's B ehav i or� • 64
APPEND I X B
C l a s s i f i ca t i on of R es p on s es t o t h e D o l l P l a y • • • • • • • • . • • • .
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ll S T OF TAB L ES
. Tab 1 e Page
1 Mu l t i p l e Reg res s i on C oeff i c i ents for S e l f- E s t eem R a t i ngs 41
2 Rates of C o i ncidence B etween A na l ys i s of S e l f- E s t eem R a t i ngs Ob ta i ned f rom t h e T h r e e I ns t r uments w i th the Exp e r i menta l Tas k 42
3 S ubj ect s• Exp ect a t i ons for S ucces s i n B l ock D es i gns and Exp e r i ment a l Tas k
(leve l of Asp i ra t i on ) 46
4 S i g n i f i ca nce of C h i Square Tes t on Exp e r i menta l T a s k , D o l l P l a y , S oc i omet r i c R a t i ng s , T eache r 1 s R a t i ngs a nd B ackg round V a r i ab l es 48
5 Teache r 1 s R a t i ngs of S e l f- E s t eem Comp a red w i th Fat he r 1 s Occup a t i ons 49
6 D o l l P l a y Rat i ng s of S e l f- E s t e em Comp a red w i t h F a t h e r 1 s Occup a t i ons 50
7 T eacher1s R a t i ngs of S e l f-E s t eem C omp a red w i th Ord i na l P os i t i on 52
8 Teache r 1 s R a t i ng s o f S e l f-E s t e em C omp a red w i t h N umb e r of S i b l i ng s 54
9 D o l l P l ay R a t i ngs of S e l f- E s te em C omp a red w i t h N umb e r of S i b l i ngs 55
v i i
L I ST OF F I G URES
F I G UR E
1 Bl ock D es i gn s
2 S econd B l ock D es i gn
3 Exp e r i menta l T a s k
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PAG E
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ABSTRACT
MEAS UR I NG S E LF-ES T E E M I N PRESCH OOL C H I LDRE N
py
S and ra G i l b e r t
Mas t e r o f Sc i e nce i n Home Econom i cs
Ju l y, 1971
T h e p r i ma r y p u rp os e of t h i s s tudy was to i nves t i ga t e
the resp on s es ( b ehav i or ) o f p res chool ch i l dren d e s i gnated
as p os s es s i ng va r y i ng l ev e l s of s e l f-e s t e em, t o a s t ruc
t u r ed , m i l d l y f r us t rat i ng exp e r i menta l t a s k� It was hop ed
that the i nv es t i gator wou l d d i s cove r t hree d i fferent
leve l s of r e s p on s e ( b ehav i or ) to t h e exp e r i ment a l �t a s k ,
cor r e s p ond i ng t o t h ree l eve l s of s e l f�e s t eem (h i gh , med i um
o r low ) . A s econda r y p u rp os e was t o exam i ne t h e eff i cacy
of each of the t h ree mea s u res of s e l f- es t eem� A t h i rd
p u rp os e of t h i.s s t udy was t o i nves t i ga t e t h e r e l at i onsh i p
of s e l f- e s t eem i n p r es chool ch i l d ren t o s uch b ackg round ' . var i able s a s age� s ex , ord i na l p os i t i on, r e l i g i on , a nd fa
t h e r 1 s occupat i on .
Twent y-n i ne ma l e a nd twent y- f i ve f ema l e p reschool
ch i l d r en were s e l ect ed a s s ubjects f r om the S an F ernando
Va l l e y State College Preschool Laboratory.
i x
T h ree i n s trument s we re used to rate the s ubject's
se l f-es teem . F i rs t , a teache r's rat i n g , wh i ch had been
a dapte d f rom Le l an d S t ot t's C h i l d ren Behav i o r C heck- L i s t .
S econd , a s oc i omet ric rat i ng ( p op u l a r i t y ) was used to
p red i ct se l f-es teem . T he t h i r d , a p roject i ve test i n
vo l v i ng do l l p l a y wa s a l s o g i ven t o each s ubject .
An expe rimental t a s k cons i s t i ng of b l ock con s t ruc
t i on s was u sed . The l ength of t i me t he s ubject wo rked
on t he expe r i ment a l t a s k wa s a s s umed to have a re l at io n
s h i p t o h i s l evel of se l f-es teem .
The find i ngs of t h i s s t ud y we re :
T he re i s a d i ffe rence i n t he l ength of t i me s pent
on t he expe r i ment a l t a s k by ch i l dren w i t h h i gh , med i um
a n d l ow se l f-es teem .
X
CHAPTER I
I NTR 00 UC1' I ON
S e l f-esteem, i n i nd iv i dua l s of a l l ages , has b een
the t op i c of more and more r e s e a rch i n r ecent y ea r s . T h e
importance of th i s res e a rch i s not on l y l i m i t ed t o p sy
cho l og i st s s tudy i ng p e r s ona l i ty deve l opment , but a l l
i nd iv i dua l s can d e r i ve p sycholog i ca l , s oc i a l ; and p e r s ona l
va lue f rom i t �
Stan l ey C oope r s m i th def i nes s e l f- e s t e em a s "a
p e r s ona l j ud g ement of wort h i nes s that i s exp r es s ed i n t h e
attit udes t h e i nd i v i du a l ho l d s t owards h i ms e l f : " ( 3 : 5 )
Thes e att i t udes , wh i ch a re d ev e l oped v e ry ea r l y i n l i f e ,
a r e i nf l u enced b y a ch i l d 1 s e nv i ronment� The e nv i ronment
at t h i s e ar l y age genera l l y tends to be l im i t ed to the
fam i l y , and t h e ch i l d ' s p ee rs. Thus , p a rents; s ib l i ngs
a nd peers t end to b e t h e ma i n i nf l uences i n t h e d ev elop
ment of s e l f- es t eem i n t h e young ch i l d :
As t h e ch i l d d eve l op s h i s l eve l of s e l f- es t eew�
h i gh , med i um, or l ow--he tends t o v i ew and r espond to
the wor l d f rom t h i s f rame of reference : In genera 1,
i nd i v i dua l s w i t h h i gh or mod e rat e l y h i gh s e l f- e s t eem
a r e happ i er , b et t e r a dj u s t ed a nd more ab l e to meet
environmental demands than individuals with loH s elf-
1
est eem. I n d i v i d u a 1 s w i t h 1 ow s e 1 f- e s t eem genera 11 y fee 1
i nf er i or, h e l p l ess and oft e n exh i b i t fee l i ng s of d ep res
s i on . For examp l e, i f a n i nd i v i dua l f ee l s he i s fa i r l y
i nt e l l i g ent, s ucces s f u l a nd capab l e, i t m i ght b e deduced
that t h e i nd i v i dua l has h i g h s e l f- es t eem . I f the
i n d i v i dua 1 fee 1 s i ncomp etent a n d genera 11 y i nfer i or t o
oth e r s i t m i ght b e d ed uced t h a t h e h a s l ow s e l f-esteem .
T h e ch i l d or a du l t who has d ev e l op e d h i g h, o r moderately
h i gh s e l f- es t eem, w i l l funct i on i n a more p os i t i ve ma nner
thus b enef i tt i ng h i ms e l f a n d the s oc i et y .
STATEME NT OF THE P R OB LEM
Many res earche rs· p o i nt out tha t a n i nd i v i dua l 1 s
l ev e l of s e l f- es t eem i s a fact or wh i ch w i l l determ i ne
h i s i mp end i ng b ehav i or . H i gh s e l f- e s t eem t ends t o
p r od uce good s oc i a l a nd p e r s ona l adjus tment a nd b ehav i or,
wh i l e l ow s e l f- es teem i s a s s oc i a t ed w i th p oor adjus tment .
I t ha s a l s o b ee n found that a nx i ety i s r e l a t ed t o s e l f
es t eem. I nd i v i dua l s w i t h h i gh s e l f- es t eem a re l es s
a nx i ous , l es s d efens i ve a n d more t ruthfu l t o thems e l ves .
( 12: 179-180)
The p r i ma ry p u rp os e of t h i s s t ud y was t o i nves t i ga t e
t h e responses {be hav i o r ) of p reschool ch i l dren p os s es s i ng
va ry i ng l eve l s of s e l f- es t eem, t o a s t ruct u r ed, m i l d l y
f r ust ra t i ng exp e r i ment a l t a s k . The i nvest i gator hoped
t o d i scover t h ree d i fferent l eve l s of r espons e ( b ehav i or)
'2
to the exp e r i menta l tas k , correspond i ng to t h r ee l eve l s
of s e l f-es t e em ( h i gh , med i um, or l ow ) : S e l f-es teem
was a s s e s s ed b y t h r e e s ep a ra t e mea s ures . A s econda r y
p u rp os e of t he p re s ent s tudy was t o exam i ne t h e e ff i c i ency
of each of t h es e three mea s u re s of s e l f- es t eem. A
t h i rd p u rp o s e of th i s s t udy was to exam i ne the r e l at ions h i p
of s e l f- e s t eem i n p re s chool ch i l dren t o s uch backg round
va riab l es a s a g e , s ex , ord i na l p os i t i on , r e l i g i on , a nd
f-a th er 1 s occupat i on .
NULL HYP OTHESES
1. The r e w i l l b e n o d i fference i n t h e l ength of
t i me spent on t he exp e r i menta l t a s k b y ch i l dren w i th
h i gh , med i um, or l ow s e l f- e s te em.
2. Ch i l d r en w i t h h i gh , med i um, or l ow s e l f- e s te em,
w i l l s how n o d i fferences i n t he i r expe ct a t i ons for
s uccess ( l ev e l of a s p i rat i on ) i n t h e exp e r i menta l
t a s k .
ASS UMPT I ONS
1: That d i fferent l ev e l s of s e l f - e s t eem can b e
mea s u red b y the i ns t r uments us ed i n t h e p res ent s tu d y .
2 . The t h re e methods o f meas ur i ng s e l f-e s teem
a re va l i d i ns t r ument s of mea s u rement .
3 . T h e l i m i t ed env i r onment , wh i ch wa s the t es t-
i ng r oom gea red t o a l mlf no i s e l eve l a n d 1 i tt l e ext raneous
'· _ .. �
3
v i s ua l or a ud i tory s t i mu l at i on, does focus t he attent i on
of the s ubj ect on t h e exp e r i menta l t a s ks .
Ll M IT AT I ONS
T h e s amp l e u s e d wa s f rom a wh i te, m i dd l e c l as s
commu n i t y . T h e exp e r i menta l t a s k a n d t h e two oth e r b l ock
d e s i gns we re spec i f i ca l ly c hos en for the s ubjects due to
, the i r p res umed moderate l y h i gh t o ve ry h i gh l eve l of
mot i va t i on to s ucceed on s uch undertak i ngs . The res u l t s
of th i s s t ud y cou l d t h en b e on l y app l i cab l e to ch i l d ren
f rom app rox i mate l y t h e s ame env i ronmen ta l backg roun d a n d
t he s ame age g roup .
D EF I N I T I ONS
1 . Anx i ety i s n egat i ve emot i ona l a rous a l cons i s t i ng
of two a s p ects . . . a s omat i c, p h ys i o l og i ca l s i de (d i s t u rbed
b reath i ng , i nc reas ed hea rt a ct i v i ty , vas omot or changes,
mus c u l os k e l eta l d i s t u rbances s uch as t remb l i ng or
p a ra l ys i s, i nc reas ed sweat i ng , etc . ) , and ps ycho l og i ca l
s i de (p e rcept i on s of s p ec i f i c_
unp l �a s u rab l e fee l i ngs
and s e n s a t i ons, app rehens i ons, etc . ) . Anx i et y d i ffers
f rom fea r i n t hat fea r i s t h e react i on t o a n i mpend i ng
o r rea l dange r . (8:50) T h reat of fa i l u re on a tas k
fac i n g the i nd i v i dua l woul d b e c l as s i f i ed a s a nx i ety-
r eact i on to a p roj ect ed t h r eat .
2. Fa i l u r e , wh i ch i s a l s o a con c e r n of th i s s tud y ,
i s not be i ng ab l e t o a t t a i n the l ev e l of a s p i rat i on
(act i on goa l ) .
3 . Leve l of a sp i rat i on . The re a re two t yp es of
l eve l s of a s p i ra t i on . The f i r s t t yp e refers to wha t
a n i nd i v i dua l wou l d l i ke to d o or t o b e . Th i s i s cal l ed
the i dea l goa l . For examp l e , an a du l t ma y l i ke t o b e
t he wea l t h i es t ma n i n a c i t y and a c h i l d ma y l i ke t o
h ave h i s ve r y own pon y . T h e s econd t yp e o f l eve l of
asp i rat i on refe rs to what an i nd i v i dua l i nt ends t o d o .
T h i s i s ca l l ed an act i on goa l . For examp l e , a n adu l t
p l a n s t o own a s ma l l b us i nes s and a ch i l d p l a ns fo r how
h e w i l l take c a r e of a sma l l k i tten , t he n ew fam i l y pet .
The act i on goa l may b e cons i de r ed a rea l i s t i c j udgment
as to what the i nd i v i d ua l t h i nks h e w i l l a ccomp l i s h .
> (23:90)
L1-. S e l f- es teem i s 11a p e r s ona l j udgment of worth
i nes s that i s exp res s e d i n t h e att i t udes t h e i nd i v i d ua l
h o l d s towa rds h i ms e l f . '1 ( 3:5) S ome s yn onyms fo r s e1f
e s t eem a re: s e l f-wort h , s e l f- eva l uat i on , s e l f- rega r d
a nd s e l f- r es p ect . S e l f-es t eem i s a l s o def i ned as fee l
i ngs of s up er i or i t y o r i n fer i or i t y i n rega r d t o the s e l f .
5 . S u cces s ma y b e cons i de r e d , a s that l eve l of
funct i on i ng or ach i evement equa l to or even b e t t e r than
the l eve l of a s p i rat i on (act i on goa l ) . (23:92)
5
C HAPTER I I
R EV I EW OF L I T ERATUR E
The i s s u es to b e cons i dered i n th i s p a p e r have
b ee n l i m i t ed to t h r ee a reas. The f i rs t i s that of theo
r et i ca l formu l at i ons i n t h e s p h e re of se l f-est eem .
T h e s econd i s that of research stud i es on se l f-esteem .
T h e t h i rd d ea l s w i t h resea rch r e l a t i ng t o l eve l of
a sp i rat i on and fact ors i nf l u e nc i ng i t .
THE OR ET I CAL FOR MULAT I ONS OF S E LF-ESTEEM
I n h i s t or i ca l p resp ect i ve , �/ i l l i am James p resumab l y
was the f i rs t wr i t e r t o g i ve att ent i on t o t he a rea of
s e l f-es t eem . H i s works estab l i shed t h e or i entat i on for
most of the exp e r i mentat i on and theor i z i ng wh i ch was t o
fo l l ow on t h e t op i c . I n h is book , P r i nc i p l es of P s ycho l
�' J ames states t h ree p robab l e factors i nf l uenc i ng the
d eve l opment of s e l f- esteem . H e s t ates t hat an i nd i v i d ua l 's
a sp i ra t i ons and va l ues have a def i n i te i nf l uence on h i s
own eva l ua t i on of s e l f-worth i n ess . {10 : 293) For any
p a rt i cu l a r act of behav i or the ach i evement of the b ehav i or
i s a l ways meas u red a g a i nst the asp i rat i ons for the
b ehav i or . I f asp i ra t i ons a re met i n a s i g n i f i cant or
v i ta l a rea of behav i or , h i g h s e l f-esteem i s deve l oped ,
6
� --
b ut i f a s p i ra t i on s a r e n ot met , a n i nd i v i dua l may not
feel s e l f-worth :
Our s e l f-fee l in g s i n t h i s wor l d dep ends ent i re l y o n wha t w e b ack ours e l ves t o b e a nd do: I t i s determ i ned by t h e rat i on of our act ua l i t i es t o o u r s up p os ed p otent i a l i t i es ; a fract i on o f wh i ch our pret ens i ons a r e t h e d enom i nator; a nd-th e n umerator our s ucces s; thus s e l f- es teem = s ucce s s
( 1 0:3 1 0- 1 1 ) pretens1ons :
Although James s tates that ach i evement i s mea s u red
aga i ns t a s p i rat i on i n each i nd i v i dua1 1 s va l ued a rea of
b eh av i o r; h e also f ee l s that each i nd i v i dua l atta i ns a
l ev e l of s e l f-worth by meas u r i ng h i s ach i evements of
s ucces s a n d s tatus i n r e l at i on to t h e s oc i ety ' s s ta nd a rds
of s ucce s s a nd s ta t us : ( 1 0:29 1 ) T h i s i s a not her p otent i a l
s ou rc e of s e l f- es te em :
T h e va l ue a s s i gned t o t h e extens i on of t h e s e l f i s
a t h i rd s ou rce of s e l f- e s te em, James s tated t ha t t h e s e l f
i s:
T h e s um t ota l of a l l that h e can ca l l h i s; not on l y h i s b ody a nd h i s p syc h i c p owers , but h i s c l othes a nd h i s h ous e , h i s w i fe and h i s c h i l dren; h i s anc e s t ors a nd h i s fr i ends , h i s reputat i on a nd works; h i s l ands a n d h or s es a n d yacht a n d bank account : Al l t h e s e t h i ngs g i v e h i m the s ame emot i on s : If t hey wax a n d p rosp e r; he fee l s •t r i ump hant ' ; i f t h ey dw i nd l e a n d d i e away; h e f ee l s cas t down--- n ot n eces s a r i l y i n t h e s ame degree for each t h i ng , but i n much t h e s ame way for a l l : ( 1 0 : 29 1 )
In a d d i t i on t o t h e ma ter i a l a n d tang i b l e s e l f,
James f ee l s t h e re i s a s oc i a l s e l f : ( 1 0 : 293) Th i s forms
a v e ry i mp ortant p a r t of t h e s e l f : T h e s oc i a l s e l f
or i g i nates out of i nt e ract i on w i th oth e r p eop l e: T hus,
7
a n i nd i v i dua l may deve l op ma ny d i ffe rent s oc i a l se l ves .
