measuring n-nh4 in rivers of north-east kosovo
DESCRIPTION
This project aims at representing Data on N-NH4 presence in three rivers of North Eastern Kosovo; the Ibar, the Sitnica and the Llapi. Data was collected by Kosovo Environmental Agency and opened through Open Data Kosovo Foundation. These data were complemented with data on land use and different ethnic populations in the area. I expect to find a relation between water pollution levels, locally produced food and amount of population for each district.TRANSCRIPT
Measuring Nitrogen (N-NH4) In the rivers of North Eastern Kosovo – Nicolas Rodriguez – GIS – GPIA – 2014.
1
Measuring Nitrogen (N-NH4) in the rivers of North Eastern Kosovo
Abstract
Nitrates are an essential source of nitrogen (N) for plants. When nitrogen fertilizers are used to enrich soils,
nitrates may be carried by rain, irrigation and other surface waters through the soil into ground water.
Human and animal wastes can also contribute to nitrate contamination of ground water. Although any well
can become contaminated by nitrates, shallow, poorly constructed, or improperly located wells are more
susceptible to contamination. Nitrate levels in drinking water can also be an indicator of overall water
quality. Elevated N-NH4 (Ammonium Nitrite) levels may suggest the possible presence of other
contaminants such as disease-causing organisms, pesticides, or other inorganic and organic compounds that
could cause health problemsi.
This project aims at representing Data on N-NH4 presence in three rivers of North Eastern Kosovo; the
Ibar, the Sitnica and the Llapi. Data was collected by Kosovo Environmental Agency and opened through
Open Data Kosovo Foundation. These data were complemented with data on land use and different ethnic
populations in the area. I expect to find a relation between water pollution levels, locally produced food and
amount of population for each district.
The hypothesis behind this research is that social factors can determine access to clean water, and therefore
to a better health. Pollution in the rivers of Kosovo could be affecting certain minorities more than others
while contaminating one of their main sources of food, like crops. It is my goal to raise awareness on these
issues across the international community in Kosovo in order to address such an important issue.
Further GIS development could correlate data on income, urban development or causes of death. For the
aim of this project these data sets were not considered, as this is an exploratory study on the matter that
aims at triggering further debate on the base of new reliable data.
Introduction
The nitrate concentration in surface water is normally low (0–18 mg/l) but can reach high levels as a result
of agricultural runoff, refuse dump runoff or contamination with human or animal wastes. The
concentration often fluctuates with the season and may increase when the river is fed by nitrate-rich
aquifers. Nitrate concentrations have gradually increased in many European countries in the last few
decades and have sometimes doubled over the past 20 years. In the United Kingdom, for example, an
average annual increase of 0.7 mg/l has been observed in some riversii.
In the United States of America (USA), 0.3 mg/l for nitrite (USEPA, 1987). For example, according to the
World Health Organization (WHO)iii;
“Concentrations of up to 1500 mg/l were found in groundwater in an agricultural area of
India. The increasing use of artificial fertilizers, the disposal of wastes (particularly from animal
farming) and changes in land use are the main factors responsible for the progressive increase in
nitrate levels in groundwater supplies over the last 20 years. In Denmark and the Netherlands, for
example, nitrate concentrations are increasing by 0.2–1.3 mg/l per year in some areas. In most
countries, nitrate levels in drinking-water derived from surface water do not exceed 10 mg/l. In
some areas, however, concentrations are higher as a result of runoff and the discharge of sewage
effluent and certain industrial wastes.”
For some individuals and communities where vegetables with particularly high nitrate levels are consumed
or where well water contains elevated concentrations of nitrate, consumption may be significantly higher.
Measuring Nitrogen (N-NH4) In the rivers of North Eastern Kosovo – Nicolas Rodriguez – GIS – GPIA – 2014.
