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Meaning of the letter AA and apple

ContentsArticles

A 1Vowel 6

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 18Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 20

Article LicensesLicense 21

A 1

A

ISO basic Latin alphabetAa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg

Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn

Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu

Vv Ww Xx Yy Zz

Cursive script 'a' and capital 'A'

A (named a /ˈeɪ/, plural aes[1]) is the first letter and vowel in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is similar to the AncientGreek letter alpha, from which it derives.

OriginsThe earliest certain ancestor of "A" is aleph (also called 'aleph), the first letter of the Phoenician alphabet[2] (which,by consisting entirely of consonants, is an abjad rather than a true alphabet). In turn, the origin of aleph may havebeen a pictogram of an ox head in proto-Sinaitic script[] influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, styled as a triangularhead with two horns extended.

A 2

Egyptian   Cretan Phoenicianaleph

Semitic GreekAlpha

EtruscanA

Roman/CyrillicA

Boeotian800–700 BC

GreekUncial

Latin 300AD

Uncial

In 1600 B.C.E., the Phoenician alphabet's letter had a linear form that served as the base for some later forms. Itsname must have corresponded closely to the Hebrew or Arabic aleph.

Blackletter AUncial A Another Blackletter A

Modern Roman A Modern Italic A Modern script A

When the ancient Greeks adopted the alphabet, they had no use for the glottal stop—the first phoneme of thePhoenician pronunciation of the letter, and the sound that the letter denoted in Phoenician and other Semiticlanguages—so they used an adaptation of the sign to represent the vowel /a/, and gave it the similar name of alpha.In the earliest Greek inscriptions after the Greek Dark Ages, dating to the 8th century BC, the letter rests upon itsside, but in the Greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many localvarieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set.The Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the Italian Peninsula and left the letter unchanged.The Romans later adopted the Etruscan alphabet to write the Latin language, and the resulting letter was preserved inthe Latin alphabet used to write many languages, including English.

Typographic variants include a double-story aand single-story ɑ.

During Roman times, there were many variations on the letter "A".First was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used wheninscribing on stone or other "permanent" mediums. For perishablesurfaces, what was used for everyday or utilitarian purposes, a cursivestyle was used. Due to the "perishable" nature of the surfaces, theseexamples are not as prevalent as the monumental. This perishable stylewas called cursive and numerous variations have survived, such asmajuscule cursive, minuscule cursive, semicursive minuscule. Therewere also variants that were intermediate between the monumental andthe cursive. The known variants include the early semi-uncial, theuncial, and the later semi-uncial.[]

At the termination of the Roman Empire (5th century AD), severalvariants of the cursive minuscule appeared through Western Europe.Among these were the semicursive minuscule of Italy, theMerovingian script in France, the Visigothic script in Spain, and the

A 3

Insular or Anglo-Irish semi-uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule, of Great Britain. By the 9th century, the Carolinescript, which was very similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making, before theadvent of the printing press. This form was derived through a combining of prior forms.[]

15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two variants that are known today. These variants, the Italics and Romanforms, were derived from the Caroline Script version. The Italics form used in most current handwriting consists of acircle and vertical stroke ("ɑ"), called Latin alpha or "script a". This slowly developed from the fifth-century formresembling the Greek letter tau in the hands of dark-age Irish and English writers.[2] Most printed material uses theRoman form consisting of a small loop with an arc over it ("a").[] Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form. InGreek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated bythe uncial version shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the serif that began the rightleg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modernhandwritten form.

Use in EnglishIn English, the letter A currently represents six different vowel sounds: A by itself frequently denotes the near-openfront unrounded vowel (/æ/) as in pad; the open back unrounded vowel (/ɑː/) as in father, its original, Latin andGreek, sound;[] a closer, further fronted sound as in "hare", which developed as the sound progressed from "father"to "ace";[2] in concert with a later orthographic vowel, the diphthong /eɪ/ as in ace and major, due to effects of thegreat vowel shift; the more rounded form in "water" or its closely related cousin, found in "was".[2]

The double "a" sequence is not a native English combination; however it is used this way in some foreign wordssuch as Aaron and aardvark.[]

"A" is the third-most-commonly used letter in English (after "E" and "T"), and the second most common in Spanishand French. In one study, on average, about 3.68% of letters used in English tend to be 'a', while the number is6.22% in Spanish and 3.95% in French.[3]

"A" is often used to denote something or someone of a better or more prestigious quality or status: A-, A or A+, thebest grade that can be assigned by teachers for students' schoolwork; "A grade" for clean restaurants; A-Listcelebrities, etc. Such associations can have a motivating effect, as exposure to the letter A has been found to improveperformance, when compared with other letters.[4]

The letter "A" along with other letters at the beginning of the alphabet are used in algebra to represent knownquantities. Whereas the letters at the end of the alphabet (x,y,z) are used to denote unknown quantities. Also, ingeometry, the capital A, B, C etc. are used to denote segments, lines, rays, etc.[] Also, A is typically used as one ofthe letters to represent an angle in a triangle.[] In logic, A is used to signify the universal affirmative. Finally, theletter A is used to denote sized, as in a narrow size shoe,[] or a small cup size in a brassiere.

A 4

Use in other languagesIn most languages that use the Latin alphabet, A denotes an open unrounded vowel: /a/, /ä/, or /ɑ/. An exception isSaanich, in which A (and Á) stand for a close-mid front unrounded vowel /e/. In the International Phonetic Alphabet,variants of A denote various vowels. In X-SAMPA, capital A denotes the open back unrounded vowel and lowercasea denotes the open front unrounded vowel.

Related letters and other similar characters

Different glyphs of the lowercaseletter A.

• Α α : Greek letter Alpha• А а : Cyrillic letter A• Ɑ ɑ : Latin letter Alpha / Script A (or: A a)• ɐ : a turned lowercase letter A, used by the International Phonetic Alphabet

for the near-open central vowel• ∀ : a turned capital letter A, used in predicate logic to specify universal

quantification ("for all")• ª : an ordinal indicator• Æ æ : Latin letter Æ ligature

Computing codes

Character A a

Unicode name LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A LATIN SMALL LETTER A

Encodings decimal hex decimal hex

Unicode 65 U+0041 97 U+0061

UTF-8 65 41 97 61

Numeric character reference A A a a

EBCDIC family 193 C1 129 81

ASCII 1 65 41 97 61

1 Also for encodings based on ASCII, including the DOS, Windows, ISO-8859 and Macintosh families of encodings.

Other representations

NATO phonetic Morse code

Alpha ·–

Signal flag Flag semaphore Braille

A 5

References[1] "A" (word), Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, 1989. Aes is the plural of the name of the letter. The plural of the letter itself is rendered

As, A's, as, or a's.[2][2] "A", "Encyclopædia Britannica", Volume 1, 1962. p.1.[3] "Percentages of Letter frequencies per Thousand words" (http:/ / starbase. trincoll. edu/ ~crypto/ resources/ LetFreq. html), Trinity College,

Retrieved 1 May 2006.

External links• History of the Alphabet (http:/ / members. peak. org/ ~jeremy/ dictionaryclassic/ chapters/ pix/ alphabet. gif)• Texts on Wikisource:

• "A" in A Dictionary of the English Language by Samuel Johnson• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "A" (entry). Encyclopædia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University

Press.• "A". The New Student's Reference Work. Chicago: F. E. Compton and Co. 1914.• "A". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.