· He may be seen a s a fathe r , a h u s b a n d , an emp l oyee , a
boys cout l ea de r , and s o on. T he va l ues that t he i nd i v i dua l
:att aches to t hese va r i ous s oc i a l se l ves a re de r i ved from
. the feedback he rece i ves i n each of t hese d i fferent
s oc i a l categor i es . (10:294) When a n y advancement occurs
i n t he extended se l f , as i n h i s bod y , re l i g i on , as a ·hus b a nd , or i n h i s rep utat i on , t he i nd i v i dua l • s l eve l
of s e l f-es teem wou l d be expected to be ra i sed . Any
red uct i on or l essen i ng of t he extended se l f w i l l b r i ng
a n expected l owe r i ng of s e l f-es teem .
Mea d h as f u r t he r deve l oped James • i dea of t he
s oc i a l se l f. He s ta tes t ha t an i nd i v i d ua l 1 s se l f-
. eva l u a t i on a nd se l f-fee l i ngs form i n i t i a l l y as a res u l t
of h i s s oc i a l i nte ract i ons . Se l f-fee l i ng deve l op s ove r
a t i me per i od from the i nd i v i dua l • s va r i ous s oc i a l
act i v i t i es a nd encounte r s . (13: 135 ) T he i nd i v i dua l
,a l s o deve l op s se l f-at t i t u des eq u i va l ent to t hose
att i tudes he l d b y t he s i gn i f i ca n t " others " i n h i s 1t10 r l d .
T he i nd i v i du a l takes on t hese att i t udes , a nd va l ues ,
rej ects , or demeans h i mse l f a s ot he rs wou l d . T hus ,
t he i nd i v i d ua l ten d s t o see h i mse l f a s hav i ng the
qua l i t i es a n d the l eve l of va l ue t h a t s i g n i f i ca nt
· 1 1 othe r s " a s c r i be t o h i m . (13: 156 )
Mea d 1 s p os i t i on s t res ses t hat se l f-es teem i s l a r ge l y
an outcome of i nte rpe r s ona l i nte ract i on. No man i s a l one
8
i n h i s s e l f - app ra i s a l . No mat t e r how i ndep endent a n
i nd i v i dua l i s , he s t i l l ma i nt a i ns i nt e ract i ons w i th ot hers
i n h i s s oc i a l g roup . Accord i ng t o Mea d , i f a n i nd i v i dua l
f ee l s h i gh s e l f-wor t h, the important p eop l e i n h i s l i fe
have t reated h i m w i t h h i gh rega rd a n d resp ect; i f a n
i nd i v i dua l has l ow fee l i n gs o f s e l f-wort h , h e has b een
tre a t ed a s i nf e r i or b y ot hers . ( 1 3 : 1 64 )
Lecky i s even mor e s p ec i f i c r ega rd i ng t h e ro l e of
s i g n i f i ca nt ot hers i n deve l op i ng s e l f-es t eem i n
i nd i v i dua l s . He fee l s t h e r e i s a h i e r a rchy of i nd i v i dua l s
who he l p deve l op t h e s e l f-att i t udes . T h i s h i e r a rchy
cor r esp onds to the chron o l og i ca l d eve l opment of t h e
i nd i v i dua l . ( 1 1 : 1 56 ) A t b i r t h, a mot h e r wou l d be a very
i mp ortant i nf 1 uence, VJh i 1 e t he father 1 s i nf 1 uence ove r
s e l f - att i t udes wou l d b e fe l t s l i ght l y l at e r . T h e i nfant
o r ch i l d rece i ves feedback of att i tudes f rom h i s p a rents,
a nd d eve l op s s i m i l a r att i t ud es t owa rds h i ms e l f . As a
ch i l d g rows a n d exp ands s oc i a l hor i zons t he s ou rces . . of a t t i t ud es t owa rds h i m exp a nd . T h r oughout t hes e
· va r i ous s tages of l i fe a n i nd i v i dua l t r i es t o deve l op a
un i f i ed concept of h i s s e l f-worth d e r i ved f rom n umerous
re l at i on s h i p s w i t h s i gn i f i ca nt " ot he r s 1 1•
Horney a l s o s tates t ha t the s oc i a l i nt eract i on
p roc ess i s a s ou rce of s e l f - e s t eem . O n e of he r ma i n
i nt e rests l i es i n t h e methods t h e i nd i v i dua l d eve l op s
f o r defend i ng h i ms el f aga i ns t t h e deamea n i ng f ee l i ng s of
9
�- -ot he r s . Horney s t a t es that the i nd i v i d ua l deve l ops
f ee 1 i ngs of 1 1 b a s i c a nx i ety 1 1 when t h e p a rent-ch i 1 d
r e l at i on s h i p i s cha r act e r i z ed b y exces s i ve dom i na t i on ,
u nconcern , lack o f honor , b e l i t t l eme nt , l ack of
a ffect i on , i s o l a t i on and exc l us i on b y t h e a du l t . (9 : 1 8 )
T h e i nd i v i dua l defends h i ms e l f aga i ns t thes e s e l f
d emea n i ng att i t udes b y form i ng a n i dea l i zed concep t of
h i s own cap ab i l i t i es and ach i evements . (9 : 2 1 -22 ) One
ma y a s s ume that d u e to t h i s att i tude of i dea l i zat i on ,
t h e i nd i v i dua l ma y have h i gh s e l f-es teem , yet i t may . . � l ea d t o d i s app o i ntment a nd l owe red fee l i ngs of s e l f�
worth when thes e u n rea l i s t i c goa l s a re n ot atta i ned .
S u l l i va n ' s p os i t i on i s f a i r l y c l os e t o that of
Mead i n -t hat he a l s o reg a rds t h e s e l f a s a p rod uct of
i nt e rp er s ona l i nt e ract i on . Yet , S u l l i va n emp ha s i zes
t h e i mp ortance of s oc i a l i nvo l vement t o a n even g re a t e r
d e g re e . H e fee l s that t h e s e l f i s s o l e l y a b y-p rod uct
of s oc i a l i nt e ract i on w i t h s i g n i f i cant 1 1 ot h e rs11• S u l l i va n
. ma i nt a i ns t h a t n o p e r s ona l i t y factor d eve l op s i ndep end
e nt l y of s oc i a l i nt e ract i on s w i t h ot h e r i nd i v i dua l s .
( 22 : 2 5 7 ) H e i nd i ca t es that the i nd i v i dua l i s constant l y
on gua r d a ga i ns t a l os s of h i s s e l f- es t eem . F e e l i ngs
of d i s t re s s ( a nx i et y ) a re b rought ab out due to a l os s
of s e 1 f- e s teem . I n d i v i d u a 1 s 1 e a r n how to contend w i t h
thes e t h reats a t d i fferent l eve l s a n d w i t h d i fferent
met hod s. (22: 260 )
1 0
Ad l er s t res s es t h e s i g n i f i ca nce of phys i ca l weak
n e s s and i nf i rm i ty i n t h e d eve l opment of l ow s e l f
e s te em i n i nd i v i dua l s: He i nd i cates t ha t i nf e r i or f ee l
ings may d e r i v e f r om actua l p h ys i ca l i mpa i rment s , whe r e
an i nd iv i d ua l i s i ndeed weak � ( 1 : 3 0 7 ) For examp l e , a n
ind i v i dua l w i th a hea r i ng l os s or a b od i l y weaknes s
ma y fee l i ncomp et ent a nd def i c i ent . Ad l e r def i nes
these p rob l ems a s "orga n i nf er i or i t i es 1 1 and d i ffer
ent i at es t h em f rom f ee l i ngs of i nf er i or i t y wh i ch
d e r i v e f r om s oc i a l p roces s es . ( 1 : 1 3 ) C h i l dhood i nt eract
ions a l mos t i nev i tab l y b r i ng s ome fee l i ng s of i nf e r i or i ty ,
Ad l er i nd i cates , b ut t h i s i s a natura l occur r ence i n a ny
ch i l d 1 s l i fe . T h e s e fee l i ng s of i nfer i or i t y , due t o
lack o f s t rength a n d s i ze, do p romp t ch i l dren t o t ry t o
atta i n great e r s i ze a nd capab i l i ty : ( 1 : 1 3 )
Ad l er s ta t e s t h r e e sou rces of unfavorab l e i nf l uences
in t h e deve l opmen t of s e l f- es t eem: Organ i nf e r i or i t i es
and va r i a t i ons i n s i ze a nd s t re n g t h have a l ready been
ind i ca t ed � A t h i rd s ou rc e of s e l f- es t e em d e r i ves f r om the
t reatment a ch i l d r ece i ves f rom s i g n i f i ca nt others� ( 1 : 1 3 )
I f p a r e nt s , s i b l i ngs a nd p e e rs app rove , s uppor t , a nd advo
cat e t h e i nd i v i dua l h e w i l l deve l op p os i t i ve feel i ng s
of s e l f-wo rt h .
E r iks on a l s o a t taches a g reat dea l o f s i gn i ffcance
to s oc i a l i nt e ract i on i n the d eve l opment of s e l f- es t eem
and s e l f i dent i t y . F or h i m , the t erm " i dent i t y " i mp l i es
11
- -·- - - -· . . . . .. . . .. ·b ot h a cons tant s amenes s w i t h i n ones elf (s elf-feeling ) ,
a nd a con s t a n t s ha r i ng of s ome k i nd of e s s ent i a l cha racter
w i t h ot he rs . The i nd i v i d ua l w i ll ha rmon i ze h i s menta l
i mage of h i ms e l f w i t h the mental i ma g e t h e commun i ty
·has of h i m . T h e harmon i za t i on takes place d u r i ng
p ub e r t y a n d a d o l es cence . (4:56 )
I dent i t y and f e e l i ng s of s elf-worth d eve l op not on l y
• f rom emot i onal t i es , b ut a re a l s o deve l oped f rom
"funct i ona l i dent i t y '' wh i ch i s the commun i t y ' s acknow
l ed g ement a n d recep t i venes s of the i nd i v i dua l ' s ach i eve
ments and ab i 1 i t i e s . ( L}: 5 6 )
R E S EARC H STUD I ES I N S ELF- E ST E E M
There a re two recent maj or s t ud i es o n t h e s ubj ect of
. s e l f- es teem . The f i r s t s t ud y i s, S oc i ety and the
A d o l escent S e l f- I mage by Mor r i s R os enb e rg ( 1 96 5 ) a nd the
s econd i s , T h e Antecedents of S elf- E s t eem b y
. S t a n l e y C oop er s m i t h ( 1 96 7 ) .
R os enb e rg ' s s t ud y i nves t i gated s elf-att i tudes of
late ado l escents . The i nd i v i d ua l , i n l a te ado l es cence
i s s eem i ng l y p reoccup i ed w i t h h i s s e l f- i mage - h i s i de n
t i t y . T h e r e a re two r ea s ons for t h i s ext reme i nt er es t .
'F i rst , l at e adole s cence i s a p e r i od f o r mak i ng maj or dec i
s i ons i nd ependently o f pa rents a n d a d u l t g u i dance . (17:4)
For i ns t a nce , the i nd i v i dua l has to dec i de whethe r t o
a t t e n d col lege , trade s chool , or get a j ob . A l s o ma ny
12
i nd i v i dua l s at t h i s t i me cont emp l a te e n te r i ng i nto
ma r r i ag e . S econd , t h i s i s a p e r i od ca l l i ng for a dj u s t
men t s t o ext reme changes , p hys i ca l a n d p s ycho l og i ca l .
( 1 7 : 4 ) B ot h thes e factors often cau s e d i s t u rbance and
conf l i ct i n the i nd i v i dua l ' s s e l f- i mage .
R os e nb e r g d e f i nes ••t h e s e 1 f- i ma g e a s a n att i tude
t owa rds a n obj ect . ' ' ( 1 7 : 5 ) Accord i ng t o t h i s def i n i t i on
t h e s e l f i s rega rded a s a n obj ect , and t h i s obj ect ref l ects
var i ou s att i tudes and f ee l i ngs t ovJa rds i t s e l f .
T h e ma i n obj ect i v e of Rosenb e r g's s t udy was to
d et e rm i ne how d i ffe rent s oc i a l i nt e ract i ons c reated
· b y memb e rs h i p i n g roup s wh i ch feat u red a var i et y of
va l ues , out l ooks or p os i t i ons of ex i s t ence wou l d aff ect
s e l f-va l ues a n d l eve l s of s e l f-es t eem. T h e s amp l e was
comp r i s ed of 5 , 024 h i g h s choo l j un i ors and s e n i ors f rom
t e n h i gh s choo l s i n New Y o r k . S e l f - rat i ng o n a ten�p o i nt
Gut tma n S ca l e was us ed to meas u r e t h e s e l f- es teem of the
. s ubj ects .
I n C oop e r s m i t h ' s s t udy t he emp ha s i s was on the
antecedent cond i t i ons wh i ch he l p d eve l op p os i t i ve o r
nega t i ve s e l f-es t eem � T h e ma i n founda t i on for the s t udy
i s t he theory that s e l f - e s t eem i s s i gn i f i ca nt l y re l ated
t o p e rs ona l f u l f i l l ment and effect i ve act i v i t y . The
s amp l e cons i s t ed of �!ghty- f i ve b oys b etween t h e ages
of ten a n d twe l ve yea rs . The samp l e was d i v i ded i nt o
f i ve g roup s o f s even teen s ubj ects , each bas ed up on a
1 3
p rev i ous s ubj ect i ve s e l f-es t eem rat i ng and a t each e r•s
rat i ng . T o mea s u r e s e l f- e s teem a f i ft y- i t em S e l f-Es teem
I nventory {s e l f- rated ) wa s u s ed on t h e s ubj ect s .
P op u l a r i t y a nd S e l f- E s t e em
P opu l a r i t y has been a s s umed t o b e a cha racte r i s t i c
of t h e i nd i v i dua l w i th h i gh s e l f- es t eem b eca u s e pop u l a r
i t y i s a s s oc i a t ed w i th s oc i a l s ucces s . I t i s a s s umed
that t he i nd i v i dua l who a t t a i ns a h i gh l eve l of s uccess
i n s oc i a l s i t uat i ons w i l l have h i gh e r s e l f-est eem than
s omeone \'lh o l acks s oc i a l s ucces s . A 1 i m i t ed numb e r
of e l ements , s uch a s a g e , s ex , o r t he c r i te r i a us ed i n
t h e a s s es sment of s ucces s , ma y change t h e cor r e l at i on
b etween s e l f- es t eem a n d s ucces s , but i n genera l i t i s
a s s umed t h a t t he cor re l at i on does ex i s t .
To i nves t i ga t e p e e r - g roup r eputa t i on {pop u l a r i ty ) ,
Ros enb e rg conducted a s oc i ome t r i c s t ud y of 272 h i gh s chool
s e n i ors i n Was h i ngton D�C . F o r t y- s even p e rcent of the
s ubj ects who we r e c l a s s i f i ed a s hav i ng h i gh s e l f- e s t eem
rece i ved two o r more cho i ces b y t he i r p e e rs a s a l ea de r .
