Measurement

To collect data, you need to have something to measure

Measurement is the process of assigning numbers or scores to characteristics or attributes of the objects or people of interest

Variables• When we measure the attributes of an object, we

obtain a value that varies between objects. • For example consider the people in this class as

objects and their height as the attribute• The attribute height varies between objects, hence

attributes are more collectively known as variables• Variables can be measured on four different scales

AttitudesExpressions of inner feelings that reflect whether a

person is favorably or unfavorably predisposed to some object -- a brand, a brand name, a service, a service provider, a retail store, a company, an advertisement, in essence, any marketing stimuli.

OpinionsA large amount of questions in marketing research are

designed to measure attitudesMarketing managers want to understand consumers’

attitudes in order to influence their behavior

The ABCs of attitudes: The Affective Component (based on feelings or

overall evaluation) Feelings of like or dislike

The Behavioral Component (likely action toward object; e.g. from a consumer behavior point of view, the consumer’s intention to buy a product) Intentions to behave

The Cognitive Component (based on beliefs; what you think about a marketing stimulus) – Information possessed

Three Components of Attitudes

Classifies data according to a category only.

E.g., which color people select.

Colors differ qualitatively not quantitatively.

A number could be assigned to each color, but it would not have any value.

The number serves only to identify the color.

No assumptions are made that any color has more or less value than any other color.

Nominal Scale

Assign subjects to groups or categories– Mutually exclusive

– Collectively exhaustive

No order or distance relationship No arithmetic origin Only count numbers in categories Only present percentages of categories Chi-square most often used test of statistical

significance

Nominal Scale

Sex Social status

Marital status Days of the week (months)

Geographic location Seasons

Ethnic Group Types of restaurants

Brand choice Religion

Job Type: Executive, Technical, Clerical

Other Examples

Coded as “1”

Coded as “2”

Which of the following media influences your purchasing decisions the most?

–1 Television

–2 Radio

–3 Newspapers

–4 Magazines

Nominal Scale

Classifies data according to some order or rank E.g. names ordered alphabetically

With ordinal data, it is fair to say that one response is greater or less than another.

E.g. if people were asked to rate the hotness of 3 chili peppers, a scale of "hot", "hotter" and "hottest" could be used. Values of "1" for "hot", "2" for "hotter" and "3" for "hottest" could be assigned.

Ordinal Scale

The gap between the items is unspecified.

Can include opinion and preference scalesMedian but not mean No unique, arithmetic origin items cannot be added

In marketing research practice, ordinal scale variables are often treated as interval scale variables

Ordinal Scale

Ordinal Scale

GPA

Small medium large

Quality

Likert scales, rank on a scale of 1….5 your degree of satisfaction

Women’s dress sizes

Examples

As at Oct 2007

1    Tiger Woods. 20.6     

2    Jim Furyk,    9.0     

3    Phil Mickelson,    7.3     

4    Adam Scott,    7.1     

5   Ernie Els,    6.1   

6   Retief Goosen,    5.7     

7 Padraig Harrington 5.6

8 Vijay Singh,    5.6   

9 Luke Donald,    5.4     

10   Geoff Ogilvy   5.2     

Rank Player Points

Please rank the news programs offered in the following four networks based on your preference.(1 for most preferred, 4 for least preferred).

_____ CTV

_____ Global

_____ CITY TV

_____ CBC

assumes that the measurements are made in equal units.

i.e. gaps between whole numbers on the scale are equal.

e.g. Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scales

an interval scale does not have to have a true zero. e.g. A temperature of "zero" does not mean that there is no temperature...it is just an arbitrary zero point.

Can’t perform full range of arithmetic equations. 40 degrees is not twice as hot as 20 degrees

Permissible statistics: count/frequencies, mode, median, mean, standard deviation

Interval Scale

How likely are you going to buy a new automobile within the next six months? (Please check the most appropriate category)

Definitely will not buy ___ 1

Probably will not buy ___ 2

May or may not buy ___ 3

Probably will buy ___ 4

Definitely will buy ___ 5

Interval Scale

similar to interval scales except that the ratio scale has a true zero value.

e.g. the time something takes

allows you to compare differences between numbers.

Permits full arithmetic operation.

If a train journey takes 2 hr and 35 min, then this is half as long as a journey which takes 5 hr and 10 min.