The ISO basic Latin alphabet

Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Ww Xx Yy Zz

Letter A with diacritics

Áá Àà Ăă Ắắ Ằằ Ẵẵ Ẳẳ Ââ Ấấ Ầầ Ẫẫ Ẩẩ Ǎǎ Åå Ǻǻ Ää Ǟǟ Ãã Ȧȧ Ǡǡ Ąą Āā Ảả Ȁȁ Ȃȃ Ạạ

Ặặ Ậậ Ḁḁ Ⱥⱥ ᶏ Ɐɐ Ɑɑ

Related

•• Derivations• Diacritics•• History•• ISO/IEC 646•• List of letters•• Numerals•• Palaeography•• Punctuation•• Unicode

Vowel 6

Vowel

Manners ofarticulation

•• Obstruent•• Stop•• Affricate•• Fricative

•• Sibilant•• Sonorant

•• Nasal•• Flap/Tap•• Approximant

•• Liquid•• Vowel

•• Semivowel•• Lateral•• Trill

Airstreams

•• Pulmonic•• Ejective•• Implosive• Lingual (clicks)•• Linguo-pulmonic•• Linguo-ejective

Related

•• Alliteration•• Assonance•• Consonance

In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as an English ah! [ɑː] or oh! [oʊ], pronounced with anopen vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts withconsonants, such as English sh! [ʃː], where there is a constriction or closure at some point along the vocal tract. Avowel is also understood to be syllabic: an equivalent open but non-syllabic sound is called a semivowel.In all oral languages, vowels form the nucleus or peak of syllables, whereas consonants form the onset and (inlanguages that have them) coda. However, some languages also allow other sounds to form the nucleus of a syllable,such as the syllabic l in the English word table [ˈteɪ.bl̩] (the stroke under the l indicates that it is syllabic; the dotseparates syllables), or the r in Serbo-Croatian vrt [vr̩t] "garden".There is a conflict between the phonetic definition of "vowel" (a sound produced with no constriction in the vocaltract) and the phonological definition (a sound that forms the peak of a syllable).[1] The approximants [j] and [w]illustrate this conflict: both are produced without much of a constriction in the vocal tract (so phonetically they seemto be vowel-like), but they occur on the edge of syllables, such as at the beginning of the English words "yet" and"wet" (which suggests that phonologically they are consonants). The American linguist Kenneth Pike (1943)suggested the terms "vocoid" for a phonetic vowel and "vowel" for a phonological vowel,[2] so using thisterminology, [j] and [w] are classified as vocoids but not vowels. However, Maddieson and Emmory (1985)demonstrated from a range of languages that semivowels are produced with a narrower constriction of the vocal tractthan vowels, and so may be considered consonants on that basis.[3]

Vowel 7

The word vowel comes from the Latin word vocalis, meaning "vocal" ("relating to voice").[] In English, the wordvowel is commonly used to mean both vowel sounds and the written symbols that represent them.

Articulation

IPA vowel chart

Front Near- front Central Near- back Back

Close

Near-close

Close-mid

Mid

Open-mid

Near-open

Open

Paired vowels are: unrounded • rounded

This table contains phonetic symbols, which may not display correctly in somebrowsers. [Help]

IPA help • IPA key • chart •  chart with audio • view

X-rays of Daniel Jones' [i, u, a, ɑ].

The articulatory features that distinguish different vowel soundsare said to determine the vowel's quality. Daniel Jones developedthe cardinal vowel system to describe vowels in terms of thecommon features height (vertical dimension), backness (horizontaldimension) and roundedness (lip position). These three parametersare indicated in the schematic IPA vowel diagram on the right.There are however still more possible features of vowel quality,such as the velum position (nasality), type of vocal fold vibration(phonation), and tongue root position.

Height

Vowel height is named for the vertical position of the tonguerelative to either the roof of the mouth or the aperture of the jaw.In high vowels, such as [i] and [u], the tongue is positioned high inthe mouth, whereas in low vowels, such as [a], the tongue is positioned low in the mouth. The IPA prefers the termsclose vowel and open vowel, which respectively describe the jaw as open or closed. However, vowel height is anacoustic rather than an articulatory quality and is defined not in terms of tongue height, or jaw openness, butaccording to the relative frequency of the first formant (F1). The higher the F1 value, the lower (more open) thevowel; height is thus inversely correlated to F1.[4]

The International Phonetic Alphabet identifies seven different vowel heights:

Vowel 8

• close vowel (high vowel)•• near-close vowel•• close-mid vowel•• mid vowel•• open-mid vowel•• near-open vowel• open vowel (low vowel)The letters [e ø ɤ o] are typically used for either close-mid or true-mid vowels, but, if more precision is required,true-mid vowels may be written with a lowering diacritic [e̞ ø̞ ɤ̞ o̞]. The Kensiu language spoken in Malaysia andThailand is highly unusual in that it contrasts true-mid with close-mid and open-mid vowels without differences inother parameters such as backness or roundness.Although English contrasts six heights in its vowels, these are interdependent with differences in backness, andmany are parts of diphthongs. It appears that some varieties of German have five contrasting vowel heightsindependently of length or other parameters. The Bavarian dialect of Amstetten has thirteen long vowels, reported todistinguish four heights (close, close-mid, mid, and near-open) each among the front unrounded, front rounded, andback rounded vowels, plus an open central vowel, thus five vowel heights on the whole: /i e ɛ̝ æ/, /y ø œ̝ ɶ̝/, /u o ɔ̝ɒ̝/, /ä/. Otherwise, the usual limit on the number of contrasting vowel heights is four.The parameter of vowel height appears to be the primary cross-linguistic feature of vowels in that all languages useheight as a contrastive feature. No other parameter, such as front-back or rounded/unrounded (see below), is used inall languages. Some languages have vertical vowel systems in which, at least at a phonemic level, only height is usedto distinguish vowels.

Backness

Tongue positions of cardinal front vowels with highestpoint indicated. The position of the highest point is

used to determine vowel height and backness

Vowel backness is named for the position of the tongue during thearticulation of a vowel relative to the back of the mouth. In frontvowels, such as [i], the tongue is positioned forward in the mouth,whereas in back vowels, such as [u], the tongue is positionedtowards the back of the mouth. However, vowels are defined asback or front not according to actual articulation, but according tothe relative frequency of the second formant (F2). The higher theF2 value, the fronter the vowel; the lower the F2 value, the moreretracted the vowel.

The International Phonetic Alphabet identifies five differentdegrees of vowel backness:

•• front vowel•• near-front vowel•• central vowel•• near-back vowel•• back vowelAlthough English has vowels at all five degrees of backness, there is no known language that distinguishes all fivewithout additional differences in height or rounding.

Vowel 9

RoundednessRoundedness refers to whether the lips are rounded or not. In most languages, roundedness is a reinforcing feature ofmid to high back vowels, and is not distinctive. Usually the higher a back vowel is, the more intense the rounding.However, some languages treat roundedness and backness separately, such as French and German (with frontrounded vowels), most Uralic languages (Estonian has a rounding contrast for /o/ and front vowels), Turkiclanguages (with an unrounded /u/), Vietnamese and Korean with back unrounded vowels.Nonetheless, even in languages such as German and Vietnamese, there is usually some phonetic correlation betweenrounding and backness: front rounded vowels tend to be less front than front unrounded vowels, and back unroundedvowels tend to be less back than back rounded vowels. That is, the placement of unrounded vowels to the left ofrounded vowels on the IPA vowel chart is reflective of their typical position.Different kinds of labialization are also possible. In mid to high rounded back vowels the lips are generally protruded("pursed") outward, a phenomenon known as exolabial rounding because the insides of the lips are visible, whereasin mid to high rounded front vowels the lips are generally "compressed", with the margins of the lips pulled in anddrawn towards each other, a phenomenon known as endolabial rounding. However, not all languages follow thispattern. The Japanese /u/, for example, is an endolabial (compressed) back vowel, and sounds quite different from anEnglish exolabial /u/. Swedish and Norwegian are the only two known languages where this feature is contrastive,having both endo- and exo-labial close front rounded vowels and close central rounded vowels, respectively. Inmany phonetic treatments, both are considered types of rounding, but some phoneticians do not believe that these aresubsets of a single phenomenon of rounding, and prefer instead the three independent terms rounded (exolabial),compressed (endolabial), and spread (unrounded).