Of t h os e s ubj ect s who had been c l a s s i f i ed a s hav i ng
med i um s elf- e s te em t h i r t y - two p e rcent rece i ved two or more
cho i ces a s l ea de r , wh i l e for s ubj ect s w i t h l ov-1 s e l f
esteem on l y f i fteen p e rcent had two or more cho i ces
as l ea d e r . T h rough t hes e f i nd i ngs i t can b e deduced that
an i nd i v i dua1 1 s s e l f-a t t i t udes m i ght be r e l ated to the
1 4
op i n i on s of oth e r s . ( 1 7 : 25 )
The r es u l t s f rom C oop e rs m i t h 1 s p op u l a rfty rat i ngs ,
however, a r e con t ra ry t o t h e above f i nd i ngs . H e found
that p op u l a r i ty i s not r e l a t ed t o t he s ubj ect i ve
exp e r i ence of s e l f- e s t eem, a l though p op u l a r i ty i s r e l a t ed
to more outward behav i or a l a s p ects of a s s u r a nce i n a n
i nd i v i dua l � I t was conc l uded t h a t mere accep t a nce by
one1s p e e r s d oe s not corre l at e w i t h p os i t i ve s e l f
j udgement . ( 3 : 48 )
Hawk found t h a t s oc i a l l y d i s adva ntaged ch i l dren t end
to deve l op l ow s e l f- e s t eem, a t t i t u des of s e l f- b e l it t l e
ment a n d s e l f- def l at i on . Thes e nega t i ve cha ract e r i s t i cs
a r e d i sp l ayed in p e e r i nt er�ct i on . T h e s oc i a l l y d i s
a dvantaged ch i l d b ecomes p a s s i ve a n d t i m i d i n h i s s oc i a l
i nt e ract i ons . D u e t o t h i s cha ract e r i s t i c negat ive
b eh av i or of t h e d i sa dva ntaged ch i l d , he i n turn , i s
v i ewed negat i ve l y by h i s p e e rs ( l ow pop u l a r i t y ) � ( 7 : 1 96 )
C oop ersm i t h a l s o found that i nd i v i dua l s w i t h l ow
s e l f- es te em a r e t i m i d and more l i m i t ed i n t he i r b eh av i or �
T h e s e i nd i v i dua l s u s ua l l y d o not p l ace t h ems e l ves i n
s i t ua t i ons where they mus t s t a t e a n op i n i on or a j udge
ment . I nd i v i dua l s w i t h lm.o.t s e l f-es t eem d o not have the
ab i l i ty to be l eaders a S t h ey a re not ab l e to s ta t e new
i de a s or t ake d s ta nd i n supp ort of or aga i ns t a n i s s u e .
( 3 : 66 )
R osenb erg found that i nt e rperson� l att i tudes a re
,_. _ .....
15
r ef l ect ed t o a g r ea t ext ent i n a n i nd i v i dua l 1 s b ehav i or.
I nt e rpers ona l awkwa rdne s s and shynes s was found t o b e
h i g h l y cor r e l at ed w i t h l ow s elf-e s t eem . I nd i v i dua l s
w i th h i gh s e l f- es teem we r e charact e r i zed by eas e of
s oc i a l i nt e ract i on . ( 1 7 : 1 7 1 ) S oc i a l e a s e g e n e ra l l y
leads t o c l ub memb e r s hip and much s oc i a l i nt e ract i on .
R os enb e rg d i d conf i rm t h e fact t hat ado l e s cents w i th
h i gh s e l f- e s t e em t end t o b e much mor e ' 'c l ub- or i ente d" and
to part i c i p a t e mor e i n c l ub funct i on s than i nd i v i dua l s
w i t h 1 ow s e 1 f- es t e em . ( 1 7 : 1 9L:.)
S oc i a l C l as s and S e l f-Wor t h
S oc i a l backg round g e n e ra l l y tends t o i nf l uence a n
i nd i v i d ua l 1 s l ev e l o f s e l f- e s te em . His s oc ia l p os i t i on
i s d e t e rm i ned by h i s a r ea of res i dence , i ncome , and
occupat i on . Gen e ra l l y i nd i v i dua l s who are h i gh on t h e
s oc i a l ladder have a h i gh i ncome, a p re s t i g i ou s occupat i on ,
and t e n d t o l i ve i n a p l easant r es i de n t i a l area . Thes e
i nd i v i d ua l s oft e n e nj oy more s tat u s and p re s t i ge i n t h e
c ommu n i ty� T h u s , t h rough t he i r t ota l s u r r ound i ng s t h ey
d evelop a s en s e of s e l f-wort h .
A s was p rev i ou s l y s tat ed, i t has b ee n found t hat
s oc i a l l y d i sadvant a g ed ch i l d r e n , d u e t o t he i r e nv i ronment ,
d o t e n d t o d ev e l op l ow s e l f- es t e em. T h e t ota l e nv i ronment
of t he i r cu l t u r e , p e e r s , s chool and fam i l y h elp d ev e l op
th i s l o .. r l eve l of se l f-es t eem. ( 7: 1 96 )
'•' - �·-
16
S u rp r i s i ng l y , C oop e rsm i t h found a ve r y wea k but
. p os i t i ve re l at i onsh i p between h i s subj ects• se l f-esteem
and soc i a l c l ass . He d i d ar rive at a few i nt e rest i ng and
suggest i ve t rends wh i ch were not stat i st i ca l l y s i gn i f i cant • . Upp e r m i dd l e c l ass ch i l d r en were more l i ke l y t o deve l op
·h i gh se l f-esteem vvh i l e l mve r m i dd l e c l ass ch i l d ren tended
t o d eve l op med i um or l ow se l f-esteem . (3:83) R osenb e rg's
f i nd i ngs a l so i nd i cated a weak p os i t i ve c o r r e l at i on
b etween the soc i a l c l ass backg rounds of h i s subj ects
and t he i r l eve l of se l f- esteem . B oth stud i es suggested
t h a t a l t h ough i nd i v i dua l s f r om the upp e r and m i dd l e
soc i a l c l asses g en e ra l l y revea l p os i t i ve se l f-att i tudes
as comp a red w i t h l oi.'Je r c l ass i nd i v i dua l s , the d i ffe rences
i n t h e g roups a re not as const ant and n umerous as was
. ant i c i p a t ed. ( 3: 83; 17: 39-4·1) F u rt h e rmor e , i n both the
R osenb e rg a n d C oop e rsm i th stud i es i t was found t hat
a l t hough i nd i v i d u a l s i n the l owe r c l ass a re more apt
to state fee l i n gs of l owe r s e l f-est eem , the re were nea r l y
·as man y i nd i v i d ua l s i n th i s c l ass who stated f e e l i ngs of
h i gh se l f-est eem as l ow s e l f-est eem . (17:39-41; 3:83)
R edmond found s i m i l a r resu l ts i n h i s st udy , G rowth
and D ev� l opment of the S e l f-C onceot . He found i n h i s
s ubj ects, a g es ten yea rs s i x months th rough e l even yea rs
f i ve months , that t he re was v e r y l i tt l e d i ffe rence i n th e i r
lev e l of se l f-esteem that cou l d b e att r i b uted t o t he i r
va r i ous soc i o-econom i c backg rounds (soc i a l c l ass ) . (16:506)
17
Fathe r's Occup a t i on a nd S e l f-Eva l uat i ons
T h e f a t h e r's occupat i on i s c l os e l y r e l ated to the
f am i l y ' s s oc i a l c l as s . Upp e r m i dd l e c l a s s occup a t i ons can
be d i v i ded i nt o th ree t ypes of p os i t i ons , mana g e r i a l ,
p rofe s s i ona l , a nd b u s i n es s own e rs . Thes e t h ree d i fferent
k i nds of occupat i ona l p os i t i on s d i ffe r g reat l y from the
t yp es of occup a t i ons h e l d by fathers i n the l o�;ve r s oc i a l
c l a s s es . C oop ers m i t h fe l t t hat thes e d i ffe rences we re
s o g reat that t h e re wou l d be vast p e rs ona l i t y t ra i t
d i ffe rences i n a ch i l d f r om each p a t e rna l occ upat i onal
b ackg round . Yet , up on f u r ther i nves t i gat i on i t was
found t hat t h e f a t h e r's occup a t i on was not re l ated to the
l eve l s of s e l f-es t eem atta i ned b y ma l e offsp r i n g . The
s on of an unsk i l l ed l abore r , for i ns tance, cou l d
r each the s ame h i g h l eve l of s e l f-es teem as the s on of a
l awye r . The t rea tment a ch i l d rece i ve s a ffects h i s
l eve l of s e l f-es t e em much more than t h e p re s t i ge of
h i s fathe r ' s occupat i on . (3:87)
T h e re was on e excep t i on . C oop e rsm i t h found that
ch i l dren of fat h e rs i n author i ta r i an occupat i on s , s uch
as p o l i ceme n , ev i d enced l mv l eve l s of s e l f-e s t eem . (3:87)
R os enb e r g a l s o i nvest i gated t h e as p ect of author i ta r i an
o r "v i o 1 ent 11 occ up a t i ons . I n a 11 thos e occup a t i ons
wh i ch we re c l as s i f i ed a s v i o l en t , the fathe rs car r i ed guns
on the j ob . They i nc l uded memb e rs of the a rmed forces ,
18
r···------------ ·-------- ..... ,.. _____ ___ _______ . ___ ... . . ........... - ... ·- ·· --- ...... .... ............. � ......... . . .. .
! policemen,. sheriffs,. detectives3 or bailiffs. Rosenbergts i ! ; results were s i mi l ar to Coopersmith's in that these
I
children tended to have a 1ov,;er self�esteem. (17:48)
Working Mothers and Self-Esteem
Since so many mothers work today the mother's work
history Is thought to be related to her chi1d1s level of
self esteem. Coopersmith found that the child!s level of
self-esteem was unrelated to the mothet1s working
pattern (the extent of employment, part···or full-time,
since the birth of the chfld). Yet, there were trends
indicating that total length of employment (years and
months) is positively related to level of self-esteem.
"The higher the child1s self-esteem the more probable it
is that his mother has been regularly employed for more
than one year.11 {3:92)
School Performance and Self-Regard
Today there is much emphasis on the achievement
I o·r: succes•· in c:chool Fail ure or success in academic 1.· p:rf�rman:e ma� tend.to affect an Individual's level of
1 self-esteem. Performance in school is the testing ! ground for the development of future success in the
I chll d's I if e.
I individuals with a high level of self-esteem are more
In general) Coopersmith found that
I competent in handling academic affairs than individuals 1 ... "·'··-----·--"·-·-···-"'--��·"'""" "'"-"'""""·-----····----···"••·-.---.. -·-··------- .......... -------- ... . .. ' . . . . .. -- .. . . . . ----- ............ .... . .. ......... ........... -- .. ... .... . . .
i9
w i t h e i the r med i um or l ow l eve l s of s e l f-est eem. (3:124 )
W i l l i ams and Co l e i nves tigat ed s chool p e r formance i n
t he i r s t udy, S e l f-Concept and Schoo l Adjustment. The i r
r es u l t s l ed t hem to the conc l us i on that an i nd i v i d ua l ' s
s ucces s f u l adjus tment i n s c hoo l i s not i nf l uenced b y an y
ona va r i ab l e . I n t e l l ect ua l effect i ve n es s i s one va r i ab l e ,
b ut s e l f-es t eem may a l so b e one . W i l l i ams and Co l e fee l
i t s hou l d b e t he concern of t he s c hoo l to d i ff e ren t iate
t ho s e ch i l d ren w i t h l ow l eve l s of s e l f-este em , to f i nd the
cau s es of i t, and rect i f y t h em . (24:478)
Fa i l u r e Exp e r i ences and S e l f-Wo r t h
T h e effect of fa i l u r e o n t he s e l f - concept was
i nves t i gat ed b y Souf i . T h e s ubject s cons i s t ed of f i fty
s i x ma l e f res hmen and sop homo r e s at t h e Un i ve rs i t y of
Ca l i fo r n i a at Los Ang e l es. Sou f i foun d t hat t hos e
s ubjects who we re p l aced i n s i t uat i on s i n wh i ch t he y
fa i l ed d i d have l ower s e l f-es t e em s co r es t han the
s ubject s who we r e not expos e d to t h e faf l u r e exp e r i ence .
He a l so found t hat s ubjects w i t h h i gh l eve l s of anx i et y
t ended t o have l owe r l eve l s o f s e l f- e s t e em a s compared
to t hos e w i t h l ow l eve l s of anx i ety. ( 20 : 50 )
O r d i na l Pos i t i on , Fam i l y S i ze and S e l f-Es t eem
It has a l so b e en as s umed t hat ord i na l pos i t i on and
fam i l y s i ze a r e r e l a t ed to an i n d i v i d ua l 's l eve l of s e l f-
20
esteem� Chi l d ren born i nt o fam i l i es w i th few s i b l i ng s
wou l d t end t o rece i ve more emot i ona l and p hys i ca l attent i on
than ch i l d re n i n l ar g e fam i l i es . Time ava i l ab l e t o s p end
w i t h each ch i l d var i es w i th the numb e r of s i b l i ng s i n a
fam i l y : T hus , i t i s t h ought t hat sma l l er fam i l i es p roduce
ch i l d r en w i th h i g h e r l eve l s of s e l f- e s t eem t han l arg e r
fam i 1 i e s .
C oop ersm i t h1s r es u l t s cont rad i cted t h i s common l y
a s s umed expectat i on . He found t hat t h e r e was no
d i fference i n t h e l eve l s of s e l f- e s teem of t h e ch i l d r e n
f r om s ma l l fam i l i e s as compar ed w i t h t hos e f r om l ar g e r
fam i l i es : (3 : 151 ) As far as ord i na l p os i t i on i s
concer n ed; b ot h C oop ersm i th and R os enberg found t hat i t
i s an i mp ortant factor i n t h e d ev e l opment of s e l f- est eem:
T h e ea r l i er t h e c h i l d i s born i nt o a fam i l y; t he h i gh e r
h i s l eve l o f s e l f- es t eem: T h e f i rs t b or n ch i l d comes
i nt o a fam i l y w i t h no s i b l i ng r i va l ry and comp et i t i on
and i s thus ab l e t o ach i eve a h i gh l eve l of s e l f- e s teem
w i t h out i ncur r i ng any comp et i t i on . C oop e r sm i t h d i d f i nd
t hat ch i l d ren b o r n ear l i er i n a fam i l y were h i gher
i n l eve l s of s e l f-e s teem t han ch i l d re n born i n t h e m i dd l e
or l at e r p os i t i on s . (3 : 15 2 ) Cont ra ry t o C oop e rsm i th's
f i nd i ng s , R os enb e r g found h i g h s e l f -e s t eem t o b e common
i n on l y ch i l d re n : H e s tated t hat i t i s n ot t h e o rd i na l
p os i t i on--whet h e r f i r s t, s econd or t h i rd i n a fam i l y-- b ut
s tatu s as an on l y ch i l d wh i ch l eads t o h i gh l ev e l of
21
s e l f- e s t eem . ( 1 7 : 1 07 )
R e l i g i ous Aff i l i at i ons a nd S e l f-Reg a rd
I n ou r s oc i et y , v a r i ou s l eve l s of s ocia l p res t i ge
a re as s i gned t o d i fferent r e l i g i ou s a ff i l i at i ons . An
i ndiv i dua l 1 s i dent i f i ca t i on w i th a pa r t i cu l a r r e l i g i on
a n d i ts accompan i ed s oc i a l p re s t i ge may affect h i s s e l f
i mag e . It i s common l y as s umed that P rote s tants wou l d
have t h e h i g h e s t l ev e l of s e l f- e s t eem , Catho l i cs wou l d
b e s ome,.r'!hat l ow e r , and J ews t h e l owes t . ( 1 7 : 50 )
T h e f i nd i ngs o f R os enb e r g and Coop e rsm i th d i d n ot
conf i rm t h e ab ove exp ectat i on . J evvs may h ave 1 owe r
s oc i a l p re s t i ge , but t h e y had s omewhat h i g h e r l eve l s of
s e l f- e s t eem than the Cathol i cs and P rotes tant s . It was
a l s o found t ha t mos t i nd i v i d ua l s i n t h es e t h ree r e l i g i ous
groups are more i nc l i ned to have med i um s e l f- e s te em1
yet i n a l l t h r e e g r oup s , the Jews were the l ea s t i nc l i ned
· t o exp res s a n y n e g a t i v e s e 1 f- at t i tudes . ( 3 : 8 5 ; 1 7 : 50 )
LEVEL OF AS P I RAT ION
Two t ypes of l ev e l s of asp i rat i on a r e the i dea l
goa l a n d t h e act i on g oa l . Idea l g oa l s g e n e ra l l y t end
to be s omewhat fantas y - o r i ented and u n r ea l i s t i c i n
re l at i on t o t he i r actua l ach i evement b y t he i nd i v i d ua l .