2
Inequalities in health imply a difference or a disparity either in access to health-promoting opportunities
and health services or in the distribution of disease burden (including morbidity, disability and mortality)
and positive health in the context of well-being. Health inequities are found across countries and between
different groups of people in the same country. Evidence shows that factors driving health inequities are
systematic and not distributed randomly. The WHO Commission on Social Determinants of Health (CSDH)
defines health equity as;
“The absence of unfair and avoidable or remediable differences in health among
population groups defined socially, economically, demographically or geographically”.iv
Numerous studies summarized by WHO conclude that some of the variations in health across countries or
within populations can be identified as health inequities. A proportion of these differences – from 25% to
75% depending on the condition – is due not only to physical health factors but also increasingly to social
factors that are amenable to policy. The WHOv agrees that health inequities mostly point to policy failure,
reflecting unfair or unjust disparities in daily living conditions and in access to power, resources and
participation in society. The underlying causes of health inequities are complex. Moreover, inequalities
often reflect systematic social, political, historical, economic and environmental factors; these interface
with biological factors that are accumulated during a lifetime and often transferred across multiple
generations.
The term “social determinants” is often used as shorthand for all these factors, which are also known as the
“causes of the causes” to indicate their fundamental influence on disease causation and distribution of health
within a population or across countries. Moreover, the health system itself is a social determinant of health,
as it can either improve or exacerbate existing health inequities. The concept encompasses the full set of
social conditions in which people live and work, and has been summarized as “the social characteristics
within which living takes place”. In this context, health inequities are an important priority in the European
Region. They continue to increase and take many forms, from lack of access to health services to excess
premature mortality, hampering social development and well-being. Prerequisites for tackling health
inequities include being appropriately informed about their magnitude and distribution, both absolute and
relative, and understanding how pathways from social determinants, other intermediary factors and health
systems affect the disease burden, health and well-being
The environment represents an important health determinant, and the underlying issues are similar to the
social determinants of health. Recent assessments on the contribution of environmental factors to health
have estimated that they may be responsible for between 13% and 20% of the burden of disease in Europe,
depending on their mortality pattern classification, such as population-specific levels of child and adult
mortality stratavi. The availability of water in human living spaces, for both consumption and hygiene, is
essential.
This is an exploratory research seeks to shed light on some of the most pressing issues in Kosovo like the
access to clean water, the improvement of urban planning and the protections of food sources for local
people. This is not a descriptive and exhaustive study on the relation between access to water, pollution and
social conditions, it is rather, a first step in the design of new frameworks and entry-points for addressing
these multidimensional issues.
Data Synopsis
Sources:
European Commission of Statistics
Measuring Nitrogen (N-NH4) In the rivers of North Eastern Kosovo – Nicolas Rodriguez – GIS – GPIA – 2014.
3
Natural Earth
Open Data Kosovo
Kosovo Agency of Statistics
Kosovo Environmental Protection Agency
Google Maps
DivaGIS
UNEP
For this project, I needed basic administrative boundaries, such as the country which I obtained from
DivaGIS and district borders, which I obtained from Natural Earth. Sampling points with coordinates can
be found at Open Data Kosovo’s Website. Population data was obtained from Kosovo’s Statistical Agency
in .pdf format and converted to csv.
This project required also extensive table work as the tables obtained from Open Data Kosovo were not
translated into English. Moreover, Albanian was not the only challenge, some of the data as the name of
rivers (which I obtained from Hydro sheds were in Serbian). “Cleaning” tables, in order to represent only
one variables was difficult as translations had to be consistent with the coordinates of the sampling points.
The “Farmland” shapefiles were provided by Professor Stephen Metts. Tables with population data were
assembled manually, given the reduced number of municipalities and the language barrier, much of the
tables were constructed in this fashion.
Finally, ethnic population data was retrieved form Kosovos’ Statistical Agency and from the European
Commission of Statistics.