Ratio Scale

• Indicates actual amount of variable– Shows magnitude of differences between points on scale

– Shows proportions of differences

• All statistical techniques useable

• Most powerful with most meaningful answers

• Allows comparisons of absolute magnitudes

Ratio Scale

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Examplesheight, weight, age,

Length

time

Income

Market share

1.What is your annual income before taxes? $ _______

2. How far is your workplace

from home? _______ kilometres

Primary Scales of Measurement

4 81 9

Nominal Numbers Assigned to Runners

Ordinal Rank Order of Winners

Third Place

Second Place

First Place

Interval Performance Rating on a 0 to 10 Scale

8.2 9.1 9.6

Ratio Time to Finish in Seconds 15.2 14.1 13.4

Comparison of Measurement Scales

Label Order Distance Origin

Nominal scale Yes No No No

Ordinal scale Yes Yes No No

Interval scale Yes Yes Yes No

Ratio scale Yes Yes Yes Yes

Use of Measurement Scales

• Nominal– Used to categorize objects

• Ordinal– Used to define ordered relationships

• Interval– Used to rank objects such that the magnitude of the

difference between two objects can be determined

• Ratio– Same as interval scale but has an absolute zero point

Always use the most powerful scale possible

Adding Sophistication To Scales

• Concept: Desire to watch Star Wars movies

– If a Star Wars movie is on television will you watch it?• Yes _____ No _____

– How likely are you to watch a Star Wars movie shown on television?• Very Likely ____ Likely ____ Indifferent ___• Unlikely _____ Very Unlikely _____

Another way to describe variables

• Qualitative variables: have a nominal scale of measurement.

• Categorical variables: have a nominal or ordinal scale of measurement.

• Quantitative variables: have an interval scale of measurement.

• Continuous variables: have an Ordinal, interval, or ratio variables scale of measurement.

•A: Education is measured in number of years of schooling, and is therefore a discrete quantitative variable measured on an interval scale. (Or is it?)

•How could education be measure using…

–A nominal scale

–An ordinal scale

Practice describing variables

• Q: What kind of variable is educational attainment, and what scale is it measured in?

Paired Comparison

Rank Order

Constant Sum

Comparative Scales

Non-Comparative Scales

Continuous Rating Scales

Itemized Rating Scales

StapelSemantic

DifferentialLikert

A Classification of Scaling Techniques

SCALING TECHNIQUES

Others

Types of Scaling Techniques COMPARATIVE SCALES

• Involve the respondent directly comparing stimulus objects.

• e.g. How does Pepsi compare with Coke on sweetness

NON-COMPARATIVE SCALES

• Respondent scales each stimulus object independently of other objects

•e.g. How would you rate the sweetness of Pepsi on a scale of 1 to 10

Comparative Scales: Paired Comparison Items

• A and B• A and C• A and D• B and C• B and D• C and D

If we have brands A, B, C and D, we would have respondents compare

–Usually limited to N < 15

Please indicate which of the following airlines you prefer by circling your more preferred airline in each pair:

Air Canada WestJet

Air Transat Air Canada

Jazz WestJet

WestJet Air Transat

Air Canada Jazz

Jazz Air Transat

Comparative Scales: Paired Comparison Items

Allocate a total of 100 points among the following soft-drinks depending on how favorable you feel toward each; the more highly you think of each soft-drink, the more points you should allocate to it. (Please check that the allocated points add to 100.)

Coca-Cola _____ points

7-Up _____ points

Dr. Pepper _____ points

Tab _____ points

Pepsi-Cola _____ points

100 points

Comparative Scales: Constant Sum Scales

Please divide 100 points among the following characteristics so the division reflects the relative importance of each characteristic to you in the selection of a bank

Hours of service ________________

Friendliness _______________

Distance from home ________________

Investment vehicles ________________

Parking facilities __________________

Comparative Scales: Constant Sum Scales

Rank the following soft-drinks from 1 (best) to 5 (worst) according to your taste preference:

Coca-Cola _____

7-Up _____

Dr. Pepper _____

Pepsi-Cola _____

Mountain Dew _____

–Top and bottom rank choices are ‘easy’

–Middle ranks are usually most ‘difficult’

Comparative Scales: Rank Order Scales

Indicate your preferred type of music with a 1, your second favorite with a 2, and so on for each type of music:

____ Heavy Metal

____ Alternative

____ Urban Contemporary

____ Classical

____ Country

Comparative Scales: Rank Order Scales

InstructionsRank the various brands of toothpaste in order of preference. Begin by picking out the one brand that you like most and assign it a number 1. Then find the second most preferred- brand and assign it a number 2. Continue this procedure until you have ranked all the brands of toothpaste in order of preference. The least preferred brand should be assigned a rank of 10. No two brands should receive the same rank number. The criterion of preference is entirely up to you. There is no right or wrong answer. Just try to be consistent.