S om e i nd i v i d ua l s ho l d h i gh l y u n rea l i s t i c g oa l s and thes e
a re d i ff i c u l t t o atta i n, b ut other•s g oa l s a r e mor e
22
r ea l i s t i c and ofte n may b e ach i eved� The act i on goa l i s
a t a 1 1 t i mes 1 ovJer a n d eas i er t o atta i n t h a n t h e i dea 1
g oa l : T h e act i on goa l t ends t o b e what one s t r i ves for
and wha t one actua l l y expect s to do. The act i on goa l i s
a r ea l i ty-or i ent ed j udg ement a s t o what t h e i nd iv i dua l
t h i nks h e can actua l l y a ccomp l i s h . ( 23 : 90 )
G oa l d i s c r ep a ncy has been def i ne d a s the d i fference
b etween the i nd i v i dua l ' s act i on goa l a nd the i nd i v i dua l ' s
p a s t p erforma nce . I f a n i nd iv i dua l p l a n s t o i mp rove on
h i s n ext p e rformance w i t h r e s p ect to hls a ct i on g oa l ,
th i s i s t e rmed p os i t ive goa l d i s crepancy . I f a n i nd i v i dua l
f ee l s h i s p a s t p e rforma nce i s t h e b e s t h e can ach i eve ,
h i s goa l d i s c r ep ancy i s zero: I f he s et s h i s goa l l ower
t h a n h i s p a s t p e r f orma nce of h i s act i on g oa l , g oa l
d i s c r ep a ncy i s negat i ve: When goa l d i screp a ncy i s zero,
t h e i nd i v i dua l may a s s ume h i s p e rforma nce i s g ood and
i t meets h i s s t a nd a rds of eva l uat i on , or h e may f ee l
h e cannot d o any b et t e r and l owers h i s s tandards t o
meet h i s p a rt i c u l a r p e rformance� ( 3 : 142 ) The i nd iv i dua l
w i th a z e r o goa l d i s c repancy , who has not l owered h i s
s ta nd a r d t o meet h i s p e r formance, i s l i ke l y t o a s s ume h e
i s wor t h y: T h e i nd i v i dua l w i th a pos i t i v e goa l d i screpancy
may app ra i s e h i s p erforma nce s evere l y and a s s ume t hat h e
i s a fa i l u r e .
T h e atta i nment d i s c r ep a ncy i s def i ned a s t h e d i ffe r
ence b etween t h e act i on g oa l or l eve l of asp i rat i on, a nd
23
t h e i nd iv idua l ' s p erforma nce the n ext t ime he t r i es.
S ucces s a nd fa i l u r e a r e mea s u r ed b y t he atta i nment
d i s c rep a ncy . Succes s i s cons ide r ed as that l ev e l of
f u nct i on i ng ach i evement equa l to or eve n b et t e r tha n
t h e lev e l of asp i r at i on ( act i on goa l ) : Fa i l u re i s not
b e i ng ab l e t o atta i n t he l ev e l of a s p i r a t i on (act i on
goa l ): ( 23 : 92 )
S ucces s a nd fa i l u r e d o have a re l at i on t o a n i nd i v id
ua l ' s l eve l of asp i rat i on , b ut s hou l d not on l y b e ga uged
i n t e rms of p e rformance: An i nd i v i dua l ' s s ucces s there
fore i s as much r e l a ted t o h is l eve l of asp i rat i on ( action
goa l ) as h i s actua l p erformance � That i s why two d i ffer
ent i nd i v idua l s may atta i n exact l y t h e s ame goa l s , a nd
one f ee l s fa i l u r e a nd the oth e r s ucces s . The s ucces s -
fu l i nd i v i dua l has atta i n ed h i s l eve l of a s p i rat i on a nd
t h e ot h e r i nd i v i dua l (who had fa i l ed) had not , even
t hough they b oth p e rf ormed equa l l y : T hus , ident i ca l
p e rformance b y two i nd i v i dua l s may b e judged t o b e a
s ucces s or not , dep e nd i ng on the i nd i v idua l 1 s l ev e l of
a s p i rat i on :
Succes s o r fa i l u r e i s n ot a l ways exp e r i e nced b y
an i nd i v i dua l i n eve r y p erformance of a t ask: If a
t a sk i s t oo e a s y t h e i nd i v idua l ma y not f e e l s ucces sfu l
a f t e r i ts p erforma nce becaus e i t i s outs i de t h e i nd iv idu
a l 's l ev e l of a s p i rat i on ( not an act i on g oa l ) : ( 23 : 92 )
For i ns t a nce, a n i nd i v idua l does not f e e l s uccessfu l
� .-
when he d res s es hims e l f or takes a d rink of water b ecau s e
t h e s e tas ks a r e easy a n d are out side a n individua l 1 s
l ev e l of aspi ration . I f thes e same tasks we re p e rformed
by a young chi l d he wou l d fee l s ucces s fu l as t h ey
c e rtain l y are wit hin his l eve l of aspi ration.
Gene ra l l y an in dividua l 's l ev e l of aspiration is
d e t e rmined by his p revious s ucces s es o r fai l u res. I f
a n individua l attains his l eve l of aspi ration and
·achieves s ucces s , he t ends to rais e his l eve l of aspiration
f or his n ext p e rformance of a simi l ar task. On the ot h e r
hand , if a n individua l fai l s a n d does not reach his
l eve l of aspi ration he tends s ubs eq uent l y to l owe r it.
Gardn e r in his s t udy, The Us e of the Term "Leve l of
A s pi ration" found t hat if an indiv i d ua l ' s p e rformance
equa l l ed his action goa l , l eve l of as pi ration wou l d be
rais ed. On the ot h e r han d, if he did not at tain his
l eve l of aspi ration, it wou l d s ub s equent l y be l ov.Je red.
( 5 : 59 ) C hi l d and Whitney at tained simi l a r res ult s in
·t h e i r s t udy , a l so fin ding that t h e r e was more ap t to b e
a n expansion o f t h e l eve l of aspiration , a s t h e i nd i v i dua l
attained s ucces s . ( 2 : 3 0 3 )
An i ndivid ua l 's l eve l of aspiration has a definit e
re l ations hip t o his l ev e l of s e l f-es te em . The deve l opment
of hig h , medium , or l ow l eve l s of s e l f-es t eem is g reat l y
i nf l uenced by t h e individua l 's s ucces s es o r fai l u r es , in
keeping wit h his pa rticu l a r l ev e l of aspiration .
2 r.· .:J
C HAPT ER Il l
PR OCE D UR E
SAMP LE S EL ECT I ON
The subject s cons i s ted of twenty- n i ne male and
twent y- fou r fema l e p reschool a g e ch i l d ren from the San F e r
na ndo V a l l ey S tate Col l ege Pres choo l Labora t or y . The
s amp l e r anged i n age f rom 3. 1 years t o 5 . 0 yea rs , w i t h a
mean a g e of L}. 1 yea r s. T h e or i g i na l p oo l f r om wh i ch t he
f i fty- t h ree s ubj ects were s e l ected cons i s t ed of s i xt y- four
ma l e a nd fema l e p res choo l ch i ld r en. The f i fty- t hree
s ubjects wer e a h omogeneous s amp l e on the b a s i s of the i r
s oc i a l a n d ethn i c backg rounds , w i t h scho l a rs h i p ( l ower
s oc i o- econom i c l eve l ) fam i l i es a nd non-wh i te ch i l dren
b e i ng exc l uded . The fifty-three s ubj ects wer e s e l ected
f r om a l l four p re s chool c l a s s es .
I NSTRUMENTS
The s ubject s wer e t es t ed ove r a p er i od of ab out f i ve
weeks , s t art i ng f r om Novemb e r 1 0 , 1 970 and end i ng on
D ecemb e r 1 6, 1 970 b y means of t h e fo l l ow i ng i ns t r ument s : ·
Teacher's R a t i ngs
T h e teather1s ratings, which had been adapted from
26
-.�
L e l a n d S t ott 1 s C h i l d ren ' s B ehav i or C heck-L i st; cons i �ted
of s i x descr i p t i ve categor i es of b e hav i or. ( 2 1 ) The
orig i na l b ehav i or check- l i s t , wh i ch had b een prete s t ed b y
D r . Ma l at h i S a ndhu a n d Mrs . Aud r e y C l a rk , cons i st ed of
e i ght d e s c r i pt i v e categor i es . For t h e p resent s t ud y t h e
r e s u l ts of t h e u np ub l i s hed p re t e s t l ed t o t h e adaptat i on
of t h e rat i ng s ca l e t o i nc l ude the s ix d i mens i on s p re
s ented b e l ow. E ach d i mens i on r ep r e s e n t s t h e two end
p o i n t s a l ong a c ont i nuum :
/A. Soc i a l Ascendance ( l eaders h i p ) and S e l f-S uff i c i e n
cy v e r s us Lack of Leadersh i p .
B. Pers ona l R e s p ons i b i l i t y v e rs us I rrespons i b l e
I mp u l s i venes s .
C'. D om i nat i on v e r s u s C omp l i ant a nd Ret i r i ng.
D . S oc i a l E ffect i veness ( S oc i ab i l i t y ) versus S oc i a l
I nept i t ude .
E . P e r s ona l S ecur i ty vers us I ns ecur i t y .
F� H i gh S e l f-E s t eem v e r s u s L ow S e l f-E s t eem.
A l i s t of p os i t ive and negat i ve cha ract e r i st ics
repres ent i ng the e nd-p o i nt s of each cont i nuum were i nc l uded
i n order to a i d t h e teachers i n t he i r rat i ngs ( refer t o
Append i x A , p a g e 6l}) . Each s ubj ect ' s behav i or was rated
on a s ca l e from one to f i ve� The most p os i t i ve response
i n each was rated a " one1 1 and t h e mos t negat i v e respon s e
rat ed a "f i ve " . T h e m i dpo i nt wa s rated 1 1 t h ree1 1 a nd
i nd i cated ev i dence of equa l amounts of t h e character i s t i cs
27
).
r ep r es enting bot h ext r emes of the cont i nuum . T h e s ubj ect s
wer e rated b y both t h e s up e rvis i ng t eache r and the as soc i
ate t each e r i n each c l a s s . They rated each s ubj ect toget h
e r a nd using t h eir cons ens us of op i nio n . The s ubj ect s i n
each c l as s - room g roup were rated in r e f e r ence to each othe�
S i nce a chi l d1 s b ehavio r is a s s umed to b e a n ext erna l
man i f es tat i on of t h e s ubj ect • s p reva i l i ng s e l f-ap p r ais a l ,
teachers were a s ked to rate a ch i l d1s soc i a l behav ior .
S ect i ons A t h rough E ( s ee p a ges 67- 69 ) of t h e t eache r ' s
rat i ng s d e s c r i b e t he type of soc i a l b e hav ior wh i ch has a
re l at i ons h i p to s e l f-es t eem . S ect ion F ( s ee page 69 ) i s
a n overa l l rat i ng of t h e i nd i v idua l 1 s l eve l of s e l f-.
e s t eem ( h i s tot a l f ee l i ng of s e l f-wor t h ) .
Soc i omet r i c Rat i ngs
S e l f- e s t eem i n a ch i l d i s p a rt l y e s t ab l i s hed t h roug h
s ee i ng h i ms e l f as ot h e r s s ee h i m . I f a ch i l d b e l ongs to
a peer g roup a nd f ee l s he i s l i ked a nd accept ed b y mos t
of t h e memb e r s of t h i s p a r t i cu l a r g roup , h e w i l l i n
t u r n , e s t ab l i s h a h i gh l eve l of s e l f-wort h . ( 1 9 : 4 1 8 )
A soc i omet r i c r at i ng was t h e i ns t r ume n t u s ed to detect
whe re each s ubj ect i n t h e fou r c l a s s es s tood i n the
e s t i ma t ion of t h e ot h e r s ubj ect s i n the c l as s . The
i ns t rument was p re t e s ted us i ng f i ve s ubj ect s i n t h e
p reschoo l who were not s ubj ects i n t h e p re s ent s t ud y .
Co l o r p hotog rap h s ( taken by t h e i nves t i gato r ) of the
28
s ubj ects i n each of t he four c l a s s es were mounted i n a
c i rc l e on con s t ruct i on ca rdboa r d. E ach of the c l a s s es had
i ts own s et of s i xteen p hotog raphs of the s ubj ect s i n
that p a r t i cu l a r c l a s s.
F i rs t , t h e i nves t i gator p o i nted t o each p hotog raph
a n d s a i d each ch i l d1s name. Th i s wa s done for two reas ons :
t o p romote a n awa renes s i n the s ubj ect t h a t h e wa s a p a rt
of t h e g roup , a n d t o he l p h i m a s s oc i at e t he names of h i s
c l as smates w i t h t h e faces. I n the o l d e r g roup the i nves t
i gator f ound t h a t eve n b efore s he enunc i ated a name ,
s ome s ubj ects wou l d correct l y i dent i fy t h e p h otog raph. S h e
wou l d t h en l et t h e s ubj ect s a y t h e name , a f t e r wh i ch s he
r ep e a t ed i t wh i l e p o i nt i ng t o the p hotog rap h.
T h e i nv es t i g a t or then a sked t h e s ubj ect t h e fo l l ow i ng
th ree ques t i ons i n a s to r y form:
1 . 1 1 Let1s p retend i t1s s nackt i me and eve ryone i s
s i tt i ng d own a t t h e t ab 1 es. I f you cou l d choos e one
p e r s on to s i t b y at s na ckt i me , who wou l d you p i ck ? Po i nt
t o t h e p i ct u r e of t h e p e rs on you wou l d l i ke to s i t next
t o . 1 1
Aft e r n ot i ng t h e res p on s e t h e i nves t i gator s a i d ,
2. "P l a y i ng 1t1 i t h c l a y i s l ot s of fun. Let1s
p retend today that you1 r e g o i ng t o p l a y w i t h c l a y. When
you p l a y w i th c l a y you us ua l l y s i t at a t ab l e � When
you 1 re s i t t i ng at t h e t ab l e p l a y i ng w i t h c l a y , who wou l d
you l i ke t o s i t next t o? Po i nt t o t h e p i ct u r e of t h e
p e rs on you wou l d 1 ike to s i t next to. 1 1
29
sa i d ,
Aft e r n ot i ng t h i s second r esp onse t h e i nvest i gator
3 . 1 1T h i s i s g o i ng to b e t he l ast p retend st ory .
L et's p retend t ha t t oda y you ' r e g o i ng t o p l a y outdoors i n
t h e ya rd . I f y ou cou l d choose one p e rson t o p l ay w i t h
outs i de who wou l d you p i ck ? P o i nt to t h e p i ct u re of the
p e rson you wou l d l i ke to p l a y w i t h . 1 1
I n a nswe r i ng t h e t h ree q u est i ons t h e subj ect had
t he p hot og r a p hs i n f r ont of h i m to he l p h i m assoc i a t e
names w i t h faces . The subj ect was then ab l e t o p o i nt to
t h e p hot og raph of the ch i l d he wou l d 1 ike to b e w i t h i n
reference t o each of the q u est i ons .
The th ree d i fferent scen es w i t h t h ree d i f f e rent
a ct i v i t i es were set up to p roduce a more accu rate
se l ect i on i n t h e rat i ngs . I t was f e l t that t he d i f f e r ent
a ct i v i t i es m i ght b r i n g about d i f f e r ent cho i ces due to
the s ubj ect ' s p re f e r ence for d i f f e r ent ch i l d ren i n each
a ct i v i t y . F or examp l e , some subj ects m i ght not fee l
sk i l l ed i n l a r g e mot or a ct i v i t i es a n d shy awa y f r om the
ya rd p l a y , t h us t h ey m i ght choose a n ot h e r ch i l d j ust
as sk i l l ed . T h e same subj ect ma y b e exce l l ent i n sma l l
mot or sk i l l s a n d ma y have a comp l et e l y d i ffe rent cho i ce
for t he c l a y a ct i v i t y . I t was f e l t that snackt i me i s a
very soc i a l t i me a n d even t he most shy ch i l d t ends t o
soc i a l i ze i n th i s p e r i od and ma y choose a ch i l d whom he
wou l d n o t choose i n a n y ot h e r c i rcumstance .
30
The s cor i ng of t h e s oc i omet r i c rat i ngs of s e l f- e s teem
was d i v i ded i nt o t h ree l ev e l s of s e l f- es t eem, h i g h , med i um
a nd l ow . T h e t ot a l n umb e r of cho i ces r ece i ved b y each
c h i l d i n a l l t h re e s cenes were counted . S ubj ects r ece i v i ng
zero t o two cho i ces were c l a s s i f i ed i n t h e l ovJ l eve l of
s e l f - e s t eem . S ubj ects c l a s s i f i ed a s hav i ng med i um s e l f
e s t e em r ece i ved t h ree t o f i ve cho i ces a nd thos e c l as s i f i ed
at t h e h i gh s e l f- e s t eem l ev e l rece i ved s i x t o e i ght cho i ces
ove r a t ota l of t h e t h ree s cenes .
P roj ect i ve T e s t - D o l l P l a y
Young ch i l d r en often f i nd i t eas i er t o p roj ect t he i r
f ee l i ng s a nd fa n t a s i es about c l os e p e r s ona l r e l a t i ons h i p s
ont o d o l l s . ( 1 4 : 7 88- 89) T hrough t h e s ubj ect ' s responses
t o t h e d o l l p l ay h i s s e l f- e s t eem can be mea s u red .
T h e two d i fferent s cenes wh i ch we r e s et up i n t h e
d o l l p l ay h a d b ee n p re t e s t ed w i t h f i ve p reschool s ubj ect s .