NasalizationNasalization refers to whether some of the air escapes through the nose. In nasal vowels, the velum is lowered, andsome air travels through the nasal cavity as well as the mouth. An oral vowel is a vowel in which all air escapesthrough the mouth. French, Polish and Portuguese contrast nasal and oral vowels.

PhonationVoicing describes whether the vocal cords are vibrating during the articulation of a vowel. Most languages only havevoiced vowels, but several Native American languages, such as Cheyenne and Totonac, contrast voiced anddevoiced vowels. Vowels are devoiced in whispered speech. In Japanese and Quebec French, vowels that arebetween voiceless consonants are often devoiced.Modal voice, creaky voice, and breathy voice (murmured vowels) are phonation types that are used contrastively insome languages. Often, these co-occur with tone or stress distinctions; in the Mon language, vowels pronounced inthe high tone are also produced with creaky voice. In cases like this, it can be unclear whether it is the tone, thevoicing type, or the pairing of the two that is being used for phonemic contrast. This combination of phonetic cues(i.e. phonation, tone, stress) is known as register or register complex.

Vowel 10

Tongue root retractionAdvanced tongue root (ATR) is a feature common across much of Africa, the Pacific Northwest, and scattered otherlanguages (e.g. modern Mongolian). The contrast between advanced and retracted tongue root resembles thetense/lax contrast acoustically, but they are articulated differently. ATR vowels involve noticeable tension in thevocal tract.

Secondary narrowings in the vocal tractPharyngealized vowels occur in some languages; Sedang uses this contrast, as do the Tungusic languages.Pharyngealisation is similar in articulation to retracted tongue root, but is acoustically distinct.A stronger degree of pharyngealisation occurs in the Northeast Caucasian languages and the Khoisan languages.These might be called epiglottalized, since the primary constriction is at the tip of the epiglottis.The greatest degree of pharyngealisation is found in the strident vowels of the Khoisan languages, where the larynxis raised, and the pharynx constricted, so that either the epiglottis or the arytenoid cartilages vibrate instead of thevocal cords.Note that the terms pharyngealized, epiglottalized, strident, and sphincteric are sometimes used interchangeably.

Rhotic vowels

Rhotic vowels are the "R-colored vowels" of American English and a few other languages.

Tenseness/checked vowels vs. free vowelsTenseness is used to describe the opposition of tense vowels as in leap, suit vs. lax vowels as in lip, soot. Thisopposition has traditionally been thought to be a result of greater muscular tension, though phonetic experimentshave repeatedly failed to show this.Unlike the other features of vowel quality, tenseness is only applicable to the few languages that have this opposition(mainly Germanic languages, e.g. English), whereas the vowels of the other languages (e.g. Spanish) cannot bedescribed with respect to tenseness in any meaningful way. In discourse about the English language, "tense and lax"are often used interchangeably with "long and short", respectively, because the features are concomitant in thecommon varieties of English. This cannot be applied to all English dialects or other languages.In most Germanic languages, lax vowels can only occur in closed syllables. Therefore, they are also known aschecked vowels, whereas the tense vowels are called free vowels since they can occur in any kind of syllable.

Vowel 11

AcousticsRelated article: Phonetics

Spectrogram of vowels [i, u, ɑ]. [ɑ] is a low vowel, so its F1 value is higher than that of[i] and [u], which are high vowels. [i] is a front vowel, so its F2 is substantially higher

than that of [u] and [ɑ], which are back vowels.

The acoustics of vowels are fairly wellunderstood. The different vowelqualities are realized in acousticanalyses of vowels by the relativevalues of the formants, acousticresonances of the vocal tract whichshow up as dark bands on aspectrogram. The vocal tract acts as aresonant cavity, and the position of thejaw, lips, and tongue affect theparameters of the resonant cavity,resulting in different formant values.The acoustics of vowels can bevisualized using spectrograms, whichdisplay the acoustic energy at eachfrequency, and how this changes withtime.

The first formant, abbreviated "F1",corresponds to vowel openness (vowel height). Open vowels have high F1 frequencies while close vowels have lowF1 frequencies, as can be seen in the accompanying spectrogram: The [i] and [u] have similar low first formants,whereas [ɑ] has a higher formant.

The second formant, F2, corresponds to vowel frontness. Back vowels have low F2 frequencies while front vowelshave high F2 frequencies. This is very clear in the spectrogram, where the front vowel [i] has a much higher F2frequency than the other two vowels. However, in open vowels the high F1 frequency forces a rise in the F2frequency as well, so an alternative measure of frontness is the difference between the first and second formants. Forthis reason, some people prefer to plot as F1 vs. F2 – F1. (This dimension is usually called 'backness' rather than'frontness', but the term 'backness' can be counterintuitive when discussing formants.)

In the third edition of his textbook, Peter Ladefoged recommended use of plots of F1 against F2 – F1 to representvowel quality.[5] However, in the fourth edition, he changed to adopt a simple plot of F1 against F2,[6] and thissimple plot of F1 against F2 was maintained for the fifth (and final) edition of the book.[7] Katrina Haywardcompares the two types of plots and concludes that plotting of F1 against F2 – F1 "is not very satisfactory because ofits effect on the placing of the central vowels",[8] so she also recommends use of a simple plot of F1 against F2. Infact, this kind of plot of F1 against F2 has been used by analysts to show the quality of the vowels in a wide range oflanguages, including RP,[9][10] the Queen's English,[11] American English,[12] Singapore English,[13] BruneiEnglish,[14] North Frisian,[15] Turkish Kabardian,[16] and various indigenous Australian languages.[17]

R-colored vowels are characterized by lowered F3 values.Rounding is generally realized by a complex relationship between F2 and F3 that tends to reinforce vowel backness.One effect of this is that back vowels are most commonly rounded while front vowels are most commonlyunrounded; another is that rounded vowels tend to plot to the right of unrounded vowels in vowel charts. That is,there is a reason for plotting vowel pairs the way they are.

Vowel 12

Prosody and intonationThe features of vowel prosody are often described independently from vowel quality. In non-linear phonetics, theyare located on parallel layers. The features of vowel prosody are usually considered not to apply to the vowel itself,but to the syllable, as some languages do not contrast vowel length separately from syllable length.Intonation encompasses the changes in pitch, intensity, and speed of an utterance over time. In tonal languages, inmost cases the tone of a syllable is carried by the vowel, meaning that the relative pitch or the pitch contour thatmarks the tone is superimposed on the vowel. If a syllable has a high tone, for example, the pitch of the vowel willbe high. If the syllable has a falling tone, then the pitch of the vowel will fall from high to low over the course ofuttering the vowel.Length or quantity refers to the abstracted duration of the vowel. In some analyses this feature is described as afeature of the vowel quality, not of the prosody. Japanese, Finnish, Hungarian, Arabic and Latin have a two-wayphonemic contrast between short and long vowels. The Mixe language has a three-way contrast among short,half-long, and long vowels, and this has been reported for a few other languages, though not always as a phonemicdistinction. Long vowels are written in the IPA with a triangular colon, which has two equilateral triangles pointingat each other in place of dots ([iː]). The IPA symbol for half-long vowels is the top half of this ([iˑ]). Longer vowelsare sometimes claimed, but these are always divided between two syllables.The length of the vowel is a grammatical abstraction, and there may be more phonologically distinctive lengths. Forexample, in Finnish, there are five different physical lengths, because stress is marked with length on bothgrammatically long and short vowels. However, Finnish stress is not lexical and is always on the first two moras,thus this variation serves to separate words from each other.In non-tonal languages, like English, intonation encompasses lexical stress. A stressed syllable will typically bepronounced with a higher pitch, intensity, and length than unstressed syllables. For example in the word intensity, thevowel represented by the letter 'e' is stressed, so it is longer and pronounced with a higher pitch and intensity than theother vowels.