Methodology & Analysis
Maps 1, 2 and 3: This map represents Kosovo in the Balkan regions. This map resulted from joining
previously geo-referenced sampling points with the N-NH4 data. The source layer are polygons
representing the different districts and municipalities. Additionally this map represents the amount of
population per municipality, in a scale with graduated colors. This was possible by joining the source layer
“Municipalities” with a table on population data. Those municipalities considered for this paper were
highlighted in color red, by selecting by attributes and changing the outline. Unfortunately, Kosovo is a
small country and points would overlap consistently, therefore I saw the need to generate another two maps,
as Zoomed areas, in order to identify clearly the sampling points.
Map 4: Represents sampling points, rivers of Kosovo and Farmland areas. The aim of this map is to
discover of there is a relation between farmland and the presence of rivers. For this map, I placed a shapefile
called “Farmland” of top of other two files, “Municipalities” and “Kosovo”. Then I selected and exported
only the selected municipalities (Produjevo, Mitrovice, Viticrn, Obilic, Kosovo Polje, Lipljan and Smilje).
I placed this export on top of Kosovo and added towns, sampling points and rivers.
Map5: This maps shows the crop areas than are potentially served by rivers in Northern Eastern Kosovo. I
buffered the “Rivers” layer at 800 mts. (half mile) to determine whether or not, this fields and town could
have been making use of these water sources.
Map6: This map shows ethnic minorities in the different municipalities. I used a dot density system to
classify four minorities (Serbians, Albanians, Ashkalis and Romas). I joined a table with ethnic population
obtained from the European Commission of Statistics. This is in order to identify the presence of certain
Measuring Nitrogen (N-NH4) In the rivers of North Eastern Kosovo – Nicolas Rodriguez – GIS – GPIA – 2014.
4
ethnicities in polluted areas. Dot density was established as 1 dot = 1 percent of the population of the
municipality.
Map7: This map shows the two water companies in charge of providing clean water. The map was
complemented with two graphs of relative percentages and total amount of population with no access to
water. Municipalities were clipped out of the “Municipalities” source layer and places on top of a base map
of Kosovo. Then I added “Rivers” and “Sampling Points”. I avoided including levels of pollutions as I
understand this was clearly represented in the previous maps.
Results
Data on access to water (the population connected to a water supply system) and sanitation (the population
connected to a sewage system or a septic tank or with other means of hygienic sewage disposal) in urban
and rural settings were analyzed by WHOvii for changes, between 1990, and 2008. Overall, the share of the
population with access to water in the Region in 2008 was 96% in urban areas, but 75% in rural areas.
Differences between countries range from nearly 100% access in both urban and rural areas to some larger
gaps between areas in eastern countries in the Region. Inadequate management of human excreta disposal
may lead to increased disease risk. In the European Region, 97% of the urban population has improved
sanitary excreta disposal, in contrast to 89% in rural areas.viii
The lack of these services in some parts of the Region has led increased exposure to pathogens, some
causing diseases with high epidemic potential, such as cholera, shigellosis, hemolytic uraemicsyndrome,
cryptosporidiosis and giardiasisix. These infectious diseases have taken their toll, with increased numbers
of cases, including some requiring hospitalization, resulting in direct and indirect economic loss.
Various socioeconomic, demographic and geographical conditions determine environmental exposures and
produce important health inequalitiesx, many of which can be considered to be inequities. The WHO
Regional Office for Europe recently assessed the impact of environmental factors on health inequalities in
the European Region. Key factors include the availability of water and sanitation, housing conditions and
the broader environment, including outdoor and indoor air quality and noisexi.
Maps 1, 2 and 3: Levels of pollution seems to increase as the water stream gets closer to cities. The case
of Kosovo Polje is interesting. If we look at the map without considering distances might seem like Kosovo
Polje has a huge problem of polluted rivers. Though this might be true, given the high levels of informal
construction in the municipality it is important to highlight that Civil Society organizations in Kosovoxii
like Ec Ma Ndryshe, have denounced to the authorities a significant number of illegal construction sites in
Pristina and therefore we need to consider this before drawing any conclusions. There is less than five miles
between downtown Pristina and Kosovo Polje, therefore, further research should be conducted on this issue
because the cause of this pollution might well be illegal construction sites in Pristina dumping their water
into the rivers.