T h e i nves t i gator f i r s t s h miJed t h e s ubj ect an a du l t ma l e
and a n a du l t fema l e d o l l exp l a i n i ng that one was the
"daddy 1 1 a nd one the 1 1mommy 1 1 : D i sp l a y i ng four ch i l d do l l s
( two ma l e w i th b l ond and b l ack ha i r a n d two fema l e w i th
b l ond and b l ack ha i r ) t h e i nves t i gator s a i d, "Th e s e a re
t h e l i t t l e boys a n d g i r l s t h a t l i ve i n t h e hous e . P i ck
up the l i t t l e g i r l o r b oy you wou l d l i k e to p l a y w i t h . "
Afte r t h e d ec i s i on was mad e t h e t h ree oth e r ch i l d do l l s
we r e p ut awa y b y t h e i nves t i ga t or for t h e d u rat i on of t h e
f i rs t ep i s ode .
3 1
The f i rs t s cene wa s desc r i bed t o t he s ubj ect a s
i nv ol v i ng a ch i l d g o i ng a g a i ns t a r u l e e s tab l i s hed b y
h i s p a rent s . T h e i nv es t i ga tor s a i d , " Mommy a n d daddy
have a s ked h i m ( h e r ) ( p o i nted to the ch i l d d o l l the
subj ect chos e and was h o l d i ng ) not t o p l a y i n the l i v i ng
r oom. He ( s he ) d i d p l a y b a l l and knocked ove r a g l a s s .
S ee , h e re ' s t h e b roken g l as s . S how me w i th the d o l i what
he ( s h e ) wou l d do next . " F o l l ow i ng t h e s ubj ect ' s respons e
t h e i nves t i gator wou 1 d a s k , 1 1 How does he ( s he ) fee 1 about
t h i s ? 1 1 I f the i nv es t i gator d i d not get a resp on s e f r om
t h e s ubj ect s h e a s ked t h e fo l l ow i ng q u es t i ons i n t u r n :
1 1W i l l h e { s he ) t e l l h i s ( he r ) mommy a nd daddy about b r eak
i ng the g l a s s ? W i l l h e ( s h e ) h i de the g l as s ? W i l l he
( s he ) j us t l eave t he b r oken g l a s s i n the l i v i ng room and
. g o out s i de and p 1 a y ? 1 1
The s econd s cene i nvol ved a ch i l d w i t h h i s p ee rs .
The ot h e r t h ree ch i l d ren d o l l s ( not chos en b y the s ubj ect )
r ep res ented t h e g roup of p e e r s i n t h i s p r es entat i on . The
i nves t i gator s a i d , 1 1 A l l the ch i l d ren a re outs i de p l a y i ng
i n t h e ya rd . T h e y ' r e p l a y i ng w i th J i mmy ' s ( S us i e ' s ) new
toy a nd he ( s h e ) ( i nv es t i gator p o i nts t o the ch i l d d o l l
h e l d b y t h e s ubj ect ) wa nts t o p l a y w i t h a l l t h e ot h e r
ch i l d ren and t h e n ew toy , t oo . B ut , J i mmy ( S us i e )
( i nves t i g a t o r ho l ds up ch i l d d o l l ) s a y s , ' You can ' t p l a y
w i t h my n ew t oy and a l l t h e ot h e r ch i l d re n . 1 S how me
w i t h t h e do l l s wha t he ( s h e ) w i l l d o next . 1 1 After s how-
3 2
i ng the i nves t i g a t or a n act i on t h e i nv es t i gator wou l d
a s k t h e s ubj ect , 1 1 How does h e ( s he ) fee 1 abou t t h i s ? 1 1 . . I f t h e i nv e s t i gator d i d not get responses f rom the
s ubj ect s he f u r t h e r p robed w i t h t h e q u e s t i ons : W i l l h e
( s he ) s t a y and t r y t o p l a y w i th the new toy? W i l l he
( s h e ) l eave t h e y a rd and g o awa y ? W i l l h e ( s he ) s t a y and
j u s t \'J a t c h a 1 1 t h e c h i 1 d r e ii ? 1 1
P re a r r a n ged categor i es of r e s p on s e s w e r e s ot u p t o
mea s ure t h e v a r i ou s l eve l s o f s e l f- es t eem ref l ect ed i n
t h e s ubj ect 1 s r e s p ons es . ( s ee Append i x B , page 7 1 ) For
the f i r s t s cene examp l es of r e s p on s e s ref l ect i ng h i gh ,
med i um a n d l ow s e l f- e s t eem a r e a s fo l l ows :
1 � H i gh - C h i l d t e l l s h i s p a r ent s . about the b roken
g l as s and t r i es t o c l ean up b roken g l as s .
2 . Med i um - C h i l d d i s rega rds t h e b r oken g l a s s a nd
cont i nues t o p l ay i n t h e l i v i n g r oom�
3 . Low - C h i l d h i de s t h e b roken g l a s s � nd cont i nues
: to p l ay i n t he l i v i n� room.
T h e r e s p on s e r e l ated t o h i g h s e l f- es t eem ref l ects
p e r s ona l respon s i b i l i t y fe l t b y the s ubj ect for h i s
act i on a nd i t s out come : T h e r e s p on s e of t h e s ubj ect w i t h
l ow s e l f- es teem s hmvs a comp l et e l ack of p e r s ona l respons i
b i l i ty o r d e s i re t o evade fac i ng the i s s u e .
F or the s econd s cene t h ree examp l es of h i g h , med i um
a n d l ovJ s e l f- e s teem a re a s fo l l ows :
1 . H i g h - C h i l d s t a ys a nd t r i es t o p l a y w i t h the
new t oy .
3 3
z: Med i um - Ch i l d s t a y s and j us t watches a l l t he
oth e r ch i l d ren p l ay w i th t h e n ew toy �
3 : Low - C h i l d g ra b s t he t oy a n d may s t a rt a f i gh t �
T he r e s p on s e of t h e s ubj ect w i th h i gh s e l f- est eem
ref l ect s s e l f- con f i dence a nd s e l f- a s s e rt i on . S e l f- d oubt
a n d l ack of ab i l i ty to h a nd l e a d i ff i cu l t s oc i a l s i tuat i on
i s d i sp l a yed i n t h e respon s e of t h e l ow s e l f - e s t eem
s ubj ect :
Exp e r i ment a l ta s k a nd B l ock D es i gns
One factor wh i ch cont r i b utes t o an i nd i v i dua l ' s
h i gh s e l f - e s t eem i s h i s h i s t ory of s ucces s es : ( 3 : 3 7 ) An
i nd i v i du a l ' s s ucce s s es h e l p h i m d eve l op h i s p a rt i cu l a r
l ev e l of a s p i rat i on . J us t a s man y s ucces s e s b r i ng ab out
a s omewhat h i g h l ev e l of a s p i rat i on , many fa i l u re s can ,
i n t u r n ; res u l t i n a l ow l ev e l of a s p i rat i on .
The p r i ma r y obj ect i ve of the exp e r i ment a l t a s k wa s
to have t h e s ubj ect s exp e r i ence a fa i l u re s i tuat i on i n the
t a s k , after b u i l d i ng up expect a t i on s of s ucce s s i n the
two p r ev i ous b l ock d e s i g n s : The two f i rs t b l ock d e s i gn s
wer e therefore s t r uct u red t o i ns ure s ucces s f o r a l l t h e
s ubj ect s :
A p i l ot s tu d y t e s t ed t h e or i g i na l l y conce i ved
expe r i ment a l t a s k and the two b l ock d e s i g ns : I t was
found that t h e b l ock d e s i g n s oft e n b rought ab out fa i l u r e :
T h u s ; t h e y we re s i mp l i f i ed g reat l y t o b r i ng about s ucce s s :
The exp e r i ment a l t a s k and the two b l ock des i gn s
cons i s ted o f p a t t e r n s mad e w i th s ma l l b l ocks ( one- i nch
cubes ) : T h e con s t ruct i on of p a t t e r n s wa s f i r s t
d emons t ra t ed b y t he i nves t i g a t o r : T h e s ubj ect then used
the i nves t i ga t o r ' s con s t ruct i on as a m ode l .
B efore t he s ubj ect s t a rted t h e i nves t i gator a s ke d ,
1 1 D o you t h i nk you can make a des i gn l i ke t h i s ? 1 1 T h e
i nv es t i g a t o r noted the r e s p ons e i f i t was a ff i rma t i ve ,
negat i ve o r doub t f u l . B ot h of the b l ock des i gns a nd the
exp e r i ment a l t a s k were hand l ed i n t h i s manner . For t h e
f i r s t b l ock d es i g n t he i nves t i g a tor c on s t ructed a p a t t e rn
a n d then s a i d 1 1T r y t o make y ou r b l ocks 1 i ke my b l ocks .
S ee i f you can make your b l ocks the s ame as my b l ocks .
I f you can ma ke your b l ocks have t he s ame des i gn a s my
b 1 ocks y ou can have one of t h e s e j e l l y b ea n s 1 1 ( i nves t-
i ga t or p o i n t ed to j e l l y beans on the t ab l e ) . E a c h t i me
t he i nves t i g a t or off e r ed the rewa rd of the j e l l y bean
(mot i va t i on ) f o r the comp l eted p a t t e r n .
T h e f i rs t a n d s econd b l ock d es i gn s for the you n g e r
g r oup ( m e a n a g e 3 . 5 yea rs ) d i ffered f r om t h os e for the
o l d e r g roup ( me a n a g e 4 . 5 y ea rs ) w i t h t he b l ock des i gns
for t he youn g e r g roup b e i ng ext reme l y s i mp l e . The f i rs t
b l ock d e s i gn of t h e young e r g roup cons i s t ed of s t ack i ng
two b l ocks , one on t op of a n ot h e r . The s econd b l ock de
s i g n i nvo l ved s tack i ng fou r b l ocks , one on t op of a n ot he r .
T h e o l d e r g roup ' s f i r s t b l ock des i gn t a s k wa s t o s tack
t h ree b l ocks , one on t op of a n ot h e r .
F i rs t B 1 ock Des i g n
Two B 1 ocks ( Youn g e r
G r oup )
F I G UR E I
B LOC K D ES I G NS
S econd B 1 ock Des i gn
F ou r B 1 ocks ( Young e r
G roup )
. ( s ee F i g u r e 1 )
F i rs t B 1 ock Des i gn
T hr e e 8 1 ocks ( O l der C roup )
T h e b l ocks u s ed for the exp e r i n 1en t a l t a s k a n d b l ock
d e s i gn s had b een p a i nted w i t h s o l i d wh i t e s i des , s o l i d red
s i des and s i des wh i ch wer e d i a gona l l y cut i n ha l f , w i t h
ha l f red a n d ha l f wh i t e s i de s . F or t h e f i r s t and s econd
b l ock des i gn s for t h e y ou ng e r g roup a n d t h e f i r s t b l ock
des i g n of t h e o l d e r g r oup , col or h a d n ot b e e n of a n y
3 6
i mp ortance . B efore i nt roduc i ng t h e e)<p e r i menta 1 t a s k for
the younger g roup , a nd b efore t h e s econd b l ock des i gn
for the o l d e r g roup , t h e i nves t i g a t or exp l a i ned t o t h e
s ubj ect s about t h e col ors of t h e b l ocks . The i nves t i gator
h e l d a b l ock and p o i nted to the wh i t e s i d e and s a i d , "Th i s
s i de i s a l l wh i te . • • S h e t h en p o i nted t o the red s i de a nd
s a i d , 1 1 Th i s s i de i s a ll r ed . 1 1 S h e t h e n t u rned t h e b l ock
to t h e ha l f red a n d v;h i te s i de and s a i d , "And t h i s s i de
i s ha l f red a n d ha l f wh i te . 1 1
The s econd b l ock des i gn for t h e o l der g roup was more
d i ff i cu l t : I t was t o p l ace four b l ock s d own i n a s qua re ,
a l l hav i ng red s i de s up , w i t h on l y t h e red s hm<J i ng on
t h e t op • ( s e e F i g u r e 2 )
F I G UR E 2
S EC OND B LOC K DES I G N
R ed Red
R ed Red
S econd B l ock D es i gn Four B l ocks ( O l der G roup )
3 7
The exp er i menta l t a s k wa s t h e s ame for b ot h t h e
younger a n d o l d e r g r oup . Th i s t a s k was a s s umed t o res u l t
i n f a i l ur e and f r us t rat i on f or a l l t h e s ubj ect s . The
i nves t i gator wou l d then b e ab l e t o a s s es s t h rough t h e
ch i l d 1 s p erformance o f th i s t a s k , h i s l eve l o f a s p i rat i on ,
p e r s i s t ence i n t h e face o f m i l d f r us t ra t i on , a nd h i s
react i ons t o fa i l u r e .
The exp e r i ment a l t a s k ut i l i zed four b l ocks . T h e
p a t t e rn o f t h e f o u r b l ocks f ormed a s q uare w i t h a d i agona l
red s t r i p e acros s a wh i t e f i e l d . ( s ee F i gure 3 )
F I G UR E 3
EXP ER I M E NTAL TAS K
Wh i te
Exp e r i ment a l T a s k F o u r B 1 ocks { O l de r a n d Younger
G roup s )
3 8
T h e i nves t i gator t i med t h e ch i l d ' s p e r fo rmance on
t he exp e r i ment a l t a s k a nd b ot h b l ock d es i g ns , a s s um i ng ,
t hat t h e l ength of t i me the ch i l d s p e n t o n thes e ,
e s p ec i a l l y t h e exp e r i menta l t a s k, had a r e l at i on s h ip
t o the l ev e l of s e l f- es teem . I n t h e exp e r i menta l t a s k ,
t h e l ength o f t he work i ng p er i od was d i v i ded i nt o t h ree
p a rt s , each r ep res ent i ng h i gh , med i um a n d l ow l eve l s of
s e l f- e s t eem . S ubj ects who worked on t h e exp e r i menta l
t a s k from 0 t o 1 50 s econds were c l as s i f i ed a s l ow s e l f
e s t eem - they gave up eas i l y . S ubj ects who wor ked from
1 5 1 t o 240 s econds wer e c l as s i f i ed i n t h e med i um ran g e .
Thos e s ubj ect s who worked f r om 24 1 t o 3 00 s econds were .
c l a s s i f i ed a s hav i ng h i gh s e l f- e s t eem - t hey p er s i s ted at
a d i ff i cu l t t a s k . Afte r t h e s ubj ect had worked on the
exp e r i me nt a l t a s k for 3 00 s econds ( f i ve m i nutes ) he was
tol d b y the i nves t i gato r , 1 1 You can s t op now . That was a
very ha rd des i gn a n d y ou t r i ed s o ha r d . B ecaus e you t r i ed
s o h a r d a n d d i d s uch a g ood j ob you can have a j e l l y b ea n . "
39
C HAPTER I V
R E S ULTS AND D I S C US S I ON
The data i n t h i s s tudy i nc l uded t hree r�t i ng s of
s e l f- es t eem ( teach e r ' s rat i ng s , s oc i omet r i c rat i ng s and
d o l l p l ay ) , t h e exp e r i menta l task a n d backg round va r i ab l es
f o r each s ubj ect . . No s i g n i f i cant d i fferences were found
f r om the t - t e s t run on t h e t each er ' s rat i ngs comp a r i ng
b oy s a nd g i r l s a n d o l d e r w i t h you n g e r s ubj ect s . The
f i f t y- t h ree s ubj ect s were t herefore t r ea t ed a s a h omo
g eneous g roup .
NULL HYP OTHES I S 1
Th i s h yp ot h es i s p rop os ed that t h e r e wou l d b e no
d i fference i n t h e l ength of t i me s p ent on t h e exp e r i menta l
t a s k b y ch i l d r en w i th h i g h , med i um or l o\'/ s e l f- es t eem .
T h e l ength of t h e work p e r i od for the exp e r i ment a l
t a s k was us ed t o d e t e rm i ne t h e s ubj ect s ' l eve l of s e l f
e s t eem on t h e t a s k . P er formance on . t h e exp e r i menta l
t a s k was d i v i ded i nt d t h ree l eve l s , h i g h , med i um a nd
l ow s e l f- es t eem . · s ubj ects '"'ho VJOrked at the t a s k f r om
0 t o 1 50 s econd s were c l a s s i f i ed a s l ow i n s e l f- e s t eem .
Med i um s e l f- es teem s ubj ects worked b etween 1 5 1 t o 240
s econds . Two- h u n d red a n d fort y- one to 3 0 0 s econds w a s
40
t he work pe r i od of t h os e s ubj ect s c l a s s i f i ed a s h i gh i n
s e l f - e s t eem . The cut- off p o i nt for a l l s ubj ects on t h e
t a s k w a s 3 0 0 s econds ( 5 m i nutes ) :
Mu l t i p l e reg res s i on coeff i c i ents were r u n on t h e
t h re e s e l f- e s t eem rat i ngs ( t each e r ' s r a t i ngs , s oc i omet r i c
rat i ngs and do l l p l ay ) a s they p red i ct ed p e rforma nce on
t he exp e r i ment a l t a s k . Low, b ut s i g n i f i cant coeff i -
c i en t s of reg res s i on were found v-1hen comp a r i ng rat i ngs of
s e l f- e s t eem on t h e t ec.ch e r • s r a t i ngs a nd the s oc i omet r i c
rat i ng s w i t h t hos e ob t a i ned f rom the exp e r i menta l t a s k .