Brand Rank Order 1. Crest 2. Colgate 3. Aim 4. Mentadent 5. Macleans 6. Ultra Brite 7. Close Up 8. Pepsodent 9. Plus White10. Arm and Hammer

COMPARATIVE SCALES

Compared to Chevrolet, Ford is:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

less about the moreinnovative same innovative

Continuous scale

Non comparative scale

• How would you rate Marketing Research to other courses this term

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

The worst The BestXX

Itemized Rating Scales

Semantic Differential Scale

The Likert scale Staple scale

Non-Comparative Scales

Modern Store

Low prices

Unfriendly staff

Narrow product range

Sophisticated customers

Old- fashioned store

High prices

Friendly staff

Wide product range

Unsophisticated customers

Semantic Differential Scale

Here are a number of statements that could be used to describe

WalMart. For each statement tick ( ) the box that best

describes your feelings about WalMart.

Likert scale

Strongly agree

disagree Neither agree nor disagree

agree Strongly agree

Cost is the most important consideration when buying a new car

1 2 3 4 5

The Likert scale

•Strongly Agree  •Agree  •Undecided  •Disagree  •Strongly Disagree

•Agree Strongly  •Agree Moderately  •Agree Slightly  •Disagree Slightly  •Disagree Moderately  •Disagree Strongly

•Agree  •Disagree

•Agree  •Undecided  •Disagree

•Agree Very Strongly  •Agree Strongly  •Agree  •Disagree  •Disagree Strongly  •Disagree Very Strongly

•Yes  •No

•Completely Agree  •Mostly Agree  •Slightly Agree  •Slightly Disagree  •Mostly Disagree •Completely•Disagree

•Disagree Strongly  •Disagree  •Tend to Disagree  •Tend to Agree  •Agree  •Agree Strongly

AGREEMENT

•Very Frequently •Frequently •Occasionally •Rarely  •Very Rarely •Never

•Always  •Very Frequently •Occasionally  •Rarely  •Very Rarely  •Never

•Always  •Usually  •About Half the Time  •Seldom  •Never

•Almost Always  •To a Considerable Degree  •Occasionally •Seldom

•A Great Deal  •Much  •Somewhat  •Little  •Never

•Often  •Sometimes  •Seldom  •Never

•Always  •Very Often  •Sometimes  •Rarely  •Never

FREQUENCY

•Very Important  •Important  •Moderately Important  •Of Little Importance  •Unimportant

•Very Important  •Moderately Important  •Unimportant

•Very Good  •Good  •Barely Acceptable  •Poor  •Very Poor

•Extremely Poor  •Below Average  •Average  •Above Average  •Excellent

•Good  •Fair  •Poor

IMPORTANCE

QUALITY

•Like Me  •Unlike Me

•To a Great Extent  •Somewhat  •Very Little  •Not at All

•True  •False

•Definitely  •Very Probably  •Probably  •Possibly  •Probably Not  •Very Probably Not

•Almost Always True  •Usually True  •Often True  •Occasionally True  •Sometimes But Infrequently True  •Usually Not True  •Almost Never True

•True of Myself  •Mostly True of Myself  •About Halfway True of Myself  •Slightly True Of Myself  •Not at All True of Myself

LIKELIHOOD

Staple scale

+5

+4

+3

+2

+1

High quality

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

+5

+4

+3

+2

+1

Poor service

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

Select a plus number for words that you think describe the store accurately. The more accurately you think the work describes the store, the larger the plus number you should choose. Select a minus number for words you think do not describe the store accurately. The less accurately you think the word describes the store, the larger the minus number you should choose, therefore, you can select any number from +3 for words that you think are very accurate all the way to -3 for words that you think are very inaccurate.