Map 4 and 5: This maps confirms our initial assumption. Indeed, crop areas overlay perfectly with rivers
and sampling points. Moreover, once the rivers were buffered there was no “Farmland” area outside the
buffer. Farmlands areas are evidently contained within a close area to this rivers, and more importantly, to
some of the most polluted places such as Kosovo Polje, Obilic and Viticrn, but also in more heavily
populated areas such as Lipljan.
Map 6: This map shows a prevalence of Ashkali and Roma population around the most polluted sample
sites. Specifically, in Kosovo Polje, were the Ashkali community represents an important part of the
population. The Ashkali community has been historically and structurally, driven to inhabit in the peripheral
Measuring Nitrogen (N-NH4) In the rivers of North Eastern Kosovo – Nicolas Rodriguez – GIS – GPIA – 2014.
5
areas of the main cities. An important portion of this population base their livelihood system on recycling
trash and collecting waste. This is an important finding giving the special vulnerability of this group.
Map 7: This map shows the different percentages of people who still lacks of access to clean water. For
more information on Public Services in Kosovo and Water Supply please refer to:
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTKOSOVO/Resources/Report_SCE_WSCK.pdf
Conclusion
The Government of Kosovo adopted the Kosovo Environmental Strategy (KES) in July 2004xiii. This has
been an important step of Kosovo towards improving the environment and establishing strategies for
achieving sustainable development. The formulation of the strategies, also incorporate seven priority
problems, such as, climate changes, acidification, biological diversity, trans boundary issuesxiv, water, urban
environment, coastal areas and waste. However, Kosovo is dealing with pollution and with the fact that
there is a “limited water reserves which in the future will be a limiting factor for the economic and social
development of the country”xv
Kosovo is facing difficulties with the lack of drinking water. It is estimated that “more than 80
municipalities in Kosovo have not enough drinking water”. According the UN and OSCE representatives,
Kosovo has a real problem with drinking water to such extend that in the future may have to import it.
Another factor is that the water is not equally distributed. According to the statistics “only 44-50% of the
Kosovo’s population has access to water supply systems, which are managed by 32 municipal companies
(now coordinated by 7 regional water companies).”xvi
Protection of water resources, further investment in public services and good planning of urbanization of
the population will help to address access limitations.
References:
i http://ede.grid.unep.ch/
ii http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chemicals/nitratenitrite2ndadd.pdf
iii Ibid Idem.
iv Carrascar, Alvaro http://www.cancer.org/cancer/news/expertvoices/post/2012/07/24/health-
equity-health-disparities-whats-the-story.aspx
v Water Security for Central Kosovo The Kosovo - Ibër River Basin and Ibër Lepenc Water
System Water resources, water demands, Water balance assessment, And programme of
measures MARCH 2011 Edited March 2012. OSCE.
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTKOSOVO/Resources/Report_SCE_WSCK.pdf
vi http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chemicals/nitratenitrite2ndadd.pdf
vii Nitrate and nitrite in drinking-water Background document for development of WHO
Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. WHO. 2011.
viii http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/197113/EHR2012-Eng.pdf?ua=1
Measuring Nitrogen (N-NH4) In the rivers of North Eastern Kosovo – Nicolas Rodriguez – GIS – GPIA – 2014.
6
ix Annual epidemiological report on communicable diseases in Europe 2010.
http://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/Pages/home.aspx
x KOSOVO MOSAIC 2012 Overview of perceptions on public services and local authorities.