Monophthongs, diphthongs, triphthongsA vowel sound whose quality doesn't change over the duration of the vowel is called a monophthong. Monophthongsare sometimes called "pure" or "stable" vowels. A vowel sound that glides from one quality to another is called adiphthong, and a vowel sound that glides successively through three qualities is a triphthong.All languages have monophthongs and many languages have diphthongs, but triphthongs or vowel sounds with evenmore target qualities are relatively rare cross-linguistically. English has all three types: the vowel sound in hit is amonophthong /ɪ/, the vowel sound in boy is in most dialects a diphthong /ɔɪ/, and the vowel sounds of flower, /aʊər/,form a triphthong or disyllable, depending on dialect.In phonology, diphthongs and triphthongs are distinguished from sequences of monophthongs by whether the vowelsound may be analyzed into different phonemes or not. For example, the vowel sounds in a two-syllablepronunciation of the word flower (/ˈflaʊər/) phonetically form a disyllabic triphthong, but are phonologically asequence of a diphthong (represented by the letters <ow>) and a monophthong (represented by the letters <er>).Some linguists use the terms diphthong and triphthong only in this phonemic sense.

Vowel 13

Written vowelsThe name "vowel" is often used for the symbols that represent vowel sounds in a language's writing system,particularly if the language uses an alphabet. In writing systems based on the Latin alphabet, the letters A, E, I, O, U,and sometimes Y are all used to represent vowels. However, not all of these letters represent vowels in all languages,or even consistently within one language (some of them, especially W and Y, are also used to representapproximants). Moreover, a vowel might be represented by a letter usually reserved for consonants, or a combinationof letters, particularly where one letter represents several sounds at once, or vice versa; examples from Englishinclude igh in "thigh" and x in "x-ray". In addition, extensions of the Latin alphabet have such independent vowelletters as Ä, Ö, Ü, Å, Æ, and Ø.The phonetic values vary considerably by language, and some languages use I and Y for the consonant [j], e.g., initialI in Romanian and initial Y in English. In the original Latin alphabet, there was no written distinction between V andU, and the letter represented the approximant [w] and the vowels [u] and [ʊ]. In Modern Welsh, the letter Wrepresents these same sounds. Similarly, in Creek, the letter V stands for [ə]. There is not necessarily a directone-to-one correspondence between the vowel sounds of a language and the vowel letters. Many languages that use aform of the Latin alphabet have more vowel sounds than can be represented by the standard set of five vowel letters.In English spelling, the five letters A E I O and U can represent a variety of vowel sounds, while the letter Yfrequently represents vowels (as in e.g., "gym", "happy", or the diphthongs in "cry", "thyme");[18] W is used inrepresenting some diphthongs (as in "cow") and to represent a monophthong in the borrowed words "cwm" (nearlyalways spelled combe, coomb, or comb in English) and "crwth" (sometimes cruth).Other languages cope with the limitation in the number of Latin vowel letters in similar ways. Many languages makeextensive use of combinations of letters to represent various sounds. Other languages use vowel letters withmodifications, such as Ä in Scandinavian and Nordic languages, or add diacritical marks, like umlauts, to vowels torepresent the variety of possible vowel sounds. Some languages have also constructed additional vowel letters bymodifying the standard Latin vowels in other ways, such as æ or ø that are found in some of the Scandinavianlanguages. The International Phonetic Alphabet has a set of 28 symbols to represent the range of basic vowelqualities, and a further set of diacritics to denote variations from the basic vowel.The alphabets used to write the Semitic languages, such as the Hebrew alphabet and the Arabic alphabet, do notordinarily mark all the vowels, since they are frequently unnecessary in identifying a word. These alphabets aretechnically called abjads. Although it is possible to construct simple English sentences that can be understoodwithout written vowels (cn y rd ths?), extended passages of English lacking written vowels can be difficult tounderstand (consider dd, which could be any of dad, dada, dado, dead, deed, did, died, diode, dodo, dud, or dude).

Vowel shiftsThe differences in pronunciation of vowel letters between English and other languages can be accounted for by theGreat Vowel Shift. After printing was introduced to England, and therefore after spelling was more or lessstandardized, a series of dramatic changes in the pronunciation of the vowel phonemes did occur, and continued intorecent centuries, but were not reflected in the spelling system. This has led to numerous inconsistencies in thespelling of English vowel sounds and the pronunciation of English vowel letters (and to the mispronunciation offoreign words and names by speakers of English).The existence of vowel shifts should serve as a caution flag to anyone who is trying to pronounce an ancientlanguage or, indeed, any poetry (in any language) from two centuries ago or earlier.

Vowel 14

Audio samples

IPA vowel chart with audio

Front Near- front Central Near- back Back

Close

Near-close

Close-mid

Mid

Open-mid

Near-open

Open

Paired vowels are: unrounded–rounded

This table contains phonetic symbols, which may not display correctly in somebrowsers. [Help]

IPA help • IPA key •  audio help • chart • view

Vowel systemsThe importance of vowels in distinguishing one word from another varies from language to language. Nearly alllanguages have at least three phonemic vowels, usually /i/, /a/, /u/ as in Classical Arabic and Inuktitut (or /æ/, /ɪ/, /ʊ/as in Quechua), though Adyghe and many Sepik languages have a vertical vowel system of /ɨ/, /ə/, /a/. Very fewlanguages have fewer, though some Arrernte, Circassian, Ndu languages have been argued to have just two, /ə/ and/a/, with [ɨ] being epenthetic.The rarest vowels cataloged are /ɜ/ (has just been cataloged in Paicî and Received Pronunciation English) and /ʊ̈/(Early Modern English and Russian).It is not straightforward to say which language has the most vowels, since that depends on how they are counted. For example, long vowels, nasal vowels, and various phonations may or may not be counted separately; indeed, it may sometimes be unclear if phonation belongs to the vowels or the consonants of a language. If such things are ignored and only vowels with dedicated IPA letters ('vowel qualities') are considered, then very few languages have more than ten. The Germanic languages have some of the largest inventories: Standard Norwegian and Swedish has eighteen/seventeen contrasting simple vowels, nine long and nine/eight short (/iː eː ɛː ɑː oː uː ʉ̟ː yː øː ɪ ɛ a ɔ ʊ ɵ ʏ œ/). Standard Danish has around thirty two, 15 short, 13 long and 4 unstressed (/ɑ ɑː a æ æː ɛ ɛː e e̝ː i iː o oː ɔ ɔː u uː ø øː œ œː ɶ ɶː y yː ʌ ɒ ɒː ə ɐ ɪ ʊ/), while the Amstetten dialect of Bavarian has been reported to have thirteen long vowels: /iː yː eː øː ɛː œː æː ɶː aː ɒː ɔː oː uː/.[citation needed] The situation can be quite disparate within a same family language: Spanish and French are two closely related Romance languages but Spanish has only five vowels /a, e, i, o, u/ while classical French has sixteen of them: /a, ɑ, e, ɛ, i, o, ɔ, u, y, ə, œ, ø, ɑ̃, ɔ̃, ɛ̃, œ̃/. The Mon–Khmer languages of Southeast Asia also have some large inventories, such as the eleven vowels of Vietnamese: /i e ɛ ɐ a ə ɔ ɤ o ɯ u/. Wu has the largest inventories of Chinese; the Jinhui dialect of Wu has also been reported to have eleven vowels: ten basic vowels, /i y e ø ɛ ɑ ɔ o u ɯ/, plus restricted /ɨ/, and this does not count seven nasal vowels.[19] The