( s e e Tab l e 1 )
TAB LE 1
MULT I P LE R EGRESS I ON C OEFF I C I E NTS F OR S ELF- EST EEM RAT I NGS
R e g r e s s i on of Exp e r i me nta l Ta s k on Rat i ng s of S e l f- E s t eem
Teache r 1 s R a t i ng s : 1 7 ( F=43 . 4907 ; s i g n i f i ca n t at l es s t h a n • 0 1 . 1 e_ve 1 )
S oc i omet r i c R a t i n g s - . 09 ( F= 1 2 . 1 88 1 ; s i g n i f i cant at l es s than . 0 1 l eve l )
Dol l P l ay � 18 ( F= l . 1 043 ; not s i g n i f i cant )
Tab l e 2 ( p a g e 42) s hows that 46 p e rcent of t he s ubjec�
\"Jho have b een r a t ed e i t h e r h i gh , med i um o r l ow i n the s e l f
est eem b y the t eache rs ob t a i ned the s ame rat i ngs on t h e
exp e r i ment a l t a s k ( X2= z � 75l�O , V'J i t h L� d e g r ees of f reedom ,
... . --
TAB LE 2
RATES OF C O I NC I D ENC E B ET#E E N ANALYS I S OF S E LF-ESTEEM RAT I NGS OBT A I NED FR OM THE THR E E I NSTR UME NTS W I TH THE E XP ER I MENTAL TAS K
( Data i n p e rcentages )
Exp e r i ment a l Tas k Rat i ng s of S e l f- E s t eem
J:il9.b. Med i um Low Tot a l x2
I ns t ruments Rat i ng S e l f- E s teem
Teache r ' s Rat i ngs ( n=53 ) 8 36 2 L:.6 not s i gn i f i cant
S oc i omet r i c Rat i ngs ( n=53 ) 6 23 lf. 33 n ot s i g n i f i cant
D o l l P l ay ( n= 53 ) 2 23 6 3 1 not s i gn i f i cant
.j::"' !'-)
I'"
n ot s i g n i f i ca nt ) : T h i r t y- t h ree p e rcent of the subj ect s
who were rat ed a s p os s es s i ng h i gh , med i um or l ow l eve l s
of s e l f- e s t eem on t h e s oc i omet r i c rat i ng s p erformed
s i m i l a r l y on the exp e r i ment a l t a s k ( X2= 3 . 1 4 1 6 ; w i th 4
deg rees of f reed om ; not s i g n i f i ca nt ) � T h i rty-one p e r-
cent of the s ubj ect s wer e rated on the exp e r i ment a l t a s k
a t t h e s ame l eve l o f s e l f- e s t eem as t h ey ob t a i n ed i n t h e
d o l l p l ay ( X2=3 . 2 59 3 , w i t h 4 d e g r ee s o f f r eedom; not
s i g n i f i ca nt ) : Thus i t b ecomes app a rent the three mea s u res
of s e l f- e s t eem a re not s i gn i f i ca nt l y d i fferent from each
ot h e r and f r om the exp e r i menta l t a s k . I t a l s o app e a r s that
of t h e t h ree mea s u res two ( t eache r ' s rat i ngs and s oc i o-
met r i c rat i ng s ) had l ow, but s i gn i f i ca nt p red i ct i ve va l ue
for t h e exp e r i menta l t a s k . N u l l H yp ot he s i s 1 i s t h e refore
rej ected . The a b ove f i nd i ng s p rove that there i s a l ow,
but s i g n i f i cant r e l at i on s h i p b etween the two s e l f- e s t eem
mea s u r e s ( teache r ' s rat i ngs and s oc i omet r i c rat i ng s ) and
t h e exp e r i ment a l t a s k. B y mea ns of thes e two mea s ures
· Of s e l f- e s t eem i t was p os s i b l e t o p red i ct d i fferences i n
t h e l ength of t i me s p e nt on t h e exp e r i ment a l t a s k b y t h e
s ubj ects w i t h t h r ee d i ffe rent l eve l s o f s e l f- e s teem ·
( h i g h , med i um a nd l ow) .
S ome of t h e p os s i b l e r ea s ons for t h e l ow p red i ct i ve
va l ue of t h e mea s ures t o t h e exp e r i menta l tas k a re l i s t ed
b e l ow :
I n t h e d o l l p l a y rat i ng s of s e l f- es t eem ma ny of the
o l d e r s ubj ect s s eemed t o b e s omewha t awa r e of t h e i nves t
i ga t or 1 s p urp os e . Thes e s ubj ects s eemed to act out the
end i ng s of t h e s t or i es a s i f t ry i ng t o p l ea s e the
i nv es t i gator i n t he i r r e s p on s e s r a t h e r than g i v i ng a
r e s p o n s e ref l ect i ve of t he i r own p ot e nt i a l b ehav i or i n
s i m i l a r s i t uat i ons : T h e s oc i omet r i c rat i ngs of s e l f
e s te em p r oduced a negat i v e corre l at i on ( - . 09 ) wh i ch i s
r a t h e r d i ff i cu l t t o exp l a i n . T h e i nvest i gator fee l s that
t he rat i ngs ma y have been a p oor mea s u re of s e l f- es teem
for s uch a young g r oup of s ubj ect s and t h i s ma y have
p roduced t h e nega t i ve cor re l at i on . S ubj ect s at s uch a n
ea r l y age a re j us t d eve l op i ng f r i e nd s h i p s , s ome s t i l l
d o not a s s oc i at e w i t h other ch i l d re n a nd ot hers a re
e as i l y swa yed f rom f r i end t o f r i end dep en d i ng on the i r
mood a t t h e moment . I n ob t a i n i ng t h e s ubj ect s • respon s es
t o t h e do l l p l a y rat i ngs t h e i nves t i g a t or fe l t that mos t
of t h e s ubj ect s f e l l i nt o two categor i es of respons e .
F i rs t , t h e re were s ubj ects who had on l y one c l os e f r i end .
T h e two f r i ends wou l d name each oth e r for a l l t h r ee
s cenes i n r e s p on s e t o t h e ques t i on of wh i ch ch i l d they
wou l d l i ke t o a s s oc i at e w i t h . A s econd g roup of ch i l d ren
· ha d d i ff i cu l t y choos i ng oth e r ch i l d re n t o a s s oc i at e w i t h .
The i nves t i gator wou l d a s k for a r e s p on s e a nd t h e s ubj ects
oft e n s ca nned the c i rc l e of p h otograp h s on l y s t i l l to
have d i ff i cu l t y choos i ng a ch i l d . Man y of thes e s ub
j ec t s oft e n f i n a l l y ch os e a p hot og r a p h of a ch i l d wh o w a s
t h e c l os es t t o t he i r reach .
NULL HYP OTHES I S 2
C h i l d re n w i t h h i g h , med i um or l ow s e l f- e s t eem w i l l
s how no d i ffe rence i n t he i r exp ecta t i ons for s ucce s s
( l eve l o f a s p i ra t i on ) i n the exp e r i menta l t a s k .
S i nce t h e exp ect a t i on s for s ucces s , wh i ch l ed up t o
t h e exp e r i menta l t a s k, were ove nvhe 1 m i ng l y p os i t i ve no
s ta t i s t i ca l t rea tment w a s p e rformed on t � e data . The
f i nd i ng s i n Tab l e 3 ( page Lt-6 ) s how t h a t i n the f i rs t b l ock
des i g n f i f t y- one of the f i f t y- t h ree s ubj ects i nd i cated
p os i t i ve exp ect 6t i on s for s ucces s . On t h e s econd
b l ock des i g n f i fty-two of t he f i f t y- t h r ee s ubj ect s
g ave p os i t i ve r e s p ons es . T h e exp e r i menta l t a s k , wh i ch
. wa s a d i ff i cu l t , m i l d l y f r us t rat i ng t a s k res u l t ed i n
f i ft y p os i t i v e res p on s e s for exp ect a t i ons for s ucces s .
On l y t h ree s ubj ect s were doubtfu l a nd no s ubj ects had
nega t i ve fee l i ng s of s ucces s . D ue t o t hes e ext reme
p os i t i ve r es u l t s N u l l Hyp ot hes i s 2 i s accepted .
T he i nvest i gator fee l s that t h e two b l ock des i gns
were s t ruct u red for s ucces s , so that even t h e s ubj ects
w i t h l ow s e l f- e s t e em ma y s t i l l have h a d a very
p os i t i ve exp ectat i on for s ucces s ( l eve l of a s p i ra t i on ) �
I t was a l s o noted that ma n y of t h e s ubj ects d i d not
act ua l l y l ook c l os e l y at t h e exp e r i ment a l t as k . T he
y oung e r s ubj ects a ft e r ea s i l y comp l et i ng two b l ock
L. r: . ;)
d e s i g n s j us t g l anced a t t h e exp e r i �ent � l t a s k a n d
r e s p onded w i t h a p os i t i ve exp ectat i on for s ucce s s .
I t wou l d have b een i nt e rest i ng t o t e s t wheth e r expect
a t i on s f or a s ub s e qu ent f ou r t h t a s k vtou l d h cve been 1 owe r
fo l l ow i ng d i ff i cu l ty •w i t h or f a i l u r e o n t h e exp er i menta l
T AB LE 3
S UB J E CTS 1 EXPECTAT I ONS F OR S UCCESS I N B LOC K D ES I GNS AND E XP ER I MENT AL TAS K
( LEVE L OF AS P I R AT I ON )
S ubj ect Exp ect a t i ons
P os i t i v e D oub t f u l Negat i v e T ota l Tas k
B l ock D e s i gn 1 5 1 1 1 53
B l oc k Des i gn 2 5 2 1 0 53
Exper i ment a l ,... ,.., ;;J V 3 0 53
T a s k
n-53
ANALYS I S OF B AC KGR OUND VAR I AB LES
O rd i na l p os i t i on , re l i g i on and fathe r 1 s occup a t i on
were the backg r ound va r i ab l es wh i ch we re exam i ned t o
s ee i f t h e re was a re l a t i ons h i p b e tween mea s ured l eve l s
of s e l f- es t eem a n d t h e s e va r i ab l es .
The s t a t i s t i ca l t reatment i nvol ved t h e us e of
t h e ch l s q u a r e t e s t to d e t e rm i n e p os s i b l e d i ffe r e n c e s
i n l evel s of s e l f- es teem a s mea s u red b y t he exp e r i ment a l
t a s k , the t h ree rat i ngs of s e l f- e s t eem ( t eache r ' s rat i ngs ,
d o l l p l ay and s oc i omet r i c r a t i ng s ) a n d each of t h e back
g round va r i ab l es . T ab l e L} ( p a g e 4 8 ) s hows the r es u l t s of
the s e a na l ys es .
S i g n i f i ca nt r es u l t s we r e appa rent i n the ch i s qua r e
t e s t o f the t eache r ' s rat i ng s o f s e l f- e s t eem and fathe r ' s
occupat i ons . T h e f a t h e r ' s occup a t i ons had b een c l a s s i f i ed
i nt o four cat egor i es : p rofes s i on a l , b u s i nes s , s k i l l ed a n d
o t he r . T ab 1 e 5 ( p a g e 1+9 ) s hoV>/S that 7 6 p ercent of t h e
s ubj ect ' s f a t h e rs w e r e c l a s s i f i ed i nt o t h e p rofes s i ona l
categor y . T he maj or i t y of t h e s ubj ect s w i th t h i s b ack
g r ound had been r a t ed b y t h e t eachers a s e i ther h i gh i n
s e l f- e s teem ( 1 9 p e rcent ) o r med i um ( 5 3 p e rcen t ) i n s e l f
e s te em.
I t h a s a l ready been e s t ab l i s hed t ha t t h e t eacher ' s
r a t i ngs were t h e s t ronges t p red i ctor of a l l t h e t hree
rat i ng s , yet t h i s i ns t rument was s t i l l a very wea k p re d i c
t o r of t h e l eve l of s e l f- e s t eem on t h e exp e r i ment a l t a s k .
T h e ch i s qua r e a na l ys i s comp a r i ng t h e do l l p l a y
r a t i ng s of s e l f- e s t eem and t he f a t h e r ' s occupat i ons
g ave s i g n i f i ca n t r es u l t s a t t he l es s t h a n . 0 1 l eve l .
T h e r es u l t s i n T ab l e 6 ( p a g e 50 ) g re a t l y cont ras t
w i t h t he res u l t s of the a na l ys i s comp a r i ng t eacher ' s
rat i ngs a nd f a t he r ' s occup a t i ons (Tab l e 5 , page 49 ) .
Tab 1 e 6 ( p a g e 50 ) s hm'Vs t h a t of t h e s ubj ect s whos e
f a t h e r s we re c l a s s i f i ed a s p r ofes s i on � ] 3 8 p e rcent
Exp e r i menta l Tas k"''"
Fathers Occupat i ons
Numb e r of S i b l i ng s
Ord i na l P os i t i on
R e l i g i on
TAB LE 4
S I G N I F I CANCE OF CH I S QUAR E T EST ON EXP ER I MENTAL TAS K, D OLL P LAY S OC I OMETR I C RAT I NGS , TEACHER ' S RAT I NGS
AND BACKGROUND VAR I AB LES
T eache r s s Do l l S oc i omet r i c Exp e r i menta l Rat i n� � Rat i ngs Tas k�'"
Not Not Not S i g n i f i cant S i g n i f i cant S i g n i f i cant
C h i S quare= 1 6 : 0 l 59 ; Ch i S quare= 39 . 0548 ; Not Not d eg rees of freedom d e g r ees of f r eedom S i g n i f i cant S i gn i f i cant = 6 , S i �n i f i ca nt at =6 , S i g n i f i cant at l es s t a n . 02 l eve l l es s than . 0 1 l eve l
Not Not Not N ot S i gn i f i cant S i g n i f i ca nt S i g n i f i ca nt S i g n i f i ca nt
Not N ot N ot N ot S i gn i f i ca nt S i g n i f i cant S i gn i f i cant S i g n i f i cant
Not N ot Not N ot S i g n i f i ca nt S i gn i f i cant S i g n i f i ca nt S i g n i f i ca nt
";'•The exp e r i ment a l t a s k was u s ed i n b oth the row a n d col umn due to the fact i t was - a na l yzed aga i ns t a l l th ree s e l f- esteem i ns t ruments a nd the backg round va r i ab l es .
.)::"' C)
, ·
I ' '
S e l f- E s teem
H i g h
Med i um
Low
Tota l
TAB LE 5
TEACHER ' S RAT I NGS OF S ELF- ESTEEM C OMPAR ED W I TH FATHER ' S OCCUPAT I ONS
( Data i n p e rcentages )
Fathe r ' s Occup at i ons
P rofes s i ona l B us i nes s S k i l l ed ( n :: l.:-0 ) ( n= B ) ( n= 3 )
1 9 0 0
53 1 3 2
L} 2 4
7 6 1 5 6
Oth e r Tota l ( n:: 2 ) ( n= 53 )
2 2 1
2 70
0 1 0
4 1 0 1
C h i s quare = 1 6 . 0 1 59 w i th 6 degrees of freedom ( S i gn i f i cant at l es s than . 02 l eve l ) .
-+='" \!)
S e l f- E s t eem
H i g h
Med i um
Low
Tota l
TAB LE 6
D OLL P LAY RAT I NG S OF S E LF- ESTEEM C OMPAR ED W I TH FATHER ' S OCCUPAT I ONS
( Data i n p e rcentages )
Father ' s Occupat i ons
P rofes s i ona l B us i ness S k i l l ed Other ( n=L�o ) ( n= S ) ( n= 3 ) ( n= 2 )
0 0 4 0
3 8 1 1 2 0
38 L:. 0 L�
76 1 5 6 4
Tot a l ( n= 53 )
4
5 1
46
1 0 1
Ch i s qua r e = 39 . 0548 w i th 6 deg rees of f reedom ( s i g n i f i cant at l es s than . 0 1 l eve l ) �
\..n 0
were rated a s p os s es s i ng med i um and l o\-'J l eve l s of s e l f
e s t eem w i t h none i n the h i g h l eve l of s e l f- e s t eem . The
c l a s s i f i cat i on of s k i l l ed and ot h e r categor i es s eemed t o
b e a l mos t opp os i t e rat i ng s o f t h e t eache r ' s rat i ngs : I n
t h e t eache r ' s rat i ng s (Tab l e 5 , page 49 ) no s ubj ects i n
t he s k i l l ed category we re c l a s s i f i ed a s hav i ng h i gh s e l f
e s teem, w i th 2 p e rcent i n t h e med i um l eve l a nd 4 p e rcent
i n t h e l ow l eve l , \IJhe reas i n the d o l l p l a y rat i ng s L}
p e rcent of t h e s k i l l ed we re c l as s i f i ed i n t h e h i gh s e l f
e s t eem l eve l , 2 p e rcent i n t h e med i um l eve l and none i n
t he l ow s e l f - e s t eem l eve l . The s k i l l ed category demon
s t ra t e d the s ame cont ra s t i ng effect w i t h 2 p e rcent i n the
h i g h a n d med i um l eve l s of s e l f- e s t eem i ri the t eache r ' s
rat i ng s a nd none i n t he l ow l eve l of s e l f - e s t eem . I n
t h e d o l l p l ay rat i n g s no s ubj ects w i t h f a t h e r s whos e
occup a t i ons we re rated i n t h e s k i l l ed cat egory we re
c l a s s i f i ed i n the h i gh and med i um l eve l s of s e l f- es t eem,
a n d 4 p e rcent we re c l a s s i f i ed as hav i ng l ow s e l f- es t eem .