USAID and UNDP.
xi The European health report 2012 Charting the way to well-being. World Health Organization
Europe. 2012 ISBN (ebook) 978 92 890 1428 1
xii
http://www.transparency.org/news/pressrelease/civil_society_organisations_in_kosovo_call_for_
investigation_into_corruptio xiii Tumbovska, Katerina. Water Resources Management in the Western Balkan Region (Case
study of Macedonia, Albania, Kosovo and Montenegro) Geneva, 2011
xiv The discharge point of main water flows in Kosovo to neighbor countries is available in:
Ruzhdi P, Vahdet P, Arsim E, Valbon Bytyqi. 2010. Water Resources Challenges in Kosovo and
their Trans-boundary Impacts. Pristina, Kosovo. [Online].
http://balwois.com/balwois/administration/full_paper/ffp-2042.pdf p.3
xv
http://www.giweh.ch/documents/GIWEH%20reports/9%20_Water%20Resources%20Managem
ent%20in%20the%20Western%20Balkan%20Region%20(Case%20study%20of%20Macedonia,
%20Albania,%20Kosovo%20and%20Montenegro)_%20Katerina%20Tumbovska.pdf
xvi Ibid. Idem
Pec
Prizren
Istok
Klina
Pristina
Podujevo
Gora
GnjilaneDjakovica
Srbica
Lipljan
Leposavic
Decani
Vitina
Vucitrn
Suva RekaOrahovac
Urosevac
Strpce Kacanik
Glogovac
Zubin Potok
Stimlje
Kosovska Kamenica
Obilic
ZvecanKosovska Mitrovica
Novo BrdoKosovo Polje
SERBIA
MACEDONIAALBANIA
MONTENEGRO
Water Pollution by N-NH4 in North Eastern Kosovo
¯
30Miles
Podujevo
Vucitrn
ZvecanKosovska Mitrovica
Levels of Pollution by N-NH4 mg./lMedian_
0.033454 - 0.0373440.545767 - 0.7702201.077530 - 1.2441522.030094 - 3.355281
4.395467 - 4.706278
5.796392 - 6.236559
RiverZoom AreaTotalPop
0 - 25.00025.000 - 50.00050.000 - 75.00075.000 - 88.499
¯
Pristina
Vucitrn
Obilic
Kosovo Polje
RiverN-NH4Median_
0.033454 - 0.0373440.545767 - 0.7702201.077530 - 1.2441522.030094 - 3.3552814.395467 - 4.706278
5.796392 - 6.236559
Zoom Area TotalPop
0 - 50,00050,000- 100,000100,000 - 150,000150,000 - 200,000
¯
Pristina
Podujevo
Lipljan
Vucitrn
Stimlje
Obilic
Kosovska Mitrovica
Kosovo PoljeKosovo
Serbia
¯
10Miles
RiversFarmland AreasMunicipalities TownsSample Points for N-NH4Districts
TotalPop2154921550 - 3482734828 - 5760557606 - 8849988500 - 198897Kosovo
Farmlands in Eastern Kosovo
Pristina
Podujevo
Lipljan
Vucitrn
Stimlje
Obilic
Kosovska Mitrovica
Kosovo Polje
Kosovo
Serbia
¯
10Miles
Sample Points for N-NH4RiversArea within 1/2 mile from riversMunicipalities and Farmland Areas
N-NH4 detected in Sampling Sites (mg./L)MeanPollution_byMunicip1.csv.Mean
0.0 - 0.20.2 - 1.21.2 - 2.2 2.2 - 3.2 3.2 - 4.24.2 - 5.2 Kosovo
Farmland Areas Served by Rivers in Eastern Kosovo
Kosovo Serbia
¯
10Miles
sample_points% Roma, Egyptians, Serbians and Ashkali.
1 Dot = 1Rom_PercEgyp_PercSerb_PercAsh_PercRiverKosovo
Ethnic Minorities in Eastern Kosovo
73017
156022
People with no access to Water by Water Companies
Kosovska MitrovicaPristina
52.3
35.4
Percentage of people with no access to water by Water Companies
Kosovska MitrovicaPristina
10Miles
Kosovska Mitrovica Water CompanyPristina Water CompanySample Points for N-NH4
N-NH4 detected in Sampling Sites (mg./L)1 Dot = 0.105430524Mean
Municipalities by PopulationTotalPop
20.000 - 35.00035.000 - 75.00075.000 - 100.000100.000 - 150.000150.000 - 200.000Districts
Clean Water Supply in Eastern Kosovo
¯