Vowel 15

Taa language, spoken mainly in Botswana and Namibia, is extremely unusual in having (depending on analysis)between 20 and 31 vowels.[20]

One of the most common vowels is [a̠]; it is nearly universal for a language to have at least one open vowel, thoughmost dialects of English have an [æ] and a [ɑ]—and often an [ɒ], all open vowels—but no central [a]. SomeTagalog- and Cebuano-speakers have [ɐ] rather than [a], and Dhangu Yolngu is described as having /ɪ ɐ ʊ/, withoutany peripheral vowels. [i] is also extremely common, though Tehuelche has just the vowels /e a o/ with no closevowels. The third vowel of Arabic-type three-vowel system, /u/, is considerably less common. A large fraction of thelanguages of North America happen to have a four-vowel system without /u/: /i, e, a, o/; Aztec is an example.In most languages, vowels serve mainly to distinguish separate lexemes, rather than different inflectional forms ofthe same lexeme as they commonly do in the Semitic languages. For example, while English man becomes men inthe plural, moon is not a different form of the same word.

Words without vowelsIn rhotic dialects of English, as in Canada and the United States, there are many words such as bird, learn, girl,church, worst, wyrm, myrrh which some phoneticians analyze as having no vowels, only a syllabic consonant /ɹ̩/.However, others analyze these words instead as having a rhotic vowel, /ɝː/. The difference may be partially one ofdialect.There are a few such words which are disyllabic, like cursor, curtain, and turtle: [ˈkɹ̩sɹ̩], [ˈkɹ̩tn̩] and [ˈtɹ̩tl̩] (or[ˈkɝːsɚ], [ˈkɝːtən], and [ˈtɝːtəl]), and even a few which are trisyllabic, at least in some accents, such as purpler[ˈpɹ̩.pl̩.ɹ̩], hurdler [ˈhɹ̩.dl̩.ɹ̩], gurgler [ˈɡɹ̩.ɡl̩.ɹ̩], certainer [ˈsɹ̩.tn̩.ɹ̩], and Ur-turtle [ˈɹ̩.tɹ̩.tl̩].The word and frequently contracts to a simple nasal ’n, as in lock 'n key [ˌlɒk ŋ ˈkiː]. Words such as will, have, and isregularly contract to ’ll [l], ’ve [v], and ’s [z]. However, none of them are pronounced alone without vowels, so theyare not phonological words. Onomatopoeic words which can be pronounced alone, and which have no vowels or ars,include hmm, pst!, shh!, tsk!, and zzz. As in other languages, onomatopoeia stands outside the normal phonotactics ofEnglish.There are other languages that form lexical words without vowel sounds. In Serbo-Croatian, for example, theconsonants [r] and [rː] (the difference is not written) can act as a syllable nucleus and carry rising or falling tone;examples include the tongue-twister na vrh brda vrba mrda and geographic names such as Krk. In Czech, andSlovak, either [l] or [r] can stand in for vowels: vlk [vl̩k] "wolf", krk [kr̩k] "neck". A particularly long word withoutvowels is čtvrthrst, meaning "quarter-handful", with two syllables (one for each R). Whole sentences can be madefrom such words, such as Strč prst skrz krk, meaning "stick a finger through your neck" (follow the link for a soundfile), and Smrž pln skvrn zvlhl z mlh "A morel full of spots wetted from fogs". (Here zvlhl has two syllables based onL; note that the preposition z consists of a single consonant. Only prepositions do this in Czech, and they normallylink phonetically to the following noun, so do not really behave as vowelless words.) In Russian, there are alsoprepositions that consist of a single consonant letter, like k "to", v "in", and s "with". However, these forms areactually contractions of ko, vo, and so respectively, and these forms are still used in modern Russian before wordswith certain consonant clusters for ease of pronunciation.In Kazakh and certain other Turkic languages, words without vowel sounds may occur due to reduction of weakvowels. A common example is the Kazakh word for one: bir, pronounced [br]. Among careful speakers, however,the original vowel may be preserved, and the vowels are always preserved in the orthography.In Southern dialects of Chinese, such as Cantonese or Minnan, some monosyllabic words are made of exclusivelynasals, such as [m̩˨˩] "no" and [ŋ̩˩˧] "five".So far, all of these syllabic consonants, at least in the lexical words, have been sonorants, such as [r], [l], [m], and [n], which have a voiced quality similar to vowels. (They can carry tone, for example.) However, there are languages with lexical words that not only contain no vowels, but contain no sonorants at all, like (non-lexical) shh! in English.

Vowel 16

These include some Berber languages and some languages of the American Pacific Northwest, such as Nuxálk. Anexample from the latter is sxs "seal fat" (pronounced [sxs], as spelled), and a longer one is xłp̓x̣ʷłtłpłłskʷc̓(pronounced [xɬpʼχʷɬtʰɬpʰɬːskʷʰt͡sʼ]) "he had had in his possession a bunchberry plant". (Follow the Nuxálk link forother examples.) Berber examples include /tkkststt/ "you took it off" and /tfktstt/ "you gave it". Some words maycontain one or two consonants only: /ɡ/ "be", /ks/ "feed on".[21] (In Mandarin Chinese, words and syllables such as sīand zhī are sometimes described as being syllabic fricatives and affricates phonemically, /ś/ and /tʂ́/, but these dohave a voiced segment that carries the tone.) In the Japonic language Miyako, there are words with no voicedsounds, such as ss 'dust', kss 'breast/milk', pss 'day', ff 'a comb', kff 'to make', fks 'to build', ksks 'month', sks 'to cut',psks 'to pull'.

Words consisting of only vowelsIt is not uncommon for short grammatical words to consist of only vowels, such as a and I in English. Lexical wordsare somewhat rarer in English and are generally restricted to a single syllable: eye, awe, owe, and in non-rhoticaccents air, ore, err. Vowel-only words of more than one syllable are generally foreign loans, such as ai (twosyllables: /ˈɑː.i/) for the maned sloth, or proper names, such as Iowa (in some accents: /ˈaɪ.oʊ.ə/).However, vowel sequences in hiatus are more freely allowed in some other languages, most famously perhaps inBantu and Polynesian languages, but also in Japanese and Finnish. In such languages there tends to be a largervariety of vowel-only words. In Swahili (Bantu), for example, there is aua 'to survey' and eua 'to purify' (both threesyllables); in Japanese, aoi 青 い 'blue/green' and oioi 追 々 'gradually' (three and four syllables); and in Finnish,aie 'intention' and auo 'open!' (both two syllables). Hawaiian, and the Polynesian languages generally, haveunusually large numbers of such words, such as aeāea (a small green fish), which is three syllables: ae.āe.a. Mostlong words involve reduplication, which is quite productive in Polynesian: ioio 'grooves', eaea 'breath', uaua 'tough'(all four syllables), auēuē 'crying' (five syllables, from uē (uwē) 'to weep'), uoa or uouoa 'false mullet' (sp. fish, threeor five syllables).