I n fut u r e r es ea rch i t wou l d b e i nt e res t i ng t o conduct . ' a s i m i l a r s t ud y a nd check- out the r e l at i ons h i p of the
two s e l f-es teem r a t i ng s comp a red t o t h e fathe r 1 s
occupat i ons t o s ee i f a n opp os i t e rat i ng effect occu rs
a g a i n .
A t rend wa s n oted i n t h e ch i s qua re a na l ys i s comp a r i ng
t eacher • s rat i ngs a n d ord i na l p os i t i on of t h e s ubj ect s .
T ab l e 7 ( p a g e 5 2 ) s h ows that t he on l y ch i l d s eems to h�ve
med i um ( 60 p e r ce n t ) t o l ow ( L:-0 p e rcent ) s e l f- es teem . Thes e
'· _ .... -
5 1
T eache r ' s Rat i ngs of S e l f- E s t eem
H i g h
Med i um
Low
Tot a l
TAB LE 7
TEACHER 1 S RAT I NGS OF S E LF- ESTEEM C OMPARED W I TH ORD I NAL P OS I T I ON
( Data i n p e rcenta ges )
Ord i na l Pos i t i on
On l y C h i l d O l dest M i dd l e ( n= 5 ) ( n= 1 8 ) ( n: 1 0 )
0 2 8 1 0
60 7 2 70
L}Q 0 20
1 00 1 00 1 00
Youngest ( n: 20 )
25
70
5
t oo
C h i square = 1 0 . 5305 w i th 6 degrees of freedom ( not s i gn i f i cant )
\J1 N
r es u l t s cont rad i ct R os e nb e r g ' s f i nd i ng s that on l y
ch i l d ren have a h i ghe r l ev e l of s e l f- e s t eem . ( 1 7 : 1 07 )
Of t h e o l d es t ch i l d ren , 2 8 p e rcent we r e rated h i gh i n
s e l f- e s teem and 7 2 p e rcent med i um i n s e l f-es t eem .
R a t i n g s of t h e young e s t ch i l d a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r . Twenty
f i ve p e rcent we re c l a s s i f i ed a t the h i gh s e l f- e s teem
l eve l , 70 p e rcent at t h e med i um l eve l a nd 5 p ercent at
t he l ov"J s e l f- es teem l eve l . The res u l t s i nd i ca t i ng that
t he o l des t ch i l d h a s h i g h t o med i um l eve l s of s e l f - e s t eem
d o co i nc i de w i t h C oop e rsm i th ' s f i nd i ng s of ch i l d ren
b e i ng born ea r l i e r i n a fam i l y p os s e s s i ng h i gher s e l f
e s t eem l eve l s t h a n ch i l d ren born i n m i dd l e or l at e r
p os i t i ons . ( 3 : 1 5 2 ) Yet , r es u l ts for younges t ch i l d re n
s h a rp l y cont rad i ct C oop er sm i th ' s f i nd i ng s .
The f i nd i ng s of t h e ch i s q u a r e a na l ys i s comp a r i ng
t eache r ' s rat i ngs of s e l f- e s t eem and t h e n umb e r of
s i b l i ngs r es u l ted i n a s t at i s t i ca l l y n ons i gn i f i ca nt t re n d .
Tab l e 8 ( p a g e 5L} ) s hows t h a t on l y ch i l d ren had med i um t o
l ow l eve l s of s e l f- e s t eem . T h i s s ame res u l t h a s b e e n
p rev i ous l y s t ated i n t h e ch i s q ua r e a na l ys i s p e rformed
on t h e t eache r ' s rat i ngs a nd ord i na l p os i t i on . S ubj ects
w i th on l y one s i b l i ng s eemed t o fa l l i nt o h i g h ( 23
p e rcen t ) and med i um ( 73 p e rcent ) l eve l s of s e l f-es t eem
w i t h on l y a s l i ght p e rcenta g e ( 4 p e rcen t ) i n the l ow
s e l f- e s t eem l eve l . Of t h e s ubj ects w i th two or mor e
s i b l i ngs 2 3 p e rce n t \'Je r e rated i n t h e h i gh s e l f- est eem
l eve l , 6 8 p e rcent i n med ,i um, a nd 9 p e rcent i n the l ow
53
\
T eache r ' s Rat i ngs of S e l f- E s teem
H i g h
Med i um
Low
Tota l
TAB LE 8
TEACHER ' S RAT I NGS OF S ELF-ESTEEM C OMPAR ED W I TH NUMB ER OF S I B L I NG S
( Data i n p e rcentages )
Numb e r of S i b l i ngs
None One ( n= 5 ) ( n: 26 )
0 23
60 73
Lr·O 4
1 00 1 00
Ch i squa re = 7 . 0 7 85 w i t h 4 d eg rees of f r eedom ( not s i g n i f i cant )
Two o r more ( n= 2 2 )
23
6 8
9
1 00
\...'1 ..;:::-
,f
·�·
D o l l P l ay R a t i ngs of S e l f- E s teem
H i gh
Med i um
Low
T ota l
TAB LE 9
D OLL P LAY RAT I NGS OF S ELF- ESTEEM C OMPARED W I TH NUMB ER OF S I B L I NGS
( Data i n percentages )
Numb er of S i b l i ngs
None One ( n:::: 5 ) ( n= 2 6 ) -
20 4
20 42
60 54
1 00 t OO
C h i s quare : S : L}639 w i th 4 deg rees of f reedom ( not s i g n i f i cant )
Two or more ( n= 22 )
0
68
3 2
1 00
, ·
V1 V1
s e l f-es t eem l eve l .
T h e ch i squ a r e t e s t p er formed on t he dol l p l ay
rat i ng s of s e l f- e s t eem and n umb e r of s i b l ings (Tab l e 9 ,
p a g e 5 5 ) r es u l t ed i n a n i nt e res t i ng a n d nons i gn i f i ca nt
t rend wh i ch s t rong l y cont ras t ed w i t h t h e ch i s qua re ana l y
s i s of t h e teache r ' s rat i ngs a n d t h e n umb e r of s i b l i ng s
(Tab l e 8 , p a g e 54 ) . The s ubj ects who h a d on l y one
s i b l i ng we re r a t ed i n t h e d o l l p l a y mea s u re i n t h e
med i um ( L}2 p e rcen t ) t o l ow ( 54 p e rcent ) r a n g e o f s e l f�
e s t eem . I n t h e t eacher 1 s rat i n gs , h oweve r , on 1 y 4
p e rcent f e l l i nt o t h e l ow l eve l of s e l f- es t eem c1 nd 23
p e rcent were r a t e d h i gh i n s e l f-es t eem .
56
CHAPTER V
S UMMARY AND C ONCLUS I ONS
P URP OS E
The p r i ma ry p u rp os e of t h i s s t udy was t o i nv es t i ga t e
t h e respons es ( b ehav i or ) o f p re s chool ch i l d ren des i gnated
a s p os s es s i ng va r y i ng l eve l s of s e l f- e s t eem, to a s t r uc
t u r ed , m i l d l y f ru s t rat i ng exp e r i menta l t a s k . I t was hop ed
that t h e i nv es t i gator wou l d d i s cove r t h r e e d i fferent
l ev e l s of r e s p on s e ( b ehav i or ) t o the exp e r i menta l t a s k s
cor r e s p ond i ng t o t h r ee l ev e l s o f s e l f- es t eem ( h i gh , med i um
o r l ow ) . A s econda ry p u rp os e was t o exam i ne the eff i cacy
of each of t h e th ree mea s u res of s e l f- es t eem . A t h i rd
p urp os e of th i s s tu d y was t o i nves t i ga t e the r e l at i ons h i p
of s e l f- es teem i n p re s chool ch i l d ren t o s uch backg round
va r i ab l es a s a g e , s ex, ord i na l p os i t i on , r e l i g i on and fa
t he r �s occupat i on .
P R OC E D UR E OF I NVEST I GAT I ON
Twenty- n i ne ma l e a nd twenty- f i ve fema l e p res chool
ch i l d ren were s e l ected as s ubj ects f r om t h e S a n F e r nando
Va l l e y S ta t e C o l l eg e P re s chool Labora t o r y :
T h e s ubj ect s w e r e t es t ed ove r app rox i ma t e l y a f i ve
week p er i od . Three i ns t r uments were u s ed t o rate t h e
57
s ubj ect 1 s s e l f- e s t eem . F i rs t 1 a t each e r 1 s rat i ng , wh i ch
had b een adapted f r om L e l a n d S t ot t 1 s C h i l dr en 1 s B ehav i or
C h eck- L i s t � T h e r a t i n g s of each s ubj ect were a con s ens us
of op i n i on of t h e s up e rv i s i ng and a s s oc i a t e teacher i n
each of t h e f ou r c l a s s es . S econ d , a s oc i omet r i c rat i ng
( p op u l a r i ty ) was u s ed t o p red i ct s e l f- e s t eem$ T h e
i nv es t i gator t o l d t h ree d i ffe rent s to r i es a n d the s ubj ects
s e l ected p hotog raphs of oth e r ch i l d re n i n the c l a s s w i th
whom they wou l d l i ke t o a s s oc i a te w i t h i n each s t or y : T h e
t h i r d , a p roj ect i ve t es t , d o l l p l a� wa s a l s o g i ven t o
each s ubj ect . T h e d o l l p l ay cons i s ted of two s cenes , one
w i th p a r e n t s and one w i t h p ee rs , i n wh i ch the s ubj ect
was t o act out or t e l l about t h e end i ng of t h e scene .
Two b l ock des i g n s wh i ch were s et up t o i ns u re s ucces s
f o r a l l s ubj ects p receded t h e m i l d l y f ru s t rat i ng exp er i
menta l t a s k . T h e ma i n obj ect i ve of t h e exp e r i menta l
t a s k wa s t o have t h e s ubj ect s exp e r i ence a fa i l u r e
s i t ua t i on i n t h e t a s k . T h e l en g t h of t i me t h e s ubj ect
worked on t h e exp e r i ment a l t a s k was a s s umed to have a
r e l at i on s h i p t o h i s l ev e l of s e l f- e s te ema
C ONCLUS I ONS
The f o l l ow i ng conc l us i on s we re formu l at ed f rom the
data col l ected i n the s t u d y .
N u l l Hyp ot h es i s 1 : T h e r e w i l l b e no d i fference i n the
l en g t h of t i me s p ent on t h e exp e r i ment a l t a s k b y ch i l d r en
.. . -
5 8
w i t h h i g h , med i um or lov1 s e l f- e s t eem. Nu l l Hyp ot hes i s 1
wa s r ej ect ed due t o t h e fact t ha t t h e t h ree meas u res of
s e l f- e s t eem ltJe r e n ot s i g n i f i ca nt l y d i fferent f rom each
oth e r a nd f r om t h e exp er i menta l t as k ; and t h e re was a l ow,
b ut s i g n i f i cant r e l a t i ons h i p b etween two of t h e meas u re s
( teache r ' s rat i ng s a n d s oc i omet r i c rat i ng s ) a n d the
exp e r i ment a l t a s k .
N u l l Hyp ot hes i s 2 : C h i l d ren w i t h h i g h , med i um a n d
l ow s e l f- est eem w i l l s h ow no d i fferences i n t he i r
exp ect a t i ons for s ucces s ( l eve l of a s p i ra t i on ) i n t h e
exp e r i ment a l t a s k . Nu l l Hyp ot hes i s 2 was accep ted due
t o the fact that the s ubj ects had ove rwhe l m i ng l y p os i t i ve
exp ect a t i ons f or s ucces s .
N o conc l us i on s cou l d b e made about t h e b ackg round
v a r i ab l es i n r e l at i on to s e l f- es t eem .
REC OHt�1E NDAT I ONS
The i nves t i g a t or fee l s t ha t conduct i ng a s i m i l a r
s t ud y w i th a n o l d e r s �mp l e wou l d b e benef i c i a l . The
s e l f- concep t i t s e l f a t t h i s age l eve l app ea rs to be
s ome1;11hat uns t ab l e a n d s e l f- eva l ua t i ons may a l s o be q u i t e
f l uct uat i ng . A wrong act i on b y a teacher or anot h e r ch i l d
ma y s udden l y l ower a ch i l d 1 s eas i l y i nf l uenced l eve l of
s e l f - e s t e em . I n t h i s way t h e rete s t i ng o f t h e t h ree s e l f
es t eem rat i ng i ns t r uments ( t eache r ' s rat i ng s , s oc i omet r i c
rat i n g s a n d d o l l p l a y ) and t he exp e r i ment a l t a s k w i t h a n
5 9
o l d e r s amp l e may y i e l d comp l et e l y d i fferent r es u l t s and
a s t ron g e r r e l a t i ons h i p between t h e t h ree s e l f-est eem
rat i ng i ns t r ument s a nd t h e exp e r i ment a l t a s k .
T h e s oc i omet r i c r a t i ng i ns t rument of s e l f- es t eem may
a l s o be a b et t e r p red i ctor of s e l f- est eem w i th an o l d e r
s amp l e : At a n o l d e r a g e f r i ends h i p s have b een more f i rm l y
e s t ab l i s hed a n d , i n g e n e ra l , ch i l d ren a re more s oc i a l l y
o r i e nt e d .
C onduct i ng a s i m i l a r s t ud y us i ng a d i fferent
exp e r i ment a l t a s k i s a l s o recommended . T h e exp e r i ment a l
t a s k u s ed i n t h i s s t ud y was r e l ated t o ach i evement
mot i vat i on i n t h e s ubj ect s . I t i s fe l t t hat s e l f- e s t eem
may not b e re l a t ed d i rectl y t o ach i evement mot i vat i on a t
t h e p res choo l i eve l , t h us t h e s e l f- e s t eem rat i ngs ma y
h ave had a weak r e l at i ons h i p t o t h e exp e r i ment a l t a s k .
6 0
B I B L I OG R AP HY
6 1
1 .
2 .
3 .
4 .
5 .
7 .
B I B L I OGRAPHY
Ad l e r , A l f red . T h e P ract i ce and Theork of I nd i v i d ua l P sycho 1 og_y_. New YorK: B as i c B oo s , I nc . , 1 964.
C h i l d , I . L . and Wh i tney , J . Y-1 . ' ' D et e rm i nants of Leve l of Asp i ra t i on a nd Ev i cence f rom Eve r yday L i fe . " J ou rna l of Ab norma l and S oc i a l P s ychol ..Q9..Y., 4L} ( 1 9L�9 ) •
C oop e rsm i t h , S t a n l ey . T h e Ant ecedents of S e l f- E s t eem . S a n F ranc i s co and Lond on : W . H . F reema h a nd C omp a n y , 1 9 6 7 •
E r i ks on , E r i k . "The P rob l ems of E g o I dent i t y . ' ' J ou rn a l o f t he Ame r i ca n P s ychoana l yt i c A s s oc i at 1 on��0 9 56) .
G a r nd e r , J . W . "The Us e of t he T e rm 1 Leve 1 of Asp i rat i on 1 . " P sych o l ogy R ev i ew , b.·7 ( 1 940) .
Ha l l , 0 1 i ve A . E d uc a t i on . Mi nnes ot a :
Hawk, T rav i s L . va nta ged . " ( 1 9 67) .
R e s ea rch Ha ndb ook for H ome E conom i cs S econd ed i t i on . M i nneap o l i s , B u rges s P ub l i s h i ng C omp a n y , 1 96 7 �
"S e l f- C oncep t o f S oc i a l l y D i s adE l e�en t a ry S chool J ou r na l , 67 (4)
8. H i ns e l , L e l a nd E . and C ampb e l l , R ob e r t J � P s yc h i at r i c D i ct i ona ry . New York : Oxford Un i ve rs i t y P re s s , 1960.
9 . Horney , Ka r e n . N e u r os i s a n d H uma n G r owt h . New York : W . W . N o r t on a nd C omp a n y , 1 9 50 .
T O . J ames , W i l l i am . T h e P r i nc i p l es of P s�chol ogy. Y or k : Hen r y Hol t a nd C omp a n y , 1 9 0 .
New
1 1 . Lecky , P re s c ot t . S e l f- C ons i s t encx. Hamden , C onnect i cut : S h oe S t r i ng P res s , I nc . , 1 96 1 .
12. McCa nd l es s , B oy d R : C h i l d ren a n d Adol es cent s B eh av i or and D eve l opment . Nevv York : H o l t , R i neha r t and W i n s t on , I nc . , 1 963 •
. 1 3: Mea d , G eo r g e ; M i n9_L S e l f and S oc i et_y. C h i ca g o and
62
London : Un i ve r s i t y of Ch i ca g o P re s s , 1 93 4 .