A Stapel Scale for Measuring a Store’s Image

WalMart

+5 +5 +5+4 +4 +4+3 +3 +3+2 +2 +2+1 +1 +1High Poor WideQuality Service Variety-1 -1 -1-2 -2 -2-3 -3 -3-4 -4 -4-5 -5 -5

The following questions concern your ratings of several suppliers that provide products for use in your store.

Staple Scale

XYZPoor ProductSelection

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

Costly Products -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

Fast Service -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

High QualityProducts

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

Innovative -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

Some Basic Considerations When Selecting a Scale

Selecting a Rating, Ranking, Sorting, or Purchase Intent

Scale

Balanced Versus Non-balanced Alternatives

Number of Categories

Odd or Even Number of Scale Categories

Forced Versus Non-forced Choice

Odd

Strongly Agree _____

Agree _____

Neutral _____

Disagree _____

Strongly disagree_____

Even

Strongly Agree_____

Agree _____

Disagree _____

Strongly disagree___

Odd versus even

if neutral responses likely, use odd number

Balanced vs. Unbalanced

Balanced

Very good ______

Good ______

Fair ______

Poor ______

Very Poor ______

Unbalanced

Excellent ______

Very Good ______

Good ______

Fair ______

Poor ______

Balanced and Unbalanced Scales

Balanced Scale Unbalanced Scale

JOVAN MUSK FOR MEN IS JOVAN MUSK FOR MEN IS

Extremely good

Very good

Good

Bad

Very bad

Extremely bad

Extremely good

Very good

Somewhat Good

Good

Bad

Very bad

Forced vs. Unforced

Forced

Extremely Reliable ___

Very Reliable ___

Somewhat Reliable ___

Somewhat Unreliable ___

Very Unreliable ___

Extremely Unreliable ___

Unforced

Extremely Reliable ___

Very Reliable ___

Somewhat Reliable ___

Somewhat Unreliable ___

Very Unreliable ___

Extremely Unreliable ___

Don’t know ___

Labeled vs. End Anchored

Labeled

Excellent _____

Very Good _____

Fair _____

Poor _____

Very Poor _____

End Anchored

Excellent __________

_____

_____

Poor _____

Labeled

Excellent _____

Very Good _____

Fair _____

Poor _____

Very Poor _____

Excellent _____

Very Good_____

Fair _____

Poor _____

Very Poor _____

Intervals May Not Reflect the Semantic Meaning of the Adjectives

Intervals AreNot Equal

Intervals AreNot Equal

Number of Scale Points

5 Point

Excellent _____

_____

_____

_____

Poor _____

10 Point

Excellent _____________

_____________

_____________

_____________

_____________

_____________

_____________

_____________

_____________

_____________Poor

Choosing the Appropriate Scale

Attitude component

Itemized category

Rank order

Constant sum

Likert Semantic differential

Knowledge

Awareness A

Attribute beliefs A B B B A

Attribute importance

A B A B

Affect or Liking

Overall preferences

A B A B B

Specific attributes

A B B B A

Action

intentions A B A B

A = Very appropriate, B = Sometimes appropriate

Characteristics of Good Measurement Scales

1. Reliability• The degree to which a measure accurately captures a true

outcome without error; Accuracy • synonymous with repetitive consistency

2. Validity• The degree to which a measure faithfully represents the

underlying concept; Fidelity (it asks the right questions)3. Sensitivity

• The ability to discriminate meaningful differences between attitudes. The more categories the more sensitive (but less reliable)

4. Generalizability• How easy is scale to administer and interpret

Validity and Reliability Reliability can be more easily determined than validity

If it is reliable, it may or may not be valid

If a measure is valid, it may or may not be reliable

If it is not reliable, it cannot be valid

If it is not valid, it may or may not be reliable

Reliability and Validity

Neither Reliable Nor Valid

Reliable But Not Valid

ReliableAnd Valid

Example of low validity, high reliability

• Scale is perfectly accurate, but is capturing the wrong thing; for example, it measures consumers’ interest in creative writing rather than preference for kinds of stationery.

Example of modest validity, low reliability

• Scale genuinely measures consumers’ interest in kinds of stationery, but poorly worded items, sloppy administration, data entry errors lead to random errors in data

• Note that reliability sets an upper limit on validity -- a measure with a lot of errors is limited in how well it can capture a concept