References[1] Laver, John (1994) Principles of Phonetics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 269.[2] Crystal, David (2005) A Dictionary of Linguistics & Phonetics (Fifth Edition), Maldern, MA/Oxford: Blackwell, p. 494.[4] According to Peter Ladefoged, traditional articulatory descriptions such as height and backness "are not entirely satisfactory", and when

phoneticians describe a vowel as high or low, they are in fact describing an acoustic quality rather than the actual position of the tongue.Ladefoged, Peter (2006) A Course in Phonetics (Fifth Edition), Boston, MA: Thomson Wadsworth, p. 189.

[5] Ladefoged, Peter (1993) A Course in Phonetics (Third Edition), Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, p. 197.[6] Ladefoged, Peter (2001) A Course in Phonetics (Fourth Edition), Fort Worth: Harcourt, p. 177.[7] Ladefoged, Peter (2006) A Course in Phonetics (Fifth Edition), Boston: Thomson Wadsworth, p. 189.[8] Hayward, Katrina (2000) Experimental Phonetics, Harlow, UK: Pearson, p. 160.[11] Harrington, Jonathan, Sallyanne Palethorpe and Catherine Watson (2005) Deepening or lessening the divide between diphthongs: an

analysis of the Queen's annual Christmas broadcasts. In William J. Hardcastle and Janet Mackenzie Beck (eds.) A Figure of Speech: AFestschrift for John Laver, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 227-261.

[17] Fletcher, Janet (2006) Exploring the phonetics of spoken narratives in Australian indigenous languages. In William J. Hardcastle and JanetMackenzie Beck (eds.) A Figure of Speech: A Festschrift for John Laver, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 201-226.

[18] In wyrm and myrrh, there is neither a vowel letter nor, in rhotic dialects, a vowel sound.[19] Values in open oral syllables (http:/ / comonca. org. cn/ lh/ Doc/ D13. pdf)[20] World Language Statistics and Facts (http:/ / www. vistawide. com/ languages/ language_statistics. htm)[21] Audio recordings of selected words without vowels can be downloaded from (http:/ / ed268. univ-paris3. fr/ lpp/ pages/ EQUIPE/ ridouane/

audio. doc).

Vowel 17

Bibliography• Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, 1999. Cambridge University ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0• Johnson, Keith, Acoustic & Auditory Phonetics, second edition, 2003. Blackwell ISBN 978-1-4051-0123-3• Korhonen, Mikko. Koltansaamen opas, 1973. Castreanum ISBN 978-951-45-0189-0• Ladefoged, Peter, A Course in Phonetics, fifth edition, 2006. Boston, MA: Thomson Wadsworth ISBN

978-1-4130-2079-3• Ladefoged, Peter, Elements of Acoustic Phonetics, 1995. University of Chicago ISBN 978-0-226-46764-1• Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN

0-631-19814-8.• Ladefoged, Peter, Vowels and Consonants: An Introduction to the Sounds of Languages, 2000. Blackwell ISBN

978-0-631-21412-0.• Lindau, Mona. (1978). "Vowel features". Language 54 (3): 541–563. doi: 10.2307/412786 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/

10. 2307/ 412786). JSTOR  412786 (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 412786).• Stevens, Kenneth N. (1998). Acoustic phonetics. Current studies in linguistics (No. 30). Cambridge, MA: MIT.

ISBN 978-0-262-19404-4.• Stevens, Kenneth N. (2000). "Toward a model for lexical access based on acoustic landmarks and distinctive

features". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 111 (4): 1872–1891. doi: 10.1121/1.1458026 (http:/ /dx. doi. org/ 10. 1121/ 1. 1458026). PMID  12002871 (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 12002871).

• Watt, D. and Tillotson, J. (2001). A spectrographic analysis of vowel fronting in Bradford English. EnglishWorld-Wide 22:2, 269–302. Available at http:/ / www. abdn. ac. uk/ langling/ resources/ Watt-Tillotson2001. pdf

External links• IPA chart (http:/ / www. ling. hf. ntnu. no/ ipa/ full/ ipachart_vowels_fbmp3. html) with MP3 sound files• IPA vowel chart (http:/ / www. phonetics. ucla. edu/ course/ chapter1/ vowels. html) with AIFF sound files• Vowel charts for several different languages and dialects measuring F1 and F2 (http:/ / www. helsinki. fi/

speechsciences/ projects/ vowelcharts/ )• Materials for measuring and plotting vowel formants (http:/ / videoweb. nie. edu. sg/ phonetic/ vowels/

measurements. html)• Vowels and Consonants (http:/ / hctv. humnet. ucla. edu/ departments/ linguistics/ VowelsandConsonants/

vowels/ contents. html) Online examples from Ladefoged's Vowels and Consonants, referenced above.

Article Sources and Contributors 18

Article Sources and ContributorsA  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=563732777  Contributors: *Kat*, .:Ajvol:., 1029384756pie, 1123werqer, 130.94.122.xxx, 14schltr, 1700-talet, 212.187.124.xxx, 24ip,28bytes, 334a, 388775, 4, 4njones, 5 albert square, 64.16.232.xxx, A Train, A fuzzy hippo, A101firestorm, A3RO, A8UDI, AA, ALE!, Abcdef1, Abce2, Abelness, Abledpilot, Aboutmovies,Acalamari, Accurizer, Acroterion, Adam Bishop, Adam Cuerden, Adamfrost01, Addshore, Adhoert, Adoodley, Adrian.benko, Aeusoes1, Afterwriting, AgentPeppermint, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias,Akamad, Akoibon, Al.locke, Alansohn, Alasdair, Alba, Alex earlier account, Alex jab, Alex.atkins, AlexKrolewski, Alexandria, Alexius08, Alexrules20, Alias Flood, Allstarecho, Alsandro,Amakuru, Amwyll Rwden, Anas.zaidan, Andre Engels, Andrejj, AndrewHowse, AndrewWTaylor, Andrias Stefandi, Androl, Andy Dingley, Angela, Anglicanus, Angr, Animum, Ann Stouter,Anna512, Anomie, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Ap, Arakunem, Arctic.gnome, Arda Xi, Arichnad, ArielGold, Arjun01, Armin87, Arnon Chaffin, Arthaey, Aruton, Asdffweeefe2309weaverruls, Ase1590, Ashley Y, Astroangie, Astrowob, Atheistrabbi, AutoMe, Avenged Eightfold, Avicennasis, Avoided, Avono, AxelBoldt, Aymatth2, Ayrton Prost, Az Paz, AzaToth, B9hummingbird hovering, BD2412, BRUTE, Backfiah, Backslash Forwardslash, Badboingboy, Ballistic717, Ballz11, Barrettman2000, Battoe19, Bbik, Bcd123, Beetstra, BehindU74, BellendHouse, Benc, Benjamin.Heasly, Bentonhurt, Bgwhite, Bhadani, Bhumiya, Big Bird, Big moo cow, Biggestsfgfan123ssl, Bigtimepeace, Bill37212, Bkell, Blanchardb, Bleh999, Bluedenim,Bluerasberry, Blueski, Bluezy, Blurpeace, Bob Burkhardt, Bob14141, Bobjoe14321, Bobo192, Bogdan Nagachop, Bogdangiusca, Bogey97, Bohemian Arcade, Bongwarrior, BoomerAB,Brammers, Brian0918, Bronyraur1970, Bryan Derksen, Bugboy52.40, Bull33334, Bunty02, Burntsauce, Bwefler, Bydand, CIreland, CLW, CPacker, CT Cooper, CWii, Caesura, Cal Evans,Calion, Calisto1880000, Caltas, Camarero, CambridgeBayWeather, Camembert, Cameron Nedland, CamouflageChameleon, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianPenguin, Canderson7,CanisRufus, Canthusus, CapitalR, Carbon-16, Caulde, Cenarium, Centrx, Ceoil, Chairboy, Chalupachalupa, Chanting Fox, Chaosfeary, Cherkash, Chickyfuzz14, Chodorkovskiy, Chowder3,Chris dangel, Chris the speller, ChrisGualtieri, ChrisHodgesUK, Christian List, Christopherlin, Chun-hian, Chuunen Baka, Ciacchi, CielProfond, Cinderella12345678910, Cinnyfershizy,Citrus101, Ckatz, Ckchan4i, Cleo20, Closedmouth, Cmslibrary, Cntras, Coasterlover1994, ColinBoylett, Colonel Warden, Cometstyles, Comgeek, Commander, Commander Keane, Connormah,Consequencefree, Conversion script, Coolboy, Coolgolferdude, Coroboy, Corvus cornix, Courcelles, Coyne025, Cpdlatm, Cr190992, Crisco 1492, Cristian Cappiello, Crudcrudcrud, CryptoDerk,Cuaxdon, Curps, Cuttie1111111111, Cyfraw, D, D o m e, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DDima, DMacks, DREWBERTMAN, DVD R W, DVdm, Dalemurph, Damian Yerrick, Dan2802, DanKeshet,Daniel5127, Dante Alighieri, Darthkeeper, Davi55x, David Biddulph, David13890, DavidWBrooks, Davidm617617, Db052125, Dbolton, Dcoetzee, DeLarge, DeadEyeArrow, Dean Wormer,Debresser, Deconstructhis, Deflective, Dekisugi, Delgado73, Deliberate, Demi, Denelson83, Deor, DerHexer, Desu closed, DevOhm, Devanwolf, Devon j, Dgw, Dhp1080, Diannaa, Dina,Discospinster, DivineAlpha, Dixienormous123, Dl2000, Dlohcierekim, Dlohcierekim's sock, Dmeranda, Dmlandfair, Dmn, Dobz116, Doc glasgow, DocSigma, DocendoDiscimus, Docu,Dolda2000, DopefishJustin, DoubleBlue, Doulos Christos, Dr. baby mu, DragonflySixtyseven, Drmaik, Drmies, Drowsinator, Dsarker, Dspradau, Dureo, Dvyjones, Dwayne, Dweller, Dwihzzle,E0steven, ESkog, EagerToddler39, Ebe123, Echosong221, Echtoran, Eclipsed Moon, Ed g2s, EdC, Edemaine, Eduarodi, Edward, Egil, Egmontaz, Ehk1999, EivindJ, Eliethesame, Elkman,Ellmist, Eman9972, EndlessDimention, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Epson291, Equendil, Er Komandante, Eragongal, Eran, Eric-Wester, Ericoman, Esanchez7587, Estudiarme, Etlsen, Eubulide,Evanpsp, Evercat, Evertype, Everyking, Excesses, Excirial, Exor674, Extransit, Extrema, Ezhiki, F l a n k e r, F. 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Carlson, Stephenb, Stephensuleeman, Stepscurse, Steven Zhang, Stonga0099, Storm Rider, Stroppolo,Student8, Styrofoam1994, Suffusion of Yellow, Sumirp, SupaStarGirl, Susvolans, Sven Manguard, Svick, SwirlBoy39, T-DALgolfer, T11594, TFBCT1, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Taliska,Tamachao, Tamfang, Tamiera, Tangotango, Tarquin, Tarret, Tbhotch, TdaBombs, Template namespace initialisation script, Testosteronicles, Tetraedycal, Tetraglot, Tgeairn, Thatguyflint, TheArticle Creator, The Epopt, The Evil IP address, The Halo, The Man in Question, The Missing Hour, The Professor (of Faith), The Random Editor, TheBestGuyHi, TheCatalyst31, TheDoctor10,TheKMan, TheProject, Thebisch, Thecheesykid, Theda, Thehelpfulone, Theherptalk, Thelb4, TheoClarke, Thingg, Thisisborin9, Thomas.W, ThreatMaker 5.0, Threeconomics, Tiajmarie, Tiderolls, TigerShark, Tim1357, Timwi, Titoxd, Tits4lyf, Tjcsweet, Toddst1, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tombomp, Tommy2010, TonySt, Tonyedoggett, Tonym88, Tothebarricades.tk, Trebuchi,Tribalwarrior6, Trojjer, TroyGlory92, Truethmaster, Tunakdud, Twey, Twilsonb, Tyw7, U av probs, Ugur Basak, Uhavnofriends19, Ukexpat, Uncle Dick, Uncle G, Uncle Milty, Unionhawk,Unrulyevil, Urhixidur, Useight, User F203, Utcursch, UtherSRG, V111P, VandalismReverter, Vanisaac, Vannamoo, Vargklo, Velho, Verdlanco, Verdy p, Versus22, Vicki Rosenzweig, VictorYus, Vinniebar, Vintagekits, VirtualDelight, Vitorvicentevalente, Vivacissamamente, VladimirKorablin, WadeSimMiser, Waggers, Walter p7, Wapcaplet, Wathiik, Wayne Slam, Wayward,Weatherman90, WebTV3, Welsh, Werdna, Wereon, Wermlandsdata, Wesley, What!?Why?Who?, Who, Wickey-nl, WikHead, Wiki alf, Wiki13, WikiTruths1122, Wikid77, Wikidexel2,Wikipedia123456123545, WikipedianMarlith, Wikipelli, Wildthing61476, Will Beback, Will-B, Will28182818, Willy, your mate, Wimt, Wolvereness, Woohookitty, Worshipbob, Wshun, Wst,X!, XDliveoak, Xdnh, Xiaphias, XicefangX, Y26de.jknowles, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yarnalgo, Yespmedoc, Yo Kp, Yohan79, Youandme, Yourmum1.2, Yugsdrawkcabeht, Yupik, Zaid12, Zalgt1,Zaphim12, Zondor, Zoney, Zouavman Le Zouave, Zsero, Zzuuzz, Über Nerd 2000, Žiedas, Саша Стефановић, と あ る 白 い 猫, 覇 の 寸, 1705 anonymous edits

Vowel  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=568297670  Contributors: 16@r, 4pq1injbok, Adam78, AdiJapan, Aesopos, Aeusoes1, AgentPeppermint, Ajmint, Alansohn, Amakuru, Andre Engels, Andrejj, AndrewWTaylor, Andycjp, Angr, Ante Aikio, Anvusp, Apus, Armchairlinguist, Arthr, Astronautics, AtilimGunesBaydin, Ayelis, BRG, Bahman3d, Bbadree, Betty, Bijsbddbindbihbfijbdinfbhibfhisd, Blackfield, Bonadea, Bookofjude, BorgQueen, Brighterorange, Brion VIBBER, Bry1996, Burschik, Caeruleancentaur, CanisRufus, CapnPrep, Cassowary, Cedrus-Libani, Cessator, Chameleon, CharlotteWebb, Chavash, Circeus, Conversion script, Coreydragon, Cpl Syx, Creidieki, Csobankai Aladar, DISD, Dabomb87, Damian Yerrick, Dammacco, DarkAudit, Darrendeng, David Gerard, David deterding, David0811, Dcoetzee, DePiep, Decruft, Deflective, Den fjättrade ankan, Denelson83, Derek Ross, Dietermaurer, DionysiusThrax, Dire organic, Donarreiskoffer, DopefishJustin, Drewerd, EJF, ERcheck, Eall Ân Ûle, Edinborgarstefan, Edison, Efficiency54WS, Egern, Eigenlambda, Einstein9073, ElationAviation, Ellywa, Epingchris, Errarel, Estrellador*, Everyking, Evil saltine, Exit, Fang Aili, Feedmecereal, Fibonacci, FilipeS, Freakofnurture, Frumphammer, Fsotrain09, Furscollis, Fæ, G.a.ys are di$gusting!, GPepper, Gaia5074Q, Gandalf1491, Garik, Garygoh884, Gd, Ged424, GeneralAtrocity, Gilliam, Glengordon01, Glossologist, Gnominonwiki, GoingBatty, Graham87, Gwalla, Haipa Doragon, Hakeem.gadi, Hannes Hirzel, Hans-Friedrich Tamke, HaroX, Henry Flower, Hephaestos, Heron, Het, Hippophaë, Hirzel, Hongooi, Hworost, IJoey, Ihcoyc, Iluvcapra, Intangir, Ioscius, Ish

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ishwar, J. 'mach' wust, J.delanoy, JForget, JHJ, JLaTondre, JMW64, JackLumber, JackofOz, Jakew, Jan.Kamenicek, Jc37, Jenga650, Jerzy, Jim1138, Jnestorius, Joe13013, John Riemann Soong,John Stevens 20, John254, JohnyDog, Jonasaznut, Jonathan de Boyne Pollard, Joris Gillis, JorisvS, Joseph Solis in Australia, Junes, KJS77, Kaihsu, Karl Palmen, Kate, Katimawan2005, Kdehl,Keith D, Keith Edkins, Kelly022096, Khoikhoi, Kielbasa1, KissL, Kjoonlee, Kronecker, Krzysztofpawliszak, Ks0stm, Kwamikagami, LA RoeDoe, LLarson, Lachaume, Lacrimosus, Laudaka,Lee Daniel Crocker, Leefeni,de Karik, Leewonbum, LjL, Looxix, Lupin, Mav, Max Naylor, Maymay, Mcsven, Mdd4696, Medeis, Menopause, Mexicono411, Mguinness, Michael Hardy,MikeGasser, Mikydude, Mimursal, Monkey Bounce, Muzza24, Mzajac, N0thingness, N3LSON666, Naive cynic, Naraht, Nareek, NawlinWiki, NeilN, Nema Fakei, Newbyguesses, NickelShoe,Nohat, NotAnonymous0, Octahedron80, Ojigiri, Owen, Pajast, Pare Mo, Parishan, ParlorGames, PauloCalipari, Paxse, Peter Isotalo, Pgdudda, Phil1988, Philip Trueman, PhilipMW, PierreAbbat,Pinethicket, Purgatory Fubar, QVanillaQ, QrczakMK, Quangbao, QuartierLatin1968, Qxz, RG2, RadicalBender, Ranveig, RastaMongoose, Raul654, Raven in Orbit, Redd Foxx 1991,RetiredUser2, Rjanag, Rjwilmsi, Robert Foley, Robert Ullmann, RobertG, Robertminard, Romanm, Ross Burgess, Ruhrjung, Salleman, Salsb, SanderNL, Serouj, Shinju, Shoaler, Shoeofdeath,Sobolewski, Socrates123b, SonicBoom404, Staszek Lem, Stefan Milosevski, Stella luna, Stephenb, Stroppolo, Sulejman, Supernerd123456, Susurrus, Synchronism, Tarquin, Taw,TenPoundHammer, Terracescot, That Guy, From That Show!, Thaurisil, The Fiddly Leprechaun, The Wiki ghost, Theda, Thomasda, Tide rolls, Tigga, Titodutta, Tokenzero, Treisijs,TriviaMonth2011, Twin Bird, TwoTwoHello, TypoBoy, Uanfala, Vanhoabui, Vbs, VikSol, Vuo, Waldir, Wavelength, Webclient101, Weialawaga, Who, Widr, Wik, Wikid77, Womtelo,Woohookitty, Wtshymanski, Yahya Abdal-Aziz, Youandme, Zach693, Zack wadghiri, Zamnedix, Zigger, Δ, 313 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 20

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Latin alphabet Aa.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Latin_alphabet_Aa.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Atanamir, Eirik1231, Nilfanion,NuclearWarfare, Officer781, Pseudomoi, Toast Chee, 4 anonymous editsFile:Cursive.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cursive.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: AndrewBuckFile:EgyptianA-01.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EgyptianA-01.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Unicode script proposal for Basic EgyptianHieroglyphs, http://www.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n1944 en.wiki: en:User:Nohat . 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 Contributors: User:SpeednatFile:Greek-2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greek-2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:SpeednatFile:Etr2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Etr2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:SpeednatFile:Latin 4th cent BC.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Latin_4th_cent_BC.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:SpeednatFile:Beoetian.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beoetian.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:SpeednatFile:Greek-uncial-2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greek-uncial-2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:SpeednatFile:Latin-uncial-2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Latin-uncial-2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:SpeednatFile:BlackletterA-01.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BlackletterA-01.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Amada44, Der Barbar, Ies,Kristaga, Liftarn, TSamuel, 3 anonymous editsFile:UncialA-01.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UncialA-01.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original by Nohat SVG by OsamaK.File:Acap.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Acap.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: F l a n k e rFile:ModernRomanA-01.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ModernRomanA-01.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:MangwananiFile:Modern Italic A.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Modern_Italic_A.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: It Is Me HereFile:Modern Script A.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Modern_Script_A.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: It Is Me HereFile:LowercaseA.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LowercaseA.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: GearedBull Jim HoodFile:A-small glyphs.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A-small_glyphs.svg  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors: Wickey-nlImage:ICS_Alpha.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ICS_Alpha.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Badzil, Cycn, Denelson83, LegivotImage:Semaphore_Alpha.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Semaphore_Alpha.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:Denelson83Image:Braille_A1.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braille_A1.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:3247's Image Wizard/Scripts/braille.plfile:Wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: Guillom, INeverCry, Jarekt, MichaelMaggs, NielsF, Rei-artur,Rocket000File:Blank vowel trapezoid.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blank_vowel_trapezoid.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:Blank_vowel_trapezoid.png: IPA_vowel_trapezium.svg: *Ga_open_allophones.svg: Angr derivative work: Moxfyre (talk) derivative work: Moxfyre (talk)File:Loudspeaker.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bayo, Frank C. Müller, Gmaxwell, Gnosygnu, Husky,Iamunknown, Mirithing, Myself488, Nethac DIU, Omegatron, Rocket000, Shanmugamp7, Snow Blizzard, The Evil IP address, Túrelio, Wouterhagens, 27 anonymous editsFile:Cardinal vowels-Jones x-ray.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cardinal_vowels-Jones_x-ray.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0Unported  Contributors: Ishwar, 1 anonymous editsFile:Cardinal vowel tongue position-front.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cardinal_vowel_tongue_position-front.svg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Share Alike  Contributors: BadseedFile:Spectrogram -iua-.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spectrogram_-iua-.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Ishwar, Mike.lifeguard,Moyogo, 2 anonymous edits

License 21

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/