1 4 : Mus s en , P a u l H : Handbook of R e s e a rch Met h ods i n C h i l d D eve l opment . New Yor k : J ohn H i l ey a nd S on , I nc . , 1 960 :
1 5 : R a y , Vl i l l i am s : B a s i c S tat i s t i cs .. N e1t1 York : App 1 e t on- C e nt u r y- C r offS,-T9"bF.--
R edmond , F ra nces H . S e 1 f- C oncep t . 1 1
1 96 7 :
" G r owt h a nd D eve l opment of t he D i s s e rtat i on Ab s t racts , 2 8 { A ) ,
1 7 . R os enbe rg , Mor r i s . S oc i ety and the Adol escent S e l fI ma g e . P r i nceton, New J e rs e y : P r i nceton Un i v e r s i t y P res s , 1 965 .
1 8 . R umme l , F ra nces J . A n j_Qj: r od uct i o.Q_�.Q.. Res.ea rcb. P roce d u r e s i n E d ucat i on . S econd ed i t i on . New Y"ork:----"Ra rp e r a riCT"RoVJ, 1 96 4 .
1 9 . S ma rt , Mol l i e S . a nd Sma rt , R us s e l C . C h i l d ren D eve 1 ooment and R e 1 a t i ons h LQ_. New York a nd Lon d on : MacM i l l i a n C omp a n y , 1 967 .
20 . S ouf i , A l l ad i n . " E ffect of a n Exp e r i ence of F a i l u re
2 1 .
i n t h e S e l f- C oncep t Under Two Leve l s of Anx i et y . ' ' Unpub l i s hed D octora l D i s s e rt a t i on , Un i v e r s i t y of C a l i fo r n i a a t Los Ange l es , 1 96 2 .
S t ott , Le l a n d H . C h i l d D eve l opme n.t : An I nd i v i dua l L on_g_i t ud i na l App r oach . Nev..r York : Hol t , R i nena rt a nd V·/ f n s t o-n; I nc . , 1 96 7 .
2 2 . S u l l i v a n , Ha r r y S ta c k . C oncep t i on of Mod e r n P sych i at ry . _ New Yor k : W . W . Norton and C omp a n y : I nc . , 1 9L.�o .
23 : S ymond s , P e rc i va l . T h e Ego and the S e l f . New York :
2L� . .:lj !�i
App l et on-C ent u r y- C rof t s , 1 95 1 .
H i 1 1 i ams , R ob e r t L : a nd C o l e , S p u rg eon . "S e l f- C oncep t a n d S ch oo l Adj us tment . " P e r s on ne l and G u i d a nce __ � ou r na l , L:-6 , ( 1 96 8 ) :
63
APP END I X A
T EACHER ' S RAT I NG S OF CH I LDRE N ' S B EHAV I OR
TEACHER 1 S RAT I NG S OF CH I LDR E N 1 S B EHAV I OR*
T h e ch i l d r en ' s b ehav i or mus t b e rated on a s ca l e from
one t o f i ve . T h e mos t p os i t i ve r e s p onse i s a t one and the
mos t nega t i ve r e s p on s e i s a t f i v e . T h e m i dp o i nt i s three
a n d s h ows ev i dence of equa l cha ract e r i s t i cs of b ot h ext re
mes of t h e s ca l e . T h e ch i l d ren s h ou l d b e rated on a
cons ens u s b a s i s . T h e s up e rv i s i ng t eacher a n d t he a s s oc iate
t eache r of each c l a s s s hou l d rate each ch i l d together and
u s e t he i r con s ens u s of op i n i on on the f i na l rat i ng s . The
ent i re c l a s s of ch i l d ren mus t be rated at one s i t t i ng �
The ch i l d r e n s hou l d b e r a t ed i n a g r oup i n r ef erence t o
each othe r . F i rst , r e a d t he l i s t of characte r i s t i cs
d ef i n i ng t h e b eh av i or and then p roceed w i t h t h e rat i ng .
*Adap t ed f r om L e l and S tott , C h i l d r en ' s B ehav i or C h eck- l i s t .
65
C i rc l e t h e app r op r i at e respon s e
Name of ch i l d --------------------------------R a t e r s ---------------------------------------D a t e -----------------------
B .
c �
D :
E :
F :
S oc i a l Ascenda nce and S e l f- S uff i c i ency
P e r s ona l R es pons i b i l i ty
Dom i nat i on
S oc i a 1 Effect i ve n e s s
P e r s ona l S ecu r i ty
H i gh S e l f- E s te em
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 Lr 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Lack of L ea d e r s h iv · a nd Need for P resence and S up p ort of Others
I r resp ons ib 1 e I mp u l s ivene s s
C omp l i ant a n d R et i r i ng
S oc i a l I nept i t ude
l ns ecu� i t y
LovJ S e 1 f- E s t eem
66
D EF I N I T I ONS OF E ND- P O I NTS OF THE R AT I NG S CALES
F actor A : S oc i a l As cenda nce ( Lead e rs h i pl_ and S e l fSuff i c i e ncy vers u s Lack of Leade r s h i p a nd Need for P re s e nce a nd S upport of Others .
R a t i ng P os i t i on # 1
1 . Us ua l l y dom i n a t es ot h e r ch i l d ren t hrough h i s ab unda nce of i d ea s . 2 . Us ua l l y or i g i na l and i nvent i ve i n a l l a s p ects of b ehav i or . 3 . Us ua l l y a dj us t s we l l a n d rap i d l y t o a nove l s i tuat i on . 4 . Us ua l l y i ndep endent of a d u l t s i n mos t behav i or . A l s o i nd ependent of oth e r ch i l d re n . D oe s not a lways need t h e s upp ort of a not he r ch i l d or adu l t t o p l a y w i th . 5 . Usua l l y a l wa y s p e r s i s t ent and genera l l y accomp l i s hes a task i n sp i t e of d i ff i cu l t i es . 6 . Us ua l l y i s ab l e t o defend h i s own r i ght w i t h oth e r ch i l d ren . 7 . Us ua l l y r esp onds q u i t e p os i t i v e l y t o t h e advances of oth e r ch i l d ren . 8 . Us ua l l y r e s ou rce f u l i n d ea l i ng w i t h . d i f f i cu l t s i t uat i ons .
R a t i ng P os i t i on #5
. 1 . N ever cont r i b ut e s i deas to oth e r ch i l d re n . 2 . N ever or i g i na l or i nvent i ve . C op i es ot h e r ch i l d re n . 3 . Has a s evere a dj u s tment p rob l em i n a nove l s i t uat i on . 4 � V e r y dep e ndent on a d u l t s a s we l l a s ot her ch i l d ren . C a nn ot funct i on u n l es s a i d ed b y a n adu l t or a nothe r ch i l d . 5 . D oe s not p e r s i s t a t a ny a ct i v i ty � I s not ab l e t o endure a t a s k l ong enough t o eve r comp l et e i t : 6 . I s never ab l e t o defend h i s own r i g h t s w i th othe r c h i l d re n .
Factor B : P e rs on a l R espons i b i l i ty ve r s u s l r respons i � l e I mpu l s i venes s .
R a t i ng P os i t i on # 1
1 . Us ua l l y i s coop e ra t i ve a nd resp ons i b l e i n mos t aspects of the phys i ca l a nd s oc i a l env i ronment . 2. Us u a l l y adj u s t s a nd goes th rough dG i l y r out i ne w il l i ng 1 y . 3 � Us ua l l y i s t h ou g h t fu l of ot h e rs . 4 . Us ua l l y i s uns e l f i s h . W i l l s h a re eq u i pment and g i ve up e q u i pment to a n ot h e r ch i l d wh en not u s i ng i t . 5 . Us ua l l y does not t a k e a n ot he r ch i l d ' s p os s es s i on
67
� w i thout f i rs t a s k i ng p erm i s s i on . 6 � Us ua l l y i s ab l e t o a ccept s ucces s q u i et l y a nd knows whe n h e has done a t a s k s ucces s fu l l y . 7 . Us ua l l y i s a 1 1 g ood s p o rt " .
· 8 . Us ua l l y i s t ruthfu l . 9 . Us ua l l y h a s p r ed i ct ab l e b ehav i or � Has s t ab l e b ehav i or �
R a t i ng P os i t i on #5
1 . l s not coop er a t i ve a n d resg ons i b l e . 2 . Has s ev e r e adj us tment p rob l ems w f t h da i l y rout i ne a n d mus t b e coaxed i nt o p a rt i c i p at i ng i n t h e rout.i n e . 3 . D i s rega rds ot h e r s fee l i ng s . D i s rupt s ot h e rs act i v i t i es. 4 . I s s e l f i s h . Keep s equ i pment f o r l ong p e r i ods a f t e r f i n i s h i ng u s e o f i t . W i l l not . s h a r e e q u i pment w i th ot h e r s . 5 . I s con s tant l y t ak i n g ot h e r s p os s es s i on s w i t hout a s k i ng for t he i r p e rm i s s i on . 6 . A l wa ys has t roub l e d et ect i n g h i s s ucce s s i n a n a ccomp l i s h ed t a s k . When f i na l l y r ecogn i z i ng h i s s ucces s t e nds t o " s how off " and t r i es t o ga i n t h e recog n i t i on and attent i on of othe r s . 7 � I s eas i l y f ru s t ra t ed b y fa i l u r e . 8. Has u np red i ct �b l e b eh av i or �
Factor C : D om i n a t i on ve r s u s Comp l i bnt and R et i r i ng.
Rat i ng P os i t i on #1
1 . Us ua l l y g i ve s comma nds w i t h a n a i r o f a ut hor i t y a nd f i na l i t y � 2 . Us ua l l y f i gh t s for h i s p l ace a s l ea de r . 3 . Us ua l l y s ubm i t s t o a noth e r on l y a f t e r a s t rugg l e t o dom i na t e � 4 . Us ua l l y i s outgo i ng . L i kes t o dom i na t e . a n d s ta nd out in a g roL!p . 5 . Us ua l l y a l wa y s defends h i s own r i gh t s .
R a t i ng P os i t i on #5
1 � Nev e r g i ves commands t o oth e rs . 2 . Nev e r t r i es t o a n y d e g r e e t o a t t a i n t h e l ea d e rs h i p of a g r oup of ch i l d re n . 3 . S ubm i t s t o a noth e r ch i l d who w i l l t ake t h e i n i t i at i ve . 4 . I s r et i r i ng a n d res t ra i ned . W i s he s t o b e i n b ack-
· g r ound . 5. Does not d e f e n d h i s own r i g h t s .
Factor D : S oc i a l Effect i venes s v e r s u s S oc i a l I nept i t ude
Rat i ng P os i t i on #1
1 . Us ua l l y u na f fected , sponta neous a n d n a t u ra l i n b ehav i or
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2 . Us ua l l y has s e l f- conf i de nce . 3 . Us ua l l y i s ab l e t o make f r i ends eas i l y . 4 . Us ua l l y i s ab l e t o cont r i b ut e i deas t o the g roup a l though not t h e l ea de r . 5 . Us ua l l y g i ves demons t ra t i ons of a ff ect i on . 6 . Us ua l l y i s s ymp athet i c a n d p rotect i ve t owa rds othe r ch i l d r en .
Rat i ng P os i t i on #5
1 . Has no s e 1 f-conf i dence . . I s very doubtfu 1 of 2� Has ext r eme d i ff i cu l t i es i n mak i ng f r i ends . 3 � D oes not cont r i b ute i deas t o t h e g roup . 4 . N ever g i ves d emon s t ra t i ons of affect i on . 5 � D i sp l ays no d e g r e e of s ympa t h y o r p rot ect i on other ch i l d r e n .
Fact o r E : P e rs ona l S ecu r i ty v e r s u s I ns ecu r i ty.
Rat i ng P os i t i on #1
s e l f .
t owa rds
1 : G en e ra l l y p roceeds a s u s ua l w i t h r out i ne i n the p resence of v i s i tors . 2 . Us ua l l y a b l e t o a ccept c r i t i c i sm b y .p eers . 3 . Us ua l l y does not get j ea l ous of ot h e r ch i l d re n . 4 . Us ua l l y gene rous i n s ha r i ng act i v i t i es a n d pos s es s i ons w i th oth e r s . 5 � Us ua l l y even t emp e red . S e l dom d i s t u rb ed o r c r i es .
R a t i ng P os i t i on #5
1 : Has ext reme a dj u s tment p rob l ems whe n i n t h e p res ence of v i s i tors . 2 . I s not ab l e t o a ccept c r i t i c i sm o r r ej ect i on b y p e e rs .
· 3 . Qu i te often ev i dences j ea l ous fee l i ng s tow� rds other ch i l d ren .
... . ....
4 . Has much d i ff i cu l t y i n s ha r i ng act i v i t i es a nd p os s es s i on s w i t h oth e r s . 5 . Eas i l y d i s tu rb ed o r c r i es ofte n .
Factor F : H i gh S e l f- E s t eem v e r s u s Low S e l f- E s t eem
R a t i ng P os i t i on #1
1 . Us ua l l y h a s p os i t i v e a t t i t udes t owa rds s e l f � 2 : Has exp ectat i ons for s uccess i n s oc i a l r e l a t i ons h i ps a n d i n t h e p hys i ca l e nv i ronment : (Has s e l f conf i denc e ) 3 : Us ua l l y has p os i t i ve att i t udes t owa rds wor l d i n genera t
R a t i ng P os i t i on #5
1 � Has ext reme nega t i v e fee l i ngs to s e l f :
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2 � S e ems unhap p y a n d p oor l y a dj u s t ed . 3 � Never conf i de n t i n b ehav i or . 4 � Has n egat i v e a t t i t u des towa rds wor l d i n genera l .
'· . --
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APP END I X B
C LAS S I F I CAT I ON OF R ES P ONS E S T O THE D OLL P LAY
'· . ...... 7 1
CLAS S I F I CAT I ON OF RES P ON S E S T O THE D OL L P LAY
P rea r ra nged categor i es of r e s p on s es wer e s et up t o
mea s u r e t h e va r i ou s l ev e l s o f s e l f- e s t eem r e f l ect ed i n the
ch i l d 1 s respon s e s t o b ot h s cenes i n t h e d o l l p l a y .
F i rs t Scene
H i gh s e l f- e s teem resp on s es (wh i ch r e f l ect h i gh s ens e of p ers ona l r e s p ons i b i l i ty ) a re as f o l l ows :
1: C h i l d t e l l s p a rents ab out t h e b roken g l a s s . 2 . C h i l d c l eans up the b roken g l as s a nd t e l l s t h e p arent s . 3 . C h i l d b u ys a n ew g l a s s .
Med i um s e l f- e s t eem r e s p on s e s :
: 1. C h i l d d i s regards t h e b roken g l as s and cont i nues t o p l a y i n the l i v i ng room . 2 . C h i l d l eaves b roken g l a s s a n d goes t o a nother r oom i n t h e h ous e t o p l ay . 3 . C h i l d c l eans up t he b roken g l as s .
: L� . C h il d s t a y s i n l i v i n g r oom a nd j us t s i ts t he r e . 5 . C h i l d runs out s i de t o p l a y .
Low s e l f- e s t eem r e s p on s es ( ref l ect l ack of p er s ona l respons i b i l i t y ) :
1� C h i l d h i des t h e g l a s s and runs outs i de t o p l ay . 2 . C h i l d c l ea n s up t h e b roken g l as s a nd d oes not t e l l
· p a rent s . 3 . C h i l d may get ups e t . C r i es or p out s : 4 . C h i l d ma y cont i nu e p l a y i ng i n t h e l i v i ng room t ry i ng to knock d own f u r t h e r b rea kab l e obj ec-t s . 5 . C h i l d h i d es t h e g l as s . 6 . C h i l d s ays p a ren t s w i l l p un i s h h e r .
S econd S cene
H i gh s e l f- esteem r e s p on s e s (wh i ch ref l ect s e l f- as s e rt i on ) :
1. C h i l d s t a y s a n d t r i es to p l a y w i th new toy .
Med i um s e l f- es t eem resp ons es :
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1 : C h i l d s ta y s a n d watches a l l t he oth e r ch i l d ren p l ay w i t h t h e new t oy . 2 . C h i l d l eaves t h e g roup of ch i l d ren . He goes h ome a nd comes b ack w i t h h i s own t oy t o j o i n t he ch i l d ren i n p l a y � 3 . T h e ch i l d t e l l s h i s p a r e nt s .
Low s e l f- e s t eem resp ons e s ( ref l ect s e l f- d oubt ) :
1 : C h i l d l eaves t he ya rd a nd g oe s awa y . · 2 . C h i l d gets up s et . Ma y p ou t and c r y . · 3 . C h i l d g rabs t h e t oy away f r om a not her ch i l d . H e may
s t a rt a f i ght . · 4 . C h i l d g rabs the t oy a nd b reaks i t .
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