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A CRACKING ALTERNATIVE TO CEMENT- AN INNOVATIVE

APPROACHESSrinivasan R & Logadharani S, BE - Mining Engineering,

Final Year, Department of Mining Engineering, College of Engineering

Guindy, Anna University, Chennai-25

ABSTRACT

The cement industry is the India's second highest payer of Central Excise and

Major contributor to GDP. Concrete cement is a family of different material like

binding material (cement+ fly ash), fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water.

Today construction cost is very high with using conventional materials due to

unavailability of natural materials. This problem can be solved by total replacement

of concrete with different material which is not convenient in terms of required

properties. Due to this limitation of unavailability of material which plays the vital

role of cement we have only choice of partial replacement of cement by alternative

materials. In order to ensure sustainable, cost-effective but still profitable cement

production in the second decade of the 21st century, the industry needs to change.

The two most important challenges facing the industry are a pressing need to

reduce CO emissions and improve energy efficiency2

1.0 INTRODUTION

Concrete is a material that quite literally holds our cities together. From homes and

apartment buildings to bridges, viaducts, and sidewalks, this ubiquitous gray

material's importance to modern urban life is undeniable. Cement has excellent

binding property but its production requires large amount of energy which

contributes for pollution and global warming. The process of cement production

starts from mining for raw materials, crushing, blending and heating these 0materials at high temperature of 1500 C and finally creating cement from heated

materials. All the process involved in manufacturing of cement requires large

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Fig 1: Cement Consumption in India

Fig 2: World Cement Manufacturing, 2018

amount of energy, it involves huge costs, contributes to increase in CO emissions 2

and other greenhouse gases. The production of cement contributes to 7% of the

emissions of greenhouse gases and it is likely to double by the year 2014. The

following chart illustrates the estimation of cement production globally.

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Fig 3: Global CO Emission2

2.0 CONCRETE WITHOUT CEMENT - A GREEN ALTERNATIVE FLY ASH

Concrete without cement is possible with the use of fly ash as an alternate for

cement. It matches both the chemical and physical properties of cement. Thus it

has the ability to replace cement completely. The word “concrete” defines as the

bonding between aggregates, cement and water. Concrete is the most common

material used for construction due to its properties such as strength, durability and

easy availability. But cement is commonly and necessary material used in

preparation of concrete. As the demand for more and more infrastructures is

increasing day by day, the quantity of cement requirements is also increasing. With

this, the control the emissions of greenhouse gases cannot be reduced to prevent

global warming.

Fly ash is the by product obtained in the combustion of coal to generate electricity.

It is a waste product and has no other use in power plants. Typically fly ash is

replaced by 25% of Portland cement in concrete to get good strength and durability.

The property of flyash produced depends on type of coal being used in power

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plants, nature of combustion process. And the flyash properties suitable for use in

cement can be used for concrete construction.

Fig 4: Fly Ash

Fly ash concrete attains its ultimate strength quickly ,can be used for

manufacturing precast members.

Fly ash concrete does not generate any deleterious alkali-aggregate reaction

even in the presence of high alkalinity.

Fly ash concrete has very low creep and shrinkage. Fly ash concrete can

withstand heat and cold better than cement concrete.

Fly ash concrete cost analysis shows that it is economic than cement

concrete.

Research at various places in the world has found that concrete in which cement

was replaced with flyash, the concrete without cement offered exceptional

performance in short term and long term strength of concrete and its workability

relative to use of ordinary Portland cement concrete.

3.0 GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE - A CHEPER AND GREENER ALTERNATE TO

CEMENT

'Geopolymer cement concretes' (GPCC) are Inorganic polymer composites, which

are prospective concretes with the potential to form a substantial element of an

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environmentally sustainable construction by replacing/supplementing the

conventional concretes. GPCC have high strength, with good resistance to chloride

penetration, acid attack, etc. These are commonly formed by alkali activation of

industrial aluminosilicate waste materials such as FA and GGBS, and have a very

small Greenhouse footprint when compared to traditional concretes.

The term 'geopolymer' was first introduced by Davidovits in 1978 to describe a family of

mineral binders with chemical composition similar to zeolites but with an amorphous

microstructure. Unlike ordinary Portland/pozzolanic cements, geopolymers do not

form calcium- silicate-hydrates (CSHs) for matrix formation and strength, but utilise the

polycondensation of silica and alumina precursors to attain structural strength. Two

main constituents of geopolymers are: source materials and alkaline liquids. The

source materials on alumino-silicate should be rich in silicon (Si) and aluminium (Al).

They could be by-product materials such as fly ash, silica fume, slag, rice-husk ash,

red mud, etc. Geopolymers are also unique in comparison to other aluminosilicate

materials (e.g. aluminosilicate gels, glasses, and zeolites). The concentration of solids

in geopolymerisation is higher than in aluminosilicate gel or zeolite synthesi

Fig 5: Way of preparation of Geopolymer

3.1 Composition of Geopolymer Cement Concrete Mixes

Following materials are generally used to produce GPCCs:

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I. Fly ash,

ii. GGBS,

iii. Fine aggregates and

iv. Coarse aggregates

v. Catalytic liquid system (CLS): It is an alkaline activator solution (AAS) for

GPCC. It is a combination of solutions of alkali silicates and hydroxides,

besides distilled water. The role of AAS is to activate the geopolymeric source

materials (containing Si and Al) such as fly ash and GGBS.

GPCCs are good candidates materials of constructions from both strength and

durability considerations. Geopolymer concrete shows significant potential to be a

material for the future; because it is not only environmentally friendly but also

possesses excellent mechanical properties. Because of lower internal energy

(almost 20% to 30 % less) and lower CO emission contents of ingredients of 2

geopolymer based composites compared to those of conventional Portland cement

concretes, the new composites can be considered to be more eco-friendly and

hence their utility in practical applications needs to be developed and encouraged.

4.0 GREEN ALTERNATIVES TO CONCRETE

4.1 Ferrock and Ashcrete

As with Hempcrete and Timbercrete, Ferrock and Ashcrete use alternative

components – this time industrial waste. Ferrock contains steel dust, making it

stronger than traditional concrete and able to absorb and trap CO2 in its drying

process. Ashcrete uses fly ash, a by-product of burning coal, enabling recycled

material to form 97% of traditional components.

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4.2 Mycelium

Why not grow your own concrete-like material? Mycelium is a fully natural material

made from the root structure of fungi. It can be encouraged to grow in certain shaped

molds and once dried it is extremely light.

4.3 Hempcrete and Timbercrete

Another approach to 'greening' concrete is to substitute cement for more natural

materials. Hempcrete uses the inner fibres of the ever-versatile hemp plant, a fast-

growing renewable material. Whereas Timbercrete uses a mixture of industrial waste

sawdust and concrete. Both materials are far lighter than traditional concrete, leading

to reduced transportation costs.

5.0 GIGACRETE: AN ALTERNATIVE TO CONCRETE

Gigacrete, which has no portland cement but a proprietary non-toxic binder made from

a different cementitious binder consisting of commonly found nontoxic elements

available from many locations throughout the world. The fillers include waste bottom

ash from coal fired power generation stations, not just the marketable fly ash currently

used in Portland-based concrete. Other potential filler materials that could be

implemented include waste paper, recycled cardboard, recycled plastics, recycled

polystyrene, agricultural waste fibers, and paper sludge. All of the above materials

become fireproof when mixed with the Gigacrete binder and can be made very

lightweight with strengths close to, and even exceeding, traditional concrete. The new

composites have virtually no shrinking or cracking like concrete and can be demolded

within eight hours. The stuff is light- this guy looks tough but he couldn't lift a piece of

concrete that size. Several products can be made with recycled waste material such as

bottom ash, fly ash, sludge, or dredged materials. Usage of such waste materials

reduces the amount of these by products going to landfills or other waste storage sites.

Less carbon dioxide (CO ) emissions are produced from the manufacture of the 2

GigaCrete cement binder than compared to the manufacture of Portland cement.

6.0 POZZOLANAS - AN ALTERNATIVE PRODUCT

Pozzolanas are materials which, although not cementitious in themselves, will

combine chemically with lime in the presence of water to form a strong cementing

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material. They include: Volcanic ash Power station fly ash (usually known as pfa)

Burnt clays Ash from some burnt plant materials Silicious earths (such as diatomite)

Materials not already in a fine powdered form must be ground, and some require

calcining at around 600–750°C to optimize their pozzolanic properties. Pozzolanas

can be mixed with lime and/or Portland cement and can improve quality and reduce

costs of concretes made from both materials. In some countries (e.g. India and

Kenya), pozzolanas are mixed with Portland cement and sold as blended cement,

which in many respects is similar to Portland cement. In other countries (e.g. Cuba)

lime/pozzolana/Portland cement blends are sold as an alternative to Portland cement.

Lime-pozzolana cement by itself can make an excellent cementing material for low-

rise construction or mass concrete and in some countries (e.g. Indonesia) is still

produced extensively. Pozzolanas can also be mixed with lime and/or Portland cement

at the construction site but care must be taken to ensure the pozzolana is of a

consistent quality and that the materials are thoroughly mixed.

7.0 GYPSUM PLASTER

Gypsum is a not an uncommon mineral, and needs only a low temperature, of around

150°C, to convert it into a very useful binding material, known as hemi-hydrate or

plaster of Paris. On its own, plaster of Paris sets very rapidly when mixed with water. To

give time for it to be applied, around 5% of lime and 0.8% of a retarding material (such

as the keratin glue-like extracts from boiling fish bones or animal hoof and horn) are

added to the plaster. Retarded plaster of Paris can be used on its own or mixed with up

to three parts of clean, sharp sand. Hydrated lime can be added to increase its strength

and water resistance. Gypsum plasters can be reinforced with various fibrous

materials from reeds to chopped glass fibres. Gypsum plaster is not wholly resistant to

moist conditions and so is normally used internally, except in the drier Mediterranean

and Middle Eastern countries where it has traditionally been used as an external

render.

Other alternative binders

Sulphur is used as an alternative binder in the Gulf region, where a million tonnes a

year comes from natural gas plants in the United Arab Emirates. In some other

locations, such as St Lucia, sulphur that accumulates around the vents of volcanic

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fumaroles is utilized. A mixture of 15–25% molten sulphur, heated to around 130°C

with 5% of organic additive, and 75–85% sand or other mineral aggregates which have

previously been heated to 160–170°C, can be cast and de-moulded in only about five

minutes. The additive is mainly used to impart durability. Sulphur concrete has

applications which either exploit its quick curing and corrosion resistance or in

situations where Portland cement concrete is expensive, unavailable or, for example in

freezing conditions, impracticable. Earth mixed with water to form mud has been, and

continues to be, used over much of the world as a binding material. It develops quite a

strong adhesion to fired clay brick and sun dried mud brick masonry and is satisfactory

provided the mud mortar is protected from rainwater. A useful practice is to use mud

mortar in the internal parts of the wall and do the external pointing in a cement or lime-

based mortar. The best soils for building purposes contain both sands and clays and

therefore it may be necessary to mix two different soils to obtain good results. Mud

mortars have, traditionally, been improved by the addition of organic matter such as

straw and cow dung. A number of other alternative binders have been used in a

number of applications, which generally relate to soil stabilisation, waterproofing, or

the application of a waterproofing or wear resistant coating to vulnerable earth based

constructions. Such binders include tars and bitumens (as by-products from petro-

chemical industries), sodium silicate (produced from the heat activated reaction

between silica and sodium hydroxide), casein (milk whey), oils and fats, molasses, and

certain locally specific plant-based materials such as gum arabic, other specific resins

and the sap, latexes and juices from specific trees and other plants.

8.0 CONCLUSION

We're surrounded by concrete; it's in our buildings, our roads, our tunnels, and

runways. In fact, we produce around 10 billion tonnes of concrete every year, that's

more than a tonne each for every person on earth. Alternative cements are not capable

of replacing Portland cement totally, but they can be used in the many construction

applications where they have advantages. These are as mortars, renders and non-

structural concretes. Alternative cements are not normally considered suitable for

structural applications such as reinforced concrete beams and columns.In order to

ensure sustainable, cost-effective but still profitable profitable cement production in

the second decade of the 21st century, the industry needs to change. The two most

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important challenges facing the industry are a pressing need to reduce CO 2

emissions and improve energy efficiency. Some of the remedies have been outlined

in this paper, but more research is needed. The most effective methods of producing

green, environmentally and economically sustainable cements of the highest quality

are (a) the use of alternative, low carbon fuels and (b) development of novel cement

formulations and production methods.

Acknowledgement

We would like to express our sincere thanks to Mr.P.Balamadeswaran (Assistant

Professor), Department of Mining Engineering, College of Engineering Guindy,

Anna University, Chennai -25.

References

http://www.treehugger.com>Design>Green Architecture

https://www.worldbuild365.com/news/x4xuh5hrb/building-architecture/5-

sustainable-alternatives-to-carbon-intensive-concrete

h t tps : / / know ledgepo in t . o rg /up f i l es /14278936733462015 .pd f

http://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/concrete-cement-substitutes/

https://ceramics.org/ceramic-tech-today/geopolymer-a-cheaper-greener-

alternative-for-cement-2

https://theconstructor.org/concrete/green-concrete-without-cement-flyash

alternative/10667/

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212609013000071

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288454973_review_on_partial_re

pacement_of_cement_in_concrete

Mohammed S.Imbabi., Collette Carrigan., SeanMcKenna.(2012), “Trends an

developments in green cement and concrete technology”, International

Journal of Sustainable Built Environment, Volume 1, Issue 2, Pages 194-216

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MINING , WATER POLLUTION SOME CONTROL MEASURES

B.Arunachalam, Manager VT Center (retd.)

Some facts

A cup of tea needs 30ltrs of water.

Coca-Cola was the first company in the world that fully explored the actual water footprint of

one of its products. They discovered that a 0.5-litre PET bottle of Coke has a water footprint

between 36 and 150 litres of water, depending on the source and production circumstances of

the sugar

The average water footprint of printed cotton (for example a pair of jeans weighing 1

kilogram) is 11000 liters per kilogram. Thus, when we have a shirt with a weight of 250 gram,

this shirt costs 2700 liters'. Of this total water volume, 45% is irrigation water consumed

(evaporated) by the cotton plant; 41% is rainwater evaporated from the cotton field during

the growing period; and 14% is water required to dilute the wastewater flows that result from

the use of fertilizers in the field and the use of chemicals in the textile industry

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Water means only H O and anything else in it is pollution. Water is a commodity 2

that many feel is inexhaustible.. Effort should be not to add and in case in the

process stream something gets added, devise ways and means to remove such

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pollutant from water. If possible make it as H O only or make it fit for reuse where 2

such pollutant can be tolerated .

Wherever and whenever the word pollution is uttered, fingers start pointing towards

mining community. The fact is mining industry does more good than any other

industry. Once mining is completed the area is taken up for revegetation, reclamation

etc. Now through web sites we have easy access for aerial view of mines, nearby

areas and areas slightly further away. This will prove beyond doubt, that but for the

excavated areas & waste dumps if any, other areas will be greener than the

surroundings slightly far away. Worked out/ non working areas excavations will be

water logged. Where possible waste dumps are planted with local species. Water so

collected amongst others, charges the ground water table. Industries continuously

meet its water requirement from external sources whereas mining in many cases

draws water from pits excavated by it for processing such ore.

Chennai is now looking forward to using the water collected in the old pits to meet its

ever growing demand and continuous failure of monsoon closer to Chennai.

Statistics show that water storage in the year 2018 in Chennai lakes is of the

order of 15% of full capacity .The monsoon has been very poor as far as

Chennai is concerned.

Water is a basic necessity for living beings. Lack of water drives wild animals to

inhabited areas resulting in man animal conflicts. Man usually is the winner and

animals getting extinct.

World Bank report:- Water will turn out to be the world's most precious

resource soon. Half of the world's population will face acute water shortage by

2030. In the next two decades, all the major Indian cities will run dry,

By 2050, there will be 2.5 billion more people on the planet and a good majority

will be born in nations already facing a terrible water shortage.. Water

shortage has led to a growing number of conflicts across the country

The position today

Water.org, an NGO gives some terrifying water facts (globally):

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3.575 million people die each year from water-related diseases

Every 15 seconds, a child dies from a water-related disease.

43% of water-related deaths are due to diarrhoea.

84% of water-related deaths are in children ages 0 - 14.

98% of water-related deaths occur in the developing world.

884 million people, lack access to safe water supplies, approximately one in

eight people.

The water and sanitation crisis claims more lives through disease than any

war claims through guns.

At any given time, half of the world's hospital beds are occupied by patients

suffering from a water-related disease.

Less than 1% of the world's fresh water (or about 0.007% of all water on earth)

is readily accessible for direct human use

Over-usage of ground water due to the non availability of sufficient water for

irrigation has led to a tremendous decrease in the level of ground water

Earlier we had wells of say 10-15 mtrs deep. This was catering to the needs in

villages. Now wells mostly are dry and we totally depend upon bore wells. Day by day

the depth of such bore wells has increased.

Potable water was available free; now we buy it in cans of 25 ltrs, one litre etc. still we

are not sure of its purity. We also have membrane , Reverse osmosis filters that

recovers 40 to 50% water and balance goes as waste

Nearly all limestone mines collect rain water. Quantity so collected meets their need

not only for processing of limestone to cement but also to meet requirement of the

captive power plant.

The greenery around is quite high. A cement plant in the district of Adilabad is

known to have brought down the maximum temperature in their residential 0 area by 2 less than that of villages in its vicinity

2.0 WATER FOOT PRINT

The water foot print of a commodity is the total volume of fresh water used-that is

consumed or polluted – to produce the commodity, measured over the entire

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production chain. Consumers usually are not aware of the connection between

water scarcity in the society and the water foot prints. They are unlikely to hold

themselves responsible for the plight of those who lack access to water. Fresh water

allocation remains an exercise in politics.

Water footprint makes a link between consumption of water in one place and

impacts on the water systems elsewhere. A water footprint is a way of assessing

potential environmental impacts related to water. The water footprint is an indicator

of water use that looks at both direct and indirect water use of a consumer or

producer. This can be calculated for a process, a product, a consumer, group of

consumers or a producer

3.0 ROLE MINING INDUSTRY

3.1 Impacts on Water due to Mining

1) Factors affecting the water footprint of a mining operation.Water quantity

a. Climatic conditions (e.g. temperature, humidity > affect evaporation

rates)

b. Primary water source: surface water, ground water or saline water.

c. Mine site water management regime (e.g. allowable discharges;

treatment)

d. Surrounding communities? land uses, and/or industries.

e. Whether the mine is above or below the water table.

f. Surrounding hydro-geological conditions (e.g. high permeability

aquifers; artesian groundwater de-pressuration issues

g. Water quality Erosion and sedimentation

2) Water quality impacts of mining operations

3.2 Mining & Water Risk

Surplus water is as much a risk as scarcity for a mining company. (Egs Mines in Goa

& Neyveli Lignite). It is influenced in large part by the quality of ores. Because of the

importance of local conditions, the water footprint of mining varies considerably

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between sites. Water in few assists in destabilizing the slope and endangers

operations.

3.3 Water Footprint & Mining: - Most mines understand their water balance. Water

Footprint can contribute to understanding where water is consumed in production

and identify where best to invest in water saving technology or process. Water

Footprint assessment helps with understanding the sustainability t within the context

of the local water resources (impact). Mining companies should plan for future water

needs.

3.4 Pollution sources in opencast mining

Mining results as one source of pollution to water. We need to take measures to

minimize if not totally eliminate. Some causes and effects are

3.4.1 Causes for pollution

Open cast mines are susceptible to the vagaries of monsoon. Entire mining

area remains open to sky . When the mining activity starts, the upper plateau and

slopes of hill form into benches and waste dumps. Part of hill covers mine working

and part remains intact Waste unloaded from mountaintop without protection

results in flowing down into valleys, burying streams altogether.

When run-off water enters into mine working area and runs on dump slopes, it carries

silt material besides causing soil erosion. Run-off water crosses entire hilly area

before reaching nearest stream , lake, agricultural land etc. Proper soil conservation

measures or control structures are necessary to prevent its entry into the stream or

river.

When trees are cut," the root systems that previously held soil in place die and

sediment is free to run off into nearby streams, rivers, and lakes. This not only has

serious effects on plant and animal biodiversity in the forest, but also increases the

amount of sediment running off the land into nearby bodies of water Dumping of too

wet materials like beneficiation plant tailings result non reversible land degradation

Dewatering of pits in monsoon and discharging direct without allowing the sediments

to settle often results in degradation of land

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The water pumped either directly from the mine or from specially constructed bore

holes, may be highly mineralised and its usual characteristics include low pH and

high levels of iron,. Disposal of this mine drainage effluent to surface water or

groundwater can cause serious impacts on water quality for all uses.

Also dewatering brings down the water table level in neighboring areas in summer

.Rise in Water level inside the pit during monsoon leads to water turbidity in nearby

wells, bore wells etc.

The nature of the pollution depends on the materials being excavated and

extracted...

Improper handling of run-off water or negligence attending the proper disposal works

may result the following draw backs.

3.4.2.1 Effects of pollution on surface

Inundation of pit or part there of leading to over flow to natural stream

Siltation along the nullah reducing flow quantity, increase in velocity and

erosion/breach of bunds.

Reduction in holding capacity of lake dam etc due to siltation

Porosity reduction due siltation in such water collecting areas leading

reduction in Ground water recharging

Contamination of water with mineral and wastes.

Dump erosion and dump side

Soil degradation dispute with the land owners if runoff water carries waste

material and agricultural land looses productivity.

Gully formation and erosion

Un healthy conditions to the surrounding flora and fauna.

Wastage of funds, time, manpower etc. for re-planning the disposal work.

3.4.2.2 Effects of pollution on Ground water table

Contamination of ground waters, on the other hand, tends to occur gradually

because contaminants percolate downward through the soil at slow rates,

where the ground serves as Mother Nature's filter. However, contaminants

can also reach ground waters rather quickly through drainage entering

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fractured rock formations or sinkholes in Karst areas. (Karst usually occurs

in limestone areas and is characterized by caves, openings, and sinkholes.)

Ground water is more sensitive to contamination in these areas because

runoff may pass directly into the subsurface with little if any infiltration

through the soil. Contamination of ground waters is less visible than that of

surface waters, and, given that sampling and clean up is quite difficult and

expensive, prevention of contamination is the most effective way of

protecting them.

3.5 Control measures for pollution

1. Avoid: do not undertake water-using activities if reasonable alternatives are available

2. Reduce: undertake what is reasonably possible to reduce the existing water footprint

3. To reduce the effects on the environment, adopt a zero discharge policy wherever possible and establish a reliable water balance at the operational site.

4. Discharge points should be identified and infrastructure improved to contain contaminated runoff.

5. Mines should also adopt a standard for the lining of waste facilities and channels.

6. Ground-water areas should be identified and geological contacts that could be the source for mine water to percolate should be sealed.

7. Mines should also understand contaminants

8. Companies should improve mine-water recycling opportunities.

9. Mining companies should investigate opportunities regarding access to external sources of grey water by collaborating, coordinating and communicating with stakeholders and communities.

3.6 How to go about:-.

Firstly, determine their water footprint, including the water sources and identify the

uses and effects of the footprint

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Step two include conducting a water-use and effect-risk assessment and the

prioritization of identified risks.

Establish the business case by identifying risk- and cost-reduction opportunities and

the value of creating opportunities.

clarify business roles and responsibilities and, lastly, monitoring and evaluating

progress.

3.7 How to reduce pollution load?

3.7.1 Trapping

Physically trap runoff until contaminants settle out or are filtered through the

underlying soils. The basic mechanisms for constituent removal are gravity settling,

infiltration of soluble nutrients through soil or filters, or biological and chemical

processes.

source control practices such as street sweeping, land use planning, vegetated

buffer areas, and fertilizer application controls.

3.7.2 Infiltration technologies

Make use of the physical, chemical, and biological interactions between soil and

water to filter out sediments and other contaminants from highway runoff. As the

runoff percolates into the ground, contaminant particles are trapped within the soil,

and the resulting "treated" runoff makes its way to the ground water.

3.7.3 Detention and retention ponds,

Wet or dry, provide both water quantity and water quality control since they store

runoff temporarily and settle or retain suspended solids and other runoff

contaminants. Detention ponds are known to be highly effective in the removal of

nutrients and heavy metals.

3.7.4 Drainages on Benches

As a general practice all benches should slope 1in 50 longitudinally to ensure easy

flow lateral slope of 1in 25 is to be made . In case soft to medium hard strata such

lateral slope can be made prior to monsoon. Such section would act as drainage

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rdand the sloping will be away from face for 1/3 of bench width. Balance 2/3 the slope

would be from bench edge to high wall. This would ensure obstruction free flow for

water

In case of floor of permeable mass below such drains will be of semi circular in shape

and to be lined longish synthetic sheets suitably anchored at intervals. Additional

care would need to be taken in contacts joints etc as otherwise water may percolate

and result in slope failure

3.7.5 Haul roads

Pools of water present should be filled with material. Such small water pools if not

taken care would increase in size by the movement of trucks and such water can

percolate through and trigger sliding of bench. Also if the vehicle wheels go inside

such pools it can result in failure of brakes or dragging of wheels

3.7.6 Premonsoon field activities

1. Preparation of garland drains as well as individual bench drains

2. Removal loose material from pit top and benches

3. Blocking of approach to non active benches and also arresting entry of water

4. Preparation and coursing of water in bench and from one bench to the

bench below

5. In case of deeper mines plan sumps at different levels

6. Coursing out water away from dumps

7. Building/repairs of retaining walls below the dump

8. Building/ repairs of check dams, gully plugs

9. Covering completed dumps with bio degradable coir mats

10. In case of benches which are liable to wash out (Egs. siliceous clay) covering

with plastic sheets where necessary

3.7.7 Responsibilities of top and middle management

1. Financial budgeting

2. Prioritising jobs to be executed needs to be worked

3. Identification of the areas or benches that would be active in operation during monsoon

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4. Estimating quantity of water to be pumped and organize pumps , pipe lines,

power and routing of pipe line etc.,

5. Allocating of men and machine

6. Assessing stores inventory required for execution,

7. Assessing stores to meet emergency including spares

8. Preparing of plantation schedule

9. Monitoring of weather conditions and collection of data on a regular base for

future planning.

4.0. SUMMARY

Many organizations though not mandatory go in for self regulation by adopting to

EMS 14000. Now we have ISO 14046 on water foot print .Limestone mines in general

collect and meet their needs for water, a few even meet their power needs . In many

locations the landscape left out after mining is better than the virgin ground few

kilometers away. Back filling is yet another step taken up by miners to bring the land

back to near original shapes .

5.0 CONCLUSION

Current challenges for mining companies include increased water demand and a

consistent increase in direct-and-indirect water-related costs. Public expectations

related to responsible water usage are increasing. Future challenges include the

coordination of water governance, such as water allocation and permitting. "Water

allocation to different users is a significant issue and one that deserves further

exploration. Other future challenges may include: sharing information for planning

and management, increased awareness of water values and the consideration of

water crises in the supply chain. technology, innovation, shared responsibility and a

political will to resolve issues are critical elements for success. Mines should also

consider the link between water, energy and climate change.

Unlike many other industries miners behave responsibly. Dust is suppressed, rain

water is collected used and recycled. Rather residential areas made for mine workers

are in much better a shape than the villages or towns'. Water management in villages

is a word mostly not known.

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FILTERATION GALLERY AND FILTERED WATER

---ooo---

References

Arunachalam.B “Erosion and Sediment Control the need of the hour” Paper

presented at the Mining Engineers Association Meeting at Hospet in Aug 2009

Arunachalam.B “Controlling of pollution to water in opencast mines” paper

presented at the International Seminar on Environment NITK Surathkal Aug 2010

Arunachalam.B “Water Water every where” , Paper published in the souvenir of

Mines Environment and Mineral Conservation week , Hyderabad --2011

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGNCE IN MINING INDUSTRY FOR BETTER

ENVIRONMENT!Sabareesan Periasamy*

*II year B.E Mining Engineering Student, Department of Mining Engineering,

CEG Campus, Anna University, Chennai – 25.

INTRODUCTION

What is Artificial Intelligence?

The term Artificial Intelligence (AI) was coined by Dr. John McCarthy in the year

1955. He defined AI as “the science and engineering of making intelligent machines.”

Artificial Intelligence is a system which is constantly evolving and self-learning. AI

receives data and information from various sensors which it constantly stores,

analyses and interprets for 'self-learning'. The AI system then uses the newly

obtained knowledge to take decisions on various processes and monitors the effect

on the processes due to the decisions which were taken by it. The effects of the

decisions are also stored, analyzed and interpreted, and are incorporated as a part

of the self-learning process.

As the time passes, the AI has a wider knowledge on the various scenarios which

may present themselves in the various processes. This enables it to take decisions

which are most befitting for the situation presented to the AI, resulting in better

efficiency.

Artificial Intelligence is used conjointly with Automation and Internet of Things(IoT).

IoT helps the AI system to communicate with other AI systems and process control

systems, which may or may not be part of the same process. IoT also helps in remote

controlling of Automation present in the chain of processes. Artificial Intelligence,

Automation and Internet of Things have to work together to provide the best possible

solutions for issues presented to it and reduce the chances of similar issues cropping

up based on the acquired knowledge by taking preventive measures.

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The Mining Industry

The major processes which are involved in today's mining industry are:

Prospecting and Exploratio

Planning

Drilling & Blasting

Excavation

Transportation

Storage

Mineral Processing

Auxiliary/Support Operations

Mine Closing and Land Reclamation

The above processes form the major part of mining operations, excluding the initial

development and final closure processes. These processes are carried out

constantly over a major period of the mine's life.

OVERVIEW ON APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN INDIAN

MINING INDUSTRY

The Indian Mining Industry is majorly dependent on outdated machineries and

unskilled laborers. It is a more Labor Intensive industry than Capital Intensive.

However, with the rising age of technology and reducing cost of computerization, it

will be cheaper and result in higher efficiency if human labors are replaced with AI

computer controlled automated machineries.

Advantages of implementing AI controlled Machines:

High Productivit

Better Extraction Rates

Higher Precision and Accuracy of Operations

Lower Unskilled Manpower Requirement

Lesser Risk of Accidents

Reduce or Eliminates Human Errors

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Disadvantages of implementing AI controlled Machines:

Higher Capital Costs

More Skilled Labor required for Remote Monitoring and Operations

Higher Unemployment Rate

VARIOUS APPLICATION SCENARIOS

Prospecting &Exploration and Planning

The initial stage of any Mine begins with prospecting and exploration of minerals.

Ground samples are taken and analyzed for different characteristics. The results

from this process aids in deciding if mining is technically feasible; if yes, then

economically viable or not.

With the help of AI, it is possible to analyze the results from the ground sample

testing. The AI can be used to form a possible 3-dimensional (3D) model of the

rock/ore formation.

The AI can also be used for choosing

Best method of mining

Plan of the mine

Life of mine

Types of machinery to be used,

The projected running cost etc.

Drilling and Blasting

With the existing 3D model of a mine, the AI can decide the best possible dimensions

and arrangement of drill hole, along with the type and amount of explosives required

for each blast hole to ensure proper and uniform fragmentation.

The AI can use the photographs of the blast and along with software like WIPFrag, it

can analyze the blast and self-learn from it to design upcoming blasts to produce

better fragmentation.

Excavation

Excavation is the process of removing the mineral/ore from the ground. Excavation

is carried out majorly by machines, except a few small scale mines.

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By implementing AI and Automation in the machinery, it is possible to operate the

machines:

At a consistent pace with lesser stoppage time

Higher precision and accuracy of excavation

This results in better extraction ratio compared to manually controlled/operated

machines.

Transportation

With the rising increasing trend of driverless vehicles, transportation of minerals and

ores can be made transported with the help of automated trucks/ wagons/

conveyors. This increases the factor of safety and requires lesser manpower to

monitor the transportation process.

Process Flow Management

The extracted minerals/ores/rocks/refuse has to be transported to various locations

such as the processing plant, bunker, storage ground, dump etc. The AI should take

into consideration:

Mineral requirements of processing plant

Availability of storage/dumping area

Total excavation capacity

Total transportation capacity

After considering the above points, excavation rates and transportation cycle should

be fixed for the specific period of time. The system should also be able to provide

buffer for sudden change in

Demands of the mineral processing plant

Demands of the mineral processing plant

Availability of storage/dumping space

Operating capacity of machinery(maintenance works carried out)

Transportation capacity

Environmental conditions

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Extraction Rate

The AI will be able to predict the demand or requirement of the ore for a specific time

frame based on the market demand, processing plant requirements etc.

Based on the predicted requirement of ore, the AI can decide the rate of extraction

of ore and deploy men and machinery in an effective manner.

Maintenance

Maintenance of machinery is carried out routinely. However, it is not always

possible for humans to predict when a specific part might fail. Unexpected failure of

parts can result in longer stoppage time of the machine, thus reducing its efficiency.

If the machine is to be operated with the help of AI and Automation, it is possible to

predict the possible failures of the different parts before it actually occurs. This

method of predicting a failure before it occurs is done by:

Analyzing and learning from the previous failures of the same part

Studying the conditions the part has been subjected to during operation

Changes in operational efficiency of that part

Changes in machine working characteristics/efficiency

Comparing with lives of similar parts used before

By predicting the failure of a part before it occurs, it is possible to carry out

preventive maintenance. This also prevents damage to other parts of the

machinery if failure of a part occurs during the operation of the machine.

CONCLUSION

The Forbes Magazine recently published an article on AI in the Mining Industry. thThey have termed it as the “4 Industrial Revolution”. Mining giants like Rio Tinto

have already began the process of implementing automation and AI long back. Rio

Tinto has announced that as a result of implementing automation in certain

processes, there hasbeen an increase in productivity by approximately 10%.

AI and Automation not only improves productivity but also reduces the safety risks

of the workers and the damage to the environment. This will help to change the

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views of mining industry as a dark one and instead provide a clean image to the

society as mining industry being as safe as any other white collar industry and as an

environment cautious industry.

There is still a long time for the Mining Industry to be completely autonomous and

controlled by AI. However, if such a situation arises where it is possible to carry out

mining activity without human intervention, then it would be possible to start mining in

the ocean bed or even extra terrestrially!

Acknowledgement

I would like to express my sincere thanks to Mr.P.Balamadeswaran, Assistant

Professor, Department of Mining Engineering, College of Engineering Guindy, Anna

University, Chennai-25 for his motivation and inspiration while preparing this article.

******

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ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS.T.RAMAN.

AGM GEOLOGY.THE RAMCOCEMENTS LTD,ALATHIYUR .

INTRODUCTION

The Word Environment is derived from the French Word “ Environ” which means “

Surrounding ”.Our surrounding includes biotic factors like human beings ,Plants,

animals ,microbes,etc and factors such as light ,air, water, soil , etc.

Environment is a complex of many variables, which surrounds man as well as the

Living organisms. Environment includes Water, Air, Land and the

interrelationships which exits among and between water, air and land and human

beings and other living creatures such as plants ,animals and Microorganisms. The

Environment consists of an inseparable whole system constituted by physical,

Chemical, Biological, Social, and Cultural elements, which are interlinked

individually and collectively in myriad ways.

The Natural environment consist of Four interlinking systems namely , the

atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere and biosphere. The Four systems are

in constant change and such change are affected by human activities and Vice

versa.

Hydrosphere:-

Hydrosphere includes all water bodies such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and

oceans etc. Hydrosphere functions are in a cyclic nature, which is termed as

Hydrological cycle or water cycle.

Lithosphere:-

Lithosphere means the mantle of rocks constituting the earth crust. The earth is a

cold spherical solid planet of the solar system, which spins in its axis and revolves

around the sun at a certain constant distance. Lithosphere mainly, contains soil,

earth rocks, mountain etc. Lithosphere is divided in to three layers –crusts, mantle

and core( outer and inner)

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Atmosphere:-

The earth is enveloped by a cover of Air which is known as Atmosphere. Atmosphere

is a thin layer which contains gases like oxygen, carbon dioxideetc which protects

the solid earth and human beings from the harmfulradiations of the Sun. There are

five concentric layers with in the atmosphere, which can be differentiated on the

basis of temperature and each layer has its own characteristics. These include the

troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere and the

exosphere.

Biosphere:-

It is otherwise known as the Life Layer,it refers to all organisms on the earth's surface

and their interaction with water and air. It consists ofplants ,animals and micro-

organisms, ranging from the tiniest microscopic organism to the largest whales in the

sea. Biology is concerned with how millions of species of animals ,plants and other

organisms grow, feed, move, reproduce and evolve over long periods of time in

different environments. The richness of biosphere depends upon a number of factors

like rainfall , temperature, geographical reference etc. Apart from the physical

environmental factors , the man made environment includes human groups, the

material infrastructure built by man, the production relationships, and institutional

systems that he has devised.

In recent days due to Technology improvement and Life style change, The Earth

has facing the following Environmental Concerns which are frequently addressed

by Media , Public and Scientific Communities .

1)Water pollution.2) Air Pollution.3) Land degradation. 4)Loss of Tropical Rain

Forest. 5)Wildlife Conservation and Species.6)Climate change/ Global

Warming.7)Carbon Foot print .8)Dam and their impact on the Environment . 9)Eco

System destruction.10)Energy Conservation.11)Fishing and its effect on Marine Eco

system.12)Natura l d isasters .13)Over Populat ions.14)Susta inable

communities.15)Toxins.

Among the above said Environmental Concerns , few important issues are

discussed briefly.

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WATER POLLUTION

Types of water pollution :

There are many types of water pollution because, water comes from many sources

1.Nutrients Pollution. Some waste water , Fertilizers and Sewage contain high level of

nutrients. If they end up in waterbodies ,they encourage algae and weed growth in the

water. This will make the water undrinkable, and even clog filters. Two much algae will

also use up all the oxygen in the water and other water organisms in the water will die out

of oxygen starvation.

2.Surface water Pollution : Surface water includes natural water found on the earth's

surface like rivers, lakes, lagoons and oceans. Hazardous substance coming in to

contact with this surface water, dissolving or mixing physically with the water can be

called surface water pollution.

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Oil leak from the cars and other machines have posed bigger threat and these have become

major contributors for water pollution. So, it is important to take care of cars and machines.

Oil leak from the factories are also required to be stopped after the completion of the work in

factories. These factories are required to apply all the ways for the safe disposal and

clearance of the oil.

Cleaning of drains

To prevent water pollution, the drains are required to be cleaned on a regular basis. In the

rural areas, pucca drains are required to be made, because the water is going everywhere in

a chaotic manner; it finally reaches the rivers and canals with tons of garbage and pollutants.

We should develop a technology to keep the drains away from the water sources.

Recycling and Reuse of water

Re-cycling and re-use are other ways to prevent water pollution which can improve the

availability of fresh water. The use of low quality water, such as treated wastewater in the

industries and for washing utensils and gardening makes the fresh water less contaminated.

Such water can also be used for washing vehicles and we should use only good quality water

for drinking purposes. Currently, water recycling is being only in a limited manner. So, we will

have to stress more on proper recycling and reuse of water to prevent water pollution.

Preventing soil erosion

To prevent water from getting polluted, we are also required to prevent soil erosion. If there is

soil conservation, we can stop water pollution up to some extent. We will have to plant more

trees to stop soil erosion. We must adopt such methods which can cultivate the soil and

improve the health of the environment.

Making Swachh Bharat Abhiyan a success

There is need to implement Swachh Bharat Abhiyan in totality and make India open

defecation free. Presently, the problem of open defecation and the dumping of garbage in

public places still continue. When it rains, all the dirt, garbage and excreta get into streams or

ponds, polluting water sources. Otherwise too, people themselves flow waste materials into

rivers or ponds in the absence of proper drainage system. Ponds and rivers are also used for

bathing and washing purposes due to which huge quantity of dirt and pollutants get

accumulated into the water bodies. Moreover, due to these activities, garbage, excreta,

ashes of the dead old clothes and soiled materials are discharged into rivers and even

sometimes dead bodies are also thrown into the rivers and water bodies. There are virtually

no toilets in the slum settlements located near city-dwellings, or even if there is one, it is not

able to function smoothly. This calls for practising good hygiene in the true spirit of Swachh

Bharat.

Cleaning of water ways and the beaches

Cleaning is required on a regular basis as water of the rivers, ponds and even the undwater

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has also been contaminated by humans. Even the humans have not spared the ocean

water, making it polluted. Travel through sea, growing preferences for residing near sea

shores has resulted into several small and big settlements near seas which has made the

pollution of sea water a rising concern. For their livelihood many people are selling different

contents to the tourists and they throw the residue at sea shores and thus the water of the

sea become polluted.

The temporary settlements near the sea normally do not have toilets which is why these

people defecate in the water of the ocean and the people also throw their household garbage

in ocean waters. After cleaning up their mess the ships also throw their garbage into the

water. Sometimes, accidents of the ships also takes place into the sea and thus various

chemical substances and oil get spilled over the sea water leaving long term impact on the

creatures living in water.

Due to contamination of water some organisms die immediately and make water more

polluted. The consumption of these aquatic organisms living in polluted sea water also

makes the humans go sick. Developed countries also throw their e-wastes and poisonous

garbage into the sea and thus sea water gets badly contaminated.

Need for living in harmony with nature

Man has forgotten that his existence on this Earth is because of the nature and environment.

The human negligence is also a major cause of environmental pollution. Various species

and organisms of the water naturally die due to humans bathing in the water and thus making

it polluted. Household wastes and industrial waste also add to the problem. It is time for

learning sustainable ways of living.

Adopting organic farming

The farmers should stop using various chemical fertilizers in their fields to get a bumper

harvest or spraying pesticides on their crops for this purpose. When it rains all chemicals

goes into the ponds and rivers through rain water and thus water bodies get heavily polluted.

Water pollution control methods at a glance:

We should treat the poisonous substances and discharge materials and toxic

substances coming out of the homes and factories before discharging them into the

rivers and ponds.

We should not mix petroleum substances in the water.

There are some algae and water plants available which are helpful in keeping the

water clean, they should be grown all over in the water.

Garbage in the cities and towns should be classified and thrown into the designated

dustbins only. The biodegradable garbage can be used as compost in the fields and

thus these can help in the production of the crops.

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Dead bodies should not be thrown in the river.

All cities and towns must have sewer facilities.

Water should neither be abused nor be wasted.

We should not put excreta and sewage flowing from cities and towns into water, but

dump them in garbage pits outside the city so that they turn into compost later on and

which can be used in the fields.

We should not encourage the use of materials such as plastic as it does not destroy

biologically.

We should initiate scientific experiments that can put pollutants into useful items. For

example, Roorkee-based Central Building Research Institute has successfully tried to

transform the ash from the thermal power stations into bricks.

In homes, water should be made germ-free by chlorine tablets, iodine, etc. Nowadays,

there is a variety of good quality filters available in the market that should be used.

Effective steps should be taken to outlaw dumping of wastes into a river or other water

sources.

The oxidation of organic materials should be done prior to their disposal.

To destroy bacteria in the water, chemical substances such as bleaching powder, etc

should be used.

We should not tamper with public water distribution.

Immersion of idols during religious ceremonies to be done at the appointed place only.

Do not waste even a single drop of water.

At the international level, there should be ban on nuclear tests in the ocean.

Awareness should be created in society about the risk of water pollution.

Pollutants can be converted into non toxic substances by treatment.

The presence of radioactive wastes in the water can be removed by

oxidation of ponds.

One must avoid the large ponds as sunlight combined with organic nutrients

may lead to the larger growth of bacteria which breed the waste matter.

The reclaimed polluted water can be used in making fertilizers as it is rich in

phosphorous, potassium and nitrogen. It can also be used for the irrigation

and factories purposes.

We should set more and more sewage treatment plans that play a crucial

role in the reclaimed pollutepd water.

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Laws must be enforced to ensure that the industries do treatment of wastes

before the water is discharged into the rivers and seas.

We can plant water hyacinth which is also referred as kaloli to treat the

polluted water. It deals with the biological and chemical waste. The heavy

metals are also removed by it.

Air pollution

Any additional gas, particles or odours that are introduced into the air (either by nature

or human activity) to distort this natural balance and cause harm to living things can

be called air pollution.

caused by human activities

The Earth is surrounded by a blanket of air (made up of various gases) called the

atmosphere. The atmosphere helps protect the Earth and allow life to exist. Without it,

we would be burned by the intense heat of the sun during the day or frozen by the very

low temperatures at night.

Causes

Air pollution is probably one of the most serious environmental problems

confronting our civilization today. Most often, it is

such as mining, construction, transportation, industrial work, agriculture,

smelting, etc. However, natural processes such as volcanic eruptions and wildfires

may also pollute the air, but their occurrence is rare and they usually have a local

effect, unlike human activities that are ubiquitous causes of air pollution and

contribute to the global pollution of the air every single day.

There are two types of pollutants:

Primary pollutants are those gases or particles that are pumped into the air

to make it unclean. They include carbon monoxide from automobile (cars)

exhausts and sulfur dioxide from the combustion of coal.

Secondary pollutants: When pollutants in the air mix up in a chemical reaction, they

form an even more dangerous chemical. Photochemical smog is an example of this,

and is a secondary pollutant.

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Effects of Air pollution

1. Respiratory and heart problems: The effects of Air pollution are alarming. They are

known to create several respiratory and heart conditions along with Cancer, among

other threats to the body. Several millions are known to have died due to direct or

indirect effects of Air pollution. Children in areas exposed to air pollutants are said to

commonly suffer from pneumonia and asthma.

2. Global warming: Another direct effect is the immediate alterations that the world is

witnessing due to Global warming. With increased temperatures world wide,

increase in sea levels and melting of ice from colder regions and icebergs,

displacement and loss of habitat have already signaled an impending disaster if

actions for preservation and normalization aren't undertaken soon.

3. Acid Rain: Harmful gases like nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides are released into

the atmosphere during the burning of fossil fuels. When it rains, the water droplets

combines with these air pollutants, becomes acidic and then falls on the ground in the

form of acid rain. Acid rain can cause great damage to human, animals and crops.

4. Eutrophication: Eutrophication is a condition where high amount of nitrogen

present in some pollutants gets developed on sea's surface and turns itself into algae

and and adversely affect fish, plants and animal species. The green colored algae

that is present on lakes and ponds is due to presence of this chemical only.

5. Effect on Wildlife: Just like humans, animals also face some devastating affects of

air pollution. Toxic chemicals present in the air can force wildlife species to move to

new place and change their habitat. The toxic pollutants deposit over the surface of

the water and can also affect sea animals.

6. Depletion of Ozone layer:

Like other environmental problems, Ozone depletion is one of the major

environmental threat to the Earth. Ozone is a natural gas composed of three atoms

of oxygen and its chemical symbol is O3. It is blue in colour and has a strong odour.

Normal oxygen O2 which we breathe has two oxygen atoms and is colourless and

odourless. Environmental scientist has classified O3 in to Two Good Ozone and Bad

Ozone. Good ozone occurs in upper Stratosphere which is having a layer space of 6

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to 30 miles above earth surface.

The air is full of gases reacting with eachother, even though our eyes are not able to

visualize. When UV light strikes (Oxygen) O2 molecules, they are split into two

individual O atoms — O and O. When one of the O atoms combine with O2 molecule,

ozone (O3) is created.

Even though Ozone is only a small part of the gases in this layer, it plays a vital role

because it shields us from the sun's harmful UV rays. It is called Good Ozone, for

obvious reasons—because it protects humans, life and animals on earth.

BadOzone

Bad Ozone is also known as Tropospheric Ozone, or ground level ozone. This gas

is found in the troposphere, the layer that forms the immediate atmosphere. Bad

Ozone does not exist naturally. Human actions cause chemical reactions between

oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC).

Ozone exists in earth's stratosphere and is

responsible for protecting humans from harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. Earth's ozone

layer is depleting due to the presence of chlorofluorocarbons, hydro

chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. As ozone layer will go thin, it will emit harmful

rays back on earth and can cause skin and eye related problems. UV rays also have

the capability to affect crops.

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Each time there is a reaction of chemicals such as those found in cars, power plants

and factory emissions, in the presence of sunlight (UV light), Bad Ozone is created.

Bad ozone contaminates (dirties) the air and contributes to what we typically

experience as"smog"orhaze Note that this kind of smog is different from the deadly

London winter type that killed 4000 people. Smog from bad ozone is usually in the

summer, caused by the action of sunlight on a mixture of hydrocarbons and oxides of

nitrogen.ItisknownasPhotochemicalorSummer Smog.

Solutions for Air Pollution

1.Use public mode of transportation: Encourage people to use more and more public

modes of transportation to reduce pollution. Also, try to make use of car pooling. If

you and your colleagues come from the same locality and have same timings you

can explore this option to save energy and money.

2. Conserve energy: Switch off fans and lights when you are going out. Large amount

of fossil fuels are burnt to produce electricity. You can save the environment from

degradation by reducing the amount of fossil fuels to be burned.

3. Understand the concept of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle: Do not throw away items

that are of no use to you. In-fact reuse them for some other purpose. For e.g. you can

use old jars to store cereals or pulses.

4. Emphasis on clean energy resources: : Clean energy technologies like solar, wind

and geothermal are on high these days. Governments of various countries have

been providing grants to consumers who are interested in installing solar panels for

their home. This will go a long way to curb air pollution.

Photo: Global air pollution: The purple area is the huge hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica

caused by CFC chemicals in aerosol sprays and refrigerants. Picture courtesy of of NASA on the

Commons

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5. series of innovations and experiments aimed at alternate and unconventional

options to reduce pollutants. Air Pollution is one of the larger mirrors of man's follies,

and a challenge we need to overcome to see a tomorrow.

Land pollution

When we talk about air or water pollution, the reactions garnered are stronger. This is

because we can see the effects caused by the pollutants and their extent very clearly.

It is normal human psychology to believe in what you see first hand. Our land on the

other hand is living a nightmare too. We may not be able to see the effects with clarity,

but land is being polluted and abused constantly and we are unable to calculate the

damages incurred. Land Pollution has come to become one of the serious concerns

that we collectively battle.Use energy efficient devices: CFL lights consume less

electricity as against their counterparts. They live longer, consume less electricity,

lower electricity bills and also help you to reduce pollution by consuming less energy.

Several attempts are being made world wide on a personal, industrial and

governmental levels to curb the intensity at which Air Pollution is rising and regain a

balance as far as the proportions of the foundation gases are concerned. This is a

direct attempt at slacking Global warming. We are seeing a

Land pollution, in other words, means degradation or destruction of earth's surface

and soil, directly or indirectly as a result of human activities. Anthropogenic activities

are conducted citing development, and the same affects the land drastically, we

witness land pollution; by drastic we are referring to any activity that lessens the

quality and/or productivity of the land as an ideal place for agriculture, forestation,

construction etc. The degradation of land that could be used constructively in other

words is land pollution.

Land Pollution has led to a series of issues that we have come to realize in recent

times, after decades of neglect. The increasing numbers of barren land plots and the

decreasing numbers of forest cover is at an alarming ratio. Moreover the extension of

cities and towns due to increasing population is leading to further exploitation of the

land. Land fills and reclamations are being planned and executed to meet the

increased demand of lands. This leads to

What is land pollution?

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further deterioration of land, and pollution caused by the land fill contents. Also due to

the lack of green cover, the land gets affected in several ways like soil erosion occurs

washing away the fertile portions of the land. Or even a landslide can be seen as an

example.

1. Deforestation and soil erosion:Deforestation carried out to create dry lands is

one of the major concerns. Land that is once converted into a dry or barren land, can

never be made fertile again, whatever the magnitude of measures to redeem it are.

Land conversion, meaning the alteration or modification of the original properties of

the land to make it use-worthy for a specific purpose is another major cause. This

hampers the land immensely. Also there is a constant waste of land. Unused

available land over the years turns barren; this land then cannot be used. So in

search of more land, potent land is hunted and its indigenous state is compromised

with.

2. Agricultural activities: With growing human population, demand for food has

increased considerably. Farmers often use highly toxic fertilizers and pesticides to

get rid off insects, fungi and bacteria from their crops. However with the overuse of

these chemicals, they result in contamination and poisoning of soil.

3. Mining activities: During extraction and mining activities, several land spaces

are created beneath the surface. We constant hear about land caving in; this is

nothing but nature's way of filling the spaces left out after mining or extraction activity.

4. Overcrowded landfills: Each household produces tonnes of garbage each

year. Garbage like aluminum, plastic, paper, cloth, wood is collected and sent to

the local recycling unit. Items that can not be recycled become a part of the

landfills that hampers the beauty of the city and cause land pollution.

Causes of land pollution

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Chart: Although most of the waste we produce is relatively harmless and easy to

dispose of (blue), around one fifth of it (orange, yellow, and green) is dangerous or

toxic and extremely difficult to get rid of without automatically contaminating land

5. Industrialization: Due to increase in demand for food, shelter and house, more

goods are produced. This resulted in creation of more waste that needs to be

disposed of. To meet the demand of the growing population, more industries were

developed which led to deforestation. Research and development paved the way for

modern fertilizers and chemicals that were highly toxic and led to soil contamination.

6. Construction activities: Due to urbanization, large amount of construction

activities are taking place which has resulted in large waste articles like wood, metal,

bricks, plastic that can be seen by naked eyes outside any building or office which is

under construction.

7. Nuclear waste:Nuclear plants can produce huge amount of energy through

nuclear fission and fusion. The left over radioactive material contains harmful and

toxic chemicals that can affect human health. They are dumped beneath the earth to

avoid any casualty.

8. Sewage treatment: Large amount of solid waste is leftover once the sewage has

been treated. The leftover material is sent to landfill site which end up in polluting the

environmen

Effects of Land Pollution

1. Soil pollution: Soil pollution is another form of land pollution, where the upper

layer of the soil is damaged. This is caused by the overuse of chemical fertilizers, soil

erosion caused by running water and other pest control measures; this leads to loss

of fertile land for agriculture, forest cover, fodder patches for grazing etc.

2. Change in climate patterns: The effects of land pollution are very hazardous and

can lead to the loss of ecosystems. When land is polluted, it directly or indirectly

affects the climate patterns.

3. Environmental Impact: When deforestation is committed, the tree cover is

compromised on. This leads to a steep imbalance in the rain cycle. A disturbed rain

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cycle affects a lot of factors. To begin with, the green cover is reduced. Trees and

plants help balance the atmosphere, without them we are subjected to various

concerns like Global warming, the green house effect, irregular rainfall and flash

floods among other imbalances.

4. Effect on human health: The land when contaminated with toxic chemicals and

pesticides lead to problem of skin cancer and human respiratory system. The toxic

chemicals can reach our body through foods and vegetables that we eat as they are

grown in polluted soil.

5. Air pollution: Landfills across the city keep on growing due to increase in waste

and are later burned which leads to air pollution. They become home for rodents,

mice etc which in turn transmit diseases.

6. Distraction for Tourist: The city looses its attraction as tourist destination as

landfills do not look good when you move around the city. It leads to loss of revenue

for the state government.

7. Effect on wildlife: The animal kingdom has suffered mostly in the past decades.

They face a serious threat with regards to loss of habitat and natural environment.

The constant human activity on land, is leaving it polluted; forcing these species to

move further away and adapt to new regions or die trying to adjust. Several species

are pushed to the verge of extinction, due to no homeland.

Other issues that we face include increased temperature, unseasonal weather

activity, acid rains etc. The discharge of chemicals on land, makes it dangerous for

the ecosystem too. These chemicals are consumed by the animals and plants and

thereby make their way in the ecosystem. This process is called bio magnification

and is a serious threat to the ecology.

Solutions for Land Pollution

1. Make people aware about the concept of Reduce, Recycle and Reuse.

2. Reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities.

3. Avoid buying packages items as they will lead to garbage and end up in landfill site.

4. Ensure that you do not litter on the ground and do proper disposal of garbage.

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5. Buy biodegradable products.

6. Do Organic gardening and eat organic food that will be grown without the use

of pesticides.

7. Create dumping ground away from residential areas.

Let us walk and survive on land. It is literally the base of our Ecosystem. It is in our

good interest to take care of our EARTH and NATURE.

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LATEST TECHNOLOGY USED IN SURVEY TODAY

(N.Sivaganesh Kumar, Manager-Survey)

Surveyors have been around for centuries. While their tools and techniques have

changed over time the underlying principles of measurement and mapping are still

the same today.

The advancement of new technology means surveyors can now take measurements

and report data with increased speed and accuracy. Modern surveyors get to use the

latest technology to get their job done every day.

Surveyors use equipment like total stations, to electronically calculate distances

from hundreds of metres away down to centimetre accuracy. Robotic versions are

also available, allowing surveyors to single-handedly operate a total station by

remote control.

3D laser scanners are used to understand and interpret the shape of things such as

buildings or land by collecting clouds of points to create digital 3D models. These

instruments are used by surveyors to provide data to architects to accurately

visualise the land they are going to build or design on.

3D Laser scanner view

Satellite positioning systems allows us to measure features or points anywhere in

the world from space. The data collected by these systems can be used to control

large infrastructure projects or provide the information for In-car navigation systems.

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GIS software is used to capture and analyse data to create digital maps of areas.

The high-tech software is used to create programs such as Google Maps, used by

over 100 million people a month.

Deep tows are deep ocean floor survey systems (often an AUV, or autonomous

underwater vehicle. They are outfitted with sonar or cameras then towed at low

speeds through the water using a cable normally measuring several thousand

meters in length.

With the rapid progression of technology, one thing is certain: surveyors will be at the

forefront of the latest technology. Who knows what cool gadgets surveyors will be

using next?

Drones or UAVs – 'Unmanned Aerial Vehicle' come in many different models and

sizes dependent on their application. You may be familiar with it's military

applications, but drones are starting to be used for commercial and even recreational

purposes. They're much cheaper and more nimble than a helicopter or other

conventional aircrafts but with the exact same advantages of aerial photography and

mapping.

TasWater has recently deployed a drone as part of dam project as shown below:

The Geospatial Revolution

While most of us don't realise it, surveying and geospatial science are fields that

have affected our lives in tremendous ways and will continue to do so.

The Geospatial Revolution Project is an integrated public media and outreach

initiative about the world of digital mapping and how it is changing the way we think,

behave and interact. It features a web-based serial release of eight video episodes

— each telling an intriguing geospatial story.

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SOURCES, IMPACT AND CONTROL OF DUST EMISSION FROM

OPENCAST MINEST.Eniyan (B.E. Mining)

Graduate Engineer Trainee, Chettinad Cements Corp. Pvt. Ltd.

INTRODUCTION

Minerals and metals are the mainstay of the economic development and welfare of

the society. The mineral sector in India is on the threshold of expansion with more

and more open cast mines. Under such scenario, systematic and scientific

exploitation of ore, compatible with environment is essential for survival of our future

generation. The growth of mining industry significantly contributes towards

economic progress. The environmental issues have now become an integral part of

any development activity. However, any progress of mining industry brings along

with it a number of environmental problems. These problems should be addressed at

the beginning stage itself and equal priority should be given to evaluate the project

from environmental angle apart from financial aspects. Mining industry exerts both

positive and negative environmental impacts. It is our responsibility to document

these impacts separately so that impacts can be identified, quantified and attempts

may be made to minimize negative impacts and maximize the positive impacts for

better environment. The demand of ore needs to be satisfied for sustainable

development. Mining being site specific activity, excavation is bound to be done at a

place where mineral actually exist. The mining activity changes the land use of the

area and is of no use to the mining companies once mineral is exhausted completely.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS – OPEN CAST MINING

The environmental problems associated with the mining activities are diverse. The

removal of vegetation, top soil, overburden/waste and ore, brings about the

inevitable natural consequences, which manifest in many ways such as

deforestation, climatic change, erosion, air pollution, water pollution and health

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hazards. Mining and processing of ore also affects the environment in many ways

causing:

Land disturbance and change in land use pattern.

Affecting floral and faunal habitat.

Disturbing the natural watershed and drainage pattern of the area.

Disturbing the aquifer causing lowering of the water table.

Air pollution due to dust and noxious fumes.

Water pollution due to surface run off from different areas of mines, spoil dumps,

seepages/overflow from tailings dam leads to siltation of surface water bodies and

blanketing the agricultural fields.

Noise and ground vibrations due to blasting.

Socio-economic impacts

The magnitude and significance of the impacts on environment and ecology due to

mining will depend on the size and scale of mining activity in conjunction with the

topography & climatic conditions of the area, the nature of mineral deposits, method

of mining & capacity of mines, agricultural activities in the region, forest reserves etc.

Among various other pollution, air pollution due to particulate matter (PM) is receiving

importance worldwide. The atmospheric pollution due to airborne particulate matter

in association with gaseous pollutants have been responsible for various impacts

such as modification of cloud property, the global climate change, acid rain,

stratospheric ozone depletion, reduction in visibility and soiling of monuments. Air

pollutants are added in the atmosphere from variety of sources that change the

composition of atmosphere and affect the biotic environment. The concentration of

air pollutants depends not only on the quantities that are emitted from air pollution

sources but also the ability of the atmosphere to either absorb or disperse these

emissions. The air pollution concentration causes the air pollution pattern to change

with different locations and time with respect to changes in meteorological and

topographical condition.

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The increasing trend of opencast mining leads to release of huge amount of dust.

The air borne dust particles generally below 100 micron in size are environmentally

nuisance and cause health hazards as an ill effect of mining activities. The

particulate matter influence adverse health effects with respect to the size of a

particle, chemical, mineralogical composition, surface area and its mass which

determines its penetrability into deeper parts of the lungs.

The air quality in the mining areas mainly depends on the nature, concentration of

emissions and meteorological conditions. The major air pollutants from mining

include:

Particulate Matter (PM10, PM2.5) P

Coarse particles-PM 10(having aerodynamic diameter below 10 micron

Fine particles-PM 2.5 (having aerodynamic diameter below 2.5 micron

Ultra-fine particles (smaller than about 0.1 micron in aerodynamic diameter)

Gases, such as, Sulphur Dioxide, Oxides of Nitrogen, Carbon Monoxide etc.

Dusts are the single largest air pollutant observed in the mines. Dust can be a

significant nuisance to surrounding land users and potential health risk in some

circumstances. Dust is being produced from a number of sources and through

number of mechanisms such as land clearing, removal of top soil , removal of

overburden/ore, drilling, blasting, crushing & screening, processing of ore, loading &

unloading of material on site & subsequent transport off the site etc. In addition to

this, wind action affecting stockpiles, dry tailings, exposed mining areas and waste

dumps also generate significant amount of dust. Dust emissions from these

operations mainly depend on moisture content of the ore and type of control

measures adopted. The major gaseous pollutants of concern in iron ore mines are

sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. Sulphur dioxide can cause respiratory

problems. Oxides of nitrogen can react in the atmosphere with hydrocarbons to

produce photo-chemical smog. In addition to this, sulphur dioxide and oxides of

nitrogen can generate an acid rain harmful to vegetation and materials. The mining

activities may affect the environment in varying degree through natural resource

depletion, water consumption, forest depletion etc.

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PARTICULATE MATTER

Mining industry are tasked with monitoring and controlling their dust emissions

because dust is created in every step of the mining process such as mine

construction, extraction, processing, storage and transportation.

Particulate Matter is the solid particles or a mixture of solid particles and liquid

droplets in the air consisting of several components such as organic compounds,

metals, acids, soil and dust. Particle size is expressed by their aerodynamic

properties because they govern the transport and removal of particles from the air,

their deposition within the respiratory system and they are associated with the

chemical composition and sources of particles. Respirable dust represents the

fraction that penetrates to the gas exchange region of the lung. Toxic dusts may

cause chemical reactions with the respiratory system or may allow toxic compounds

to be absorbed into the bloodstream through the alveolar walls.

Table no.1: Air quality standards (Central Pollution Control Board)

Annual Arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year at a particular site

should be taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform intervals. 24 hourly or 8 hourly or 1

hourly monitored values, as applicable, shall be complied with 98% of the time in a

year. 2% of the time, they may exceed the limits but not on two consecutive days of

monitoring. Whenever and wherever monitoring results on two consecutive days of

monitoring exceed the limits specified above for the respective category, it shall be

considered adequate reason to institute regular or continuous monitoring and further

investigations.

Pollutants Time Weighted

Average

Concentration in Ambient Air

Industrial, Residential, Rural

and others

Ecologically sensitive area(notified by

Central Government)

Particulate Matter (Size less than 10µm) or PM10 µg/

Annual 60 60

24 Hours 100 100

Particulate Matter (Size less than 2.5µm) or PM2.5 µg/

Annual 40 40

24 Hours 60 60

Nitrogen Dioxide(NO2), µg/

Annual 40 30

24 Hours 80 80

Sulphur Dioxide(SO2), µg/

Annual 50 20

24 Hours 80 80

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CLASSIFICATION OF PM

The size of PM determines the sites in the respiratory tract that they will deposit. PM 10

particles deposit mainly in the upper respiratory tract while fine and ultrafine particles

are able to reach lung alveoli. The total inhalable dust is the fraction of airborne

material, which after entering the nose and mouth during breathing, gets deposited

anywhere in the respiratory tract.Epidemiological studies have indicated the

relationship between adverse health effects and have also shown a correlation

between elevated levels of airborne particle and increased rate of morbidity and

mortality. Some studies suggested PM to be more harmful to health than PM . 2.5 10

Therefore, ambient air quality standard across the globe has been set in terms of

PM andPM .10 2.5

Health Effects Institute (HEI) stated that ultrafine particles present in greater

numbers do not last long in the atmosphere and they generally form fine particles

either by coagulating (two or more small particles combining) or condensing (gas

molecules condensing onto a solid particle). Fine and ultrafine particles also may

carry toxic components into the deep lung. USEPApresented a typical distribution of

different sizes or modes of particles in urban air which is evident that the distribution

of particles measured falls into three main modes based on their aerodynamic

diameter: nuclei mode (smaller than about 0.1 ìm), accumulation mode (between

approximately 0.1 and 1 ìm) and coarse mode (larger than 1 ìm).

Table no. 2: classification based on mode of formation

DUST CONCENTRATION FACTORS

The following factor governs the influence of particulate matter concentration

namely,

(I) Sources and Emissions

(ii) Health and Demographic Information

PM Type Size Ranges (Micron)

Dust 1.0 to 10000

Fumes 0.03 to 0.3

Smoke 0.5 to 1.0

Mist Less than 10

Spray 10 to 1000

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(iii) Meteorological Information

(iv) Topographical Information

(v) Previous Air Quality Information

SOURCES

Air Quality Impact Prediction (AQIP) is an essential part of the EIA report of every

mining project of major minerals having a leasehold area greater than 25 ha. The

main air pollutant in a mining area is particulate matter (mostly dust) released by

various mining activities such as drilling, blasting, loading, transporting, crushing,

screening, overburden dumping etc. Although some gaseous pollutants such

as CO, NO , SO2 etc. are also x

equipment and from blasting operations, the magnitude of such emissions are small

and the concentration of such pollutants are generally much lower than the

prescribed threshold limit values.

TOPOGRAPHICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION

Wind flow is considered to be the prime mover of the particulate pollution from one

place to another. Several studies were carried out to simulate wind flow pattern with

the assumption that particulate matter dispersion will follow it. Recirculation also

takes place at different locations inside the mine. Wind speed and wind flow path

inside the pit are largely influenced by the pit geometry like length of the pit, depth of

the pit and width of the pit. Researchers stated that the atmospheric stability also

affects the flow in the mine by influencing the vertical motion. They also reported that

pollutants get deposited as the stable atmosphere suppresses the vertical motion of

the pollutants whereas in case of unstable and neutral conditions it has been found

that the escape fraction of particulates is more.

EMISSION FACTOR

An emission factor is a representative value that attempts to relate the quantity of a

pollutant released to the atmosphere with an activity associated with the release of

that pollutant. These factors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided

released from the running of diesel powered

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of emission of pollutants from various activities in a mine can be calculated on the basis of

emission factors of the activities. The emission factors will depend to a great extent on

the site conditions like the amount of dust being formed or emitted due to a mining

activity and also depends on a number of variable factors such as brittleness and

hardness of the material being handled, clay, slit, moisture content of the rock or soil

material, wind speed in the region, the size of the machinery or transport equipment

etc. Refinement of simple emission factors by incorporating such site variables leads

to what is known as predictor equations.

Actual emissions from a mine depend on a number of site-specific conditions

including the mining practice being followed, the type and size of equipment in use,

topography, climate, slope, vegetation cover, moisture content, silt content of

material being handled or on road surface, and physical and chemical properties of

the mineral, overburden and soil.

EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL MEASURES ON EMISSION FACTORS

Several authors have estimated that emissions caused by dumping into a hopper can

be reduced by 50% by using water sprays and by 95% by controlling emissions with a

suction enclosure and bag house filter and further states that emissions during load-

in operations to a stockpile can be reduced by 50% by water spray or by as much as

90% by applying chemical dust suppressants at the loading point.Haul road watering

is said to reduce emissions by 50%, and the use of chemical dust suppressants may

reduce emissions by 85%. Sinha and Banerjee reported a reduction of 59% of haul

road emission in an iron ore mine when chemical dust suppressants were tried on the

roads.

Based on work by Holmes Air Sciences and USEPA, the Australian EET Manual has

given a list of control methods (Table no.3) for various mining activities and the

expected reduction in dust emission.

by a unit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the pollutant. The rate

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HEALTH HAZARDS

Mining operations have generated substantial quantities of airborne respirable dust.

Inhalation of airborne respirable dust in large quantities leads to the development of

respiratory diseases such as pneumoconiosis, silicosis, siderosis etc. and various

chronic pulmonary diseases such as cancer, bronchial asthma, chronic bronchitis

which have adversely impacted the health of thousands of mine workers. Depending

on the severity of the lung disease, symptoms range from reduced breathing

capacity to death.

Although significant advances in dust control technology have been realized,

improved mining practices and equipment have meanwhile led to record higher

production levels which in turn have resulted in the generation of additional dust.

RECOMMENDATIONS

These are the suitable recommendations provided to reduce the dust concentration

and noise level in mines.

Transport Road

The transport roads are the significant sources among all the other sources like

overburden loading, overburden unloading, blasting, drilling, exposed dump yards

and workshop. It is necessary to sprinkle water along the haul roads and transport

roads of the mining areas to suppress the particulate matters of the aerodynamic

diameter less than 10 micrometer.

Table no.3: Control methods with percentage of reduction in dust concentration

Activities Percentage reduction

Drilling 90% with fabric filters

70% for water spraying

Hauling 50% for level 1 watering (=2 l/ /h)

75% for level 2 watering (>2 l/ /h)

Unloading trucks 70% for water sprays

Unloading from stockpiles 50% for water sprays

Wind erosion from stockpiles 50% for water sprays

30% for windbreaks

99% for revegetation or total enclosure

Scrapers working on topsoil 50% when soil is moist

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The transport road (from mines/Processing plant to Railway siding) is the major

contributor to the pollution load. The prevailing practice of mobile water sprinkling

seems to be adequate.

Continuous spraying system can be more efficient.

Loading Point

Loading point can be considered to be a major source of dust generation in any large

opencast mine. The dumpers were loaded with ore each day to meet the annual

target of mine

Regular maintenance of HEMM engines to limit emission of harmful exhaust

fumes.

Provision of gas filter for exhaust fumes from HEMM.

Regular water sprinkling shall be carried out around crushing and screening

plant.

Haul Road

Generally haul road accounts for the highest dust generation for any mine. Water

sprinkling should be carried out in regular intervals to control dust emission. Because

of utilization of machineries in improper dispatch or improper design of haul roads,

dust generation is increased. However dust problem was balanced by effective water

sprinkling Water sprinkling on unpaved areas during dry wind periods, using a water

tanker/or fixed sprinklers.

Surface improvements may be done with concrete or asphalt, or the addition of

gravel or chemical dust suppression to the surface for stabilization.

Wet suppression of unpaved areas

Plantation on sides of mining road.

Speed controls on vehicle movements to limit speeds.

Wind reduction control by plantation.

Exposed overburden dump

Exposed overburden dump contribute to air pollution by wind erosion.

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Plantation of trees is highly recommended which stabilize the dump and

attenuate dust emission.

Conveyors

Conveyor point can be considered to be a major source of dust generation in large

opencast mine which will be continuous source of emission of dust pollutant in

mines.

Atomized misting

Dust suppression ring

Pulley cleaners

The use of water sprays or sprinklers at conveyor transfer points. Enclosed transfer

points with dust extraction system.

Minimizing drop heights at transfer points.

Regular clean-up of spillages around the transfer points so that material

cannot be picked up by wind.

Drilling Operation

Drilling and blasting is the conventional method of mining in achieving the targeted

production.

However the drilling operation contributes to major polluting source for any mine.

Wet drilling should be preferred.

All the drills should be equipped with well-designed dust extractor arrangement.

The proper maintenance and handling of drill machineries.

Blasting operation

The fine dusts are generated in the blasting process which was initially formulated

through drill cuttings present near the blast hole. Several rock properties and

blasting parameters affect dust generation. In highly porous rocks during blasting,

greater dissipation of energy results in considerable crushing and production of fine

dust.

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Appropriate design of the geometry of blast holes.

Use of proper amount of explosive taking into consideration the geo mechanical

conditions of the site.

Adopting controlled blasting.

CONCLUSION

PM 10 and PM 2.5 are the major pollutant sources in and around the mine. The

measurement of PM 10 and PM 2.5 can determine the emission rate of the pollutants

and their limit which helps to know the impact on the environment and on the workers.

It reveals that the activities like drilling, blasting, loading, unloading and

transportation of vehicle are the sources for emission of particulate matter in the

mines.

REFERENCES

1. Banerjee, S. P. (2006) 'TSP Emission Factors for Different Mining Activities for Air

Quality Impact Prediction from Different Sources', Minetech Vol.12, No.1, pp.37-

38.

2. Gautam, S., and Kumar, A., (2016) 'Particulate Matter Pollution in Opencast

Mining Areas: A Threat to Human Health and Environment', International Journey

of Mining and Environment, Vol.8, pp.1-10.

3. Ghose, M.K. and Majee, S.R. (2003) 'Status of Air Pollution due to Opencast coal

Mining and its Control in Indian Context', Journal of Scientific and Industrial

Research, Vol. 62, pp. 892-902.

4. MOEF (2010) 'Environmental Impact Assessment Guidance Manual for Mining

of Minerals', Government of India.

5. Schwegler, F. (2006) 'Air quality management: a Mining perspective' WIT

Transactions on Ecology and the Environment', Vol 10, pp.205-212.

6. Sinha, S. and Banerjee, S.P. (1997) 'Characterization of Haul Road in Indian

Opencast Iron Ore Mine', Atmospheric Environment 31(17), pp.214-217.

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METHODOLOGY FOR A DUMP DESIGN OPTIMIZATION IN LARGE -

SCALE OPEN PIT MINESSrihari Seshagiri Rao Mines Manager.

Reddipalyam Cement Work UltraTech Cement Limited.

Modern large-scale open pit mines move hundreds of thousands of tonnes of material

daily, from the loading sources to the destination zones, whether these are massive

mine dumps or, to a lesser extent, to the grinding mills. Mine dumps can be classified

as percolate or waste dumps, depending upon their economic viability to be

processed in-place, a condition that has experienced great progress in the last

decades and has reconfigured the open pit haulage network with an increase in the

number of dumps. Therefore, new methods for dump design optimization are of the

highest priority in mine planning management. A methodology to model and optimize

the design of a dump by minimizing the total haulage costs. The location and design

of these dumps will be given mainly by the geological characteristics of the mineral,

tonnage delivered, topographical conditions, infrastructure capital and transportation

costs. Spatial and physical design possibilities, in addition, provide a set of

parameters of mathematical and economic relationship that creates opportunities for

modelling and thus facilitates the measurement and optimization of ultimate dump

designs. The proposed methodology consists of: (1) Formulation of a dump model

based on a system of equations relying on multiple relevant parameters; (2) Solves

by minimizing the total cost using linear programming and determines a “preliminary”

dump design; (3) Through a series of iterations, changes the “preliminary” footprint by

projecting it to the topography and creates the ultimate dump design. Finally, an

application for a waste rock dump illustrates this methodology.

Three major destination groups, characterized by a cut-off grade criteria and ore type,

represent the places in the mine where the material receives specific treatment after

its delivery from the pit: Dump leaching facilities are built to receive and treat low-

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grade ore by the use of solution agents, while waste rock dumps store uneconomic

material. Dump leaching technologies have developed over the last decades,

allowing the mining industry to build larger and higher dumps faster than ever.

Technological advances in low grade leaching. since they have proven to be an

efficient method of treating oxide and sulfide ores, an attractive way to treat large low-

grade deposits. Overview of heap leaching technology. As a result, an increase in the

number of dumps, which are the most visual landforms left after New approach for

selection of waste dump sites in open pit.

Contributions to this progress have come from the mineral and metallurgical

processing field (hydrometallurgy), geo-synthetics, slope stability, and best

construction practices of solution collection systems, notably prompted by

environmental requirements. Researchers and slope stability practitioners have

achieved extensive progress and expertise in the areas of geotechnical engineering.

Concepts used to analyse and determine rock slope stability for mining & civil

engineering applications. In large-scale open pit mines, the mining process is rather

complex and often involves different run-of-mine (ROM) ore and waste material

treatment downstream. Appropriate areas to place these large amounts of material

are limited and their selection and design must serve the environmental factors and

economic goals of the long-term mine plans. Normally, construction of the leach or

waste dumps results by creating a footprint base via deep dumping and

subsequently, ramping up a determined lift height to accumulate the ex-pit material.

In designing the dump, there are many ways to assign values and combine the

different geometric and size parameters while respecting the safety and

environmental constraints. The total tonnage capacity required can have as many

geometrical representations as its limitations allow. In this situation, building a

mathematical optimization model is the best option to interrelate certain key variables

and the first approach to calculating the values that seek to maximize the satisfaction

of a linear programming objective. As most of the dumps are emplaced on irregular

topographies, a second approach has to contrast the values got by the generalized

model and correct them, if necessary, by a series of successive iterations and

projections to the field.

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A methodology to optimize the ultimate dump design in a mining operation by

minimizing the unit haulage cost using a linear algorithm and subsequent iterations

on variables such as the footprint base, number of lifts and haulage distances from

the toe of the ramp to the dynamic dumping point. Figure 1 briefly illustrates the

process. This methodology applies to dumps receiving a single material target as it is

usual in large-scale open pit mines; hence, there is no need for any special material

blending or encapsulation, as the models proposed to handle waste rock dumping

causing acid mine drainage.

2. Dump design considerations

A mine dump can be defined as a massive structure formed by placing large amounts

of material in lifts of a restricted vertical expansion that laid one on top of each other

and form a stable slope at the angle of repose. A dump so formed, however, needs a

horizontal base at first, which is built by push dumping material from a certain

elevation and levelling off the required footprint area. Generally, this first phase of the

dump construction takes the irregular shape of the topography where is placed.

Subsequent lift height is constant, though is restricted to prevent shear stresses on

the foundation and is a factor to control consolidations and permeability variations.

3). Study on limit height and its stability of open-pit dump bases on basement bearing

mechanism. Applied Mechanics and Materials, As in most of the large open pit

operations, haulage is performed by heavy trucks, the access to the successive

dump lifts is achieved by establishing ramps of a suitable width, super elevation and

gradient in order to minimize travel distance and therefore to reduce haulage costs

(Figure 2).

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• Geometry: Usually designed to handle a total capacity throughout the life-of-mine. Over-

dimensioning can cause underutilization of valuable areas. Under dimensioning can result

in the increase of the total haulage distances.

• Operating costs: Costs resulting from fuel, energy, maintenance and labour of the haul

trucks.

• Haulage distances: Minimizing the total haulage distance while meeting the required

capacity by strategic placing of the ramps, exits, entrances and dumping sequence.

• Stability control: It will define the angle of repose and the nature of the underlying

material. Maintaining the stability of the dump may require relocation of weathered rock

or material blending, especially if water is present.

• If it is a dump leach, a leaching cycle time will define the mining delivery rate and dumping

schedule. Ideally, deliveries rate from the mine should match the leaching cycle times of

the dump. Otherwise, there is a risk of short cycling and losing on mineral recoveries.

• Selection of the land permit for dumping purposes as specified by Approved Mining Plan.

• Environmental factors: costs of implementing and maintaining effective systems to reduce

and eliminate loses and contamination. Design considerations for reclamation and closure

to maintain long-term stability, erosion control.

Methodology for a dump design optimization in large-scale open pit mines

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MINERALS AND THEIR USES

Amit Kr. MathurDeputy Manager (Mines Operation) UltraTech Cement Limited,

40 COMMON MINERALS & THEIR USES

Antimony is a metal that is used along with alloys to create batteries for

storing grid power. It is silvery gray and can be found in its pure form in nature, an

uncommon characteristic.

Asbestos has an unsavory reputation for causing cancer in people who

work around it. It is a fibrous mineral with incredible fire retarding properties.

Although asbestos has a bad reputation, when polished it becomes the well known

and popular 'Tiger Eye' stone.

Barium is a common element used in x-ray technology, fireworks, rubber

and glass making and rat poison. It is a soft, white metallic element and alkaline.

Bauxite is a sedimentary rock that is an important ore of aluminum. The

aluminum content in it is leeched from the soil above.

Beryllium is an alkaline metallic element that is highly toxic. It is known

for its sugary sweet taste and some of its common uses are in X-rays and fluorescent

lights.

Cromite is the ore of chromium and is a very hard metal, and diamond is

the only thing harder. This hardness is what allows a chrome finish to take a high

plish.

Of the 92 elements found in the Earth, 40 of them are used in our daily lives. Some of

the names are common and well known, and others seem obscure until one sees

that it helps create something we cannot live without. The following is a list of those

most commonly in use:

Antimony :-

Asbestos :-

Barium :-

Bauxite :-

Beryllium :-

Chromite :-

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Cobalt :-

Columbite-tantalite :-

Copper :-

Feldspar :-

Fluorite :-

Gold :-

Gypsum :-

Halite :-

Iron Ore :-

Lead :-

Lithium :-

Cobalt is famous for the incredible blue color it imparts to glass and

pigment. It has been found in meteorites and is used in invisible ink. It is a brittle metal

and resembles iron.

Columbite-tantalite group is a mineral used widely in

technology. Electronics, automotive systems and health products like the

pacemaker need this mineral to operate. It is mined in Africa and has earned the

name of Coltan over the last few years.

Copper is a common metal throughout the world. It is used for currency,

jewelry, plumbing and to conduct electricity. It is a soft, orange-red metal.

Feldspar is the most common mineral on Earth. Since it is most

commonly found in granite, this mineral is used mostly as a building material.

Fluorite (fluorspar) is commonly used to create fluorescent pigment and

since it is very beautiful, it is used for gem material. It is mined all over the world.

Gold is the most familiar metal to most people. It is used for jewelry, dentistry,

electronics and a host of other applications. It is the most malleable metal which

increases the way it can be used.

Gypsum is a very soft mineral with a variety of uses, most commonly in

drywall, also known as sheet rock. It is also used as a fertilizer and road construction.

Halite (sodium chloride--salt) is used for seasoning food and softening

water. It is also used to make certain acids, in fire extinguishers and melting ice on

the road.

Iron Ore is perhaps as important to civilization today as gold historically

has been. It is used in all sorts of construction from vehicles to buildings.

Lead has a bad reputation for its poisoning capabilities, some of which may

have been exaggerated by fear. It cannot be absorbed by the skin or breathing, but it

is harmful if it touches food or drink. It was at one time used in paint, pencils and

eating utensils.

Lithium is used in several applications including medication for bipolar

symptoms and batteries. Lithium has become very popular with the advent of electric

cars.

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Manganese :-

Mica :-

Molybdenum :-

Nickel :-

Perlite :-

Platinum :-

Potash :-

Pyrite :-

Quartz :-

Rare Earth Elements

Manganese with iron impurities can be slightly magnetic. It is

essential in the steel making process, and petroglyphs were carved into it in the

Southwest

Mica is the mineral responsible for putting a sparkle on many rocks. This

mineral is very flexible, and large sheets of it were used as window glass in the past.

Molybdenum is essential for supporting all life forms because it is

essential for utilizing nitrogen.

Nickel is a common metal in everyday life. It has been used in currency,

jewelry and eating utensils and is used in alloys as well.

Perlite is created from volcanic rock. It is a lightweight substance with great

water bearing characteristics. It is the white stuff found in some potting soils.

Platinum Group Metals (PGM) are rare and therefore expensive. They

are commonly used in jewellery but technology also benefits from them. The largest

source of platinum and the members of its family is from the by product of nickel

mines.

Potash is the old fashioned term for Potassium. Potassium is a major

component in crop fertilizer around the world. It is very important in the human body

since it works with salt regulating the pressure inside and outside the body's cell

walls. It is also used in soap manufacture.

Pyrite is commonly known as 'fools gold.' It is frequently seen in granite

rocks where it adds sparkle. Native Americans polished it to use as a mirror, and it is

occasionally used in jewelry. Its byproduct is used in ink and disinfectants.

Quartz (silica) is the most abundant mineral on earth. It is the name for a

large family of rocks including the jaspers, agates, onyxes and flints. Quartz is used

in concrete, glass, scientific instruments and watches. Most importantly today, it is

used to make silicon semiconductors.

Rare Earth Elements (lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium,

promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium,

erbium, thulium ytterbium and lutetium) Many of these are used to create nuclear

power.

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Silica :-

Silver :-

Sodium Carbonate :-

Stibnite :-

Sulphur :-

Tantalum :-

Titanium :-

Tungsten :-

Uranium :-

Vanadium :-

Zeolite :-

Zinc :-

Silica is used in desiccants to remove moisture from the air. It is also used in

sandpaper and glass making.

Silver is one of the precious metals. It is used as currency and in jewelry making.

It is also used in medicine due to its anti microbial properties.Silver as an anti microbial.

Sodium Carbonate (soda ash or trona) is used to control the

pH of products. It is used to make glass, paper, detergents and for softening.

Stibnite is a major ore of antimony which is used in fireworks, rubber and

glass making. It is minded principally in Romania.

Sulfur is one of the only minerals to be found in its pure form in nature. It is

a major ingredient in acid rain but it also is used in wine making and fruit preservation.

Tantalum is used when an alloy needs a high melting point and strength.

It is used in missiles, aircraft parts and vacuums.

Titanium is one of the most abundant and toughest metals on Earth. It is

used extensively in human body repair.

Tungsten is a metal that is stronger than steel and a high melting

temperature. It is also used to make saw blades and used in welding.Tungsten and

the invention of the light bulb.

Uranium is a highly radioactive element. It is used in cancer treatments,

X-rays, military weapons and fuel for the space shuttle.

Vanadium is found in many foods and helps bones grow. It is useful in

regulating blood sugar in diabetics and helps grow muscles for bodybuilders.

Zeolite is known as the 'stone that dances'. It is used in wastewater cleanup

and since it can absorb ammonia, it is used in kitty litter and reducing other animal

smells.

Zinc is essential for a healthy life. Zinc deficiency can cause rashes, diarrhea,

impaired taste and eye problems. It is used to macular degeneration, diabetes and

the common cold.

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A STUDY ON EFFECTS OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE ON ENVIRONMENT

AND ITS REMEDIAL MEASURES GAURAV RAJPUT

GET-Mines,The Ramco Cements Ltd,Pandalgudi ,Virudhunagar District

ABSTRACT

Acid mine drainage (AMD) causes environmental pollution that affects many

countries having historic or current mining industries. Acid mine drainage (AMD) has

been considered one of the industries toughest problems to solve. This paper

describes a study on Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) generation, and its adverse effect

on environment and various technique for the treatment of acid mine drainage.

Keywords: Acid Mine Drainage ,Mining ,Environmental

INTRODUCTION

Mining plays a vital role in national economic development and on the contrary

mining undesirably impact our environment. Mining has increased rapidly due to the

development of large-scale mines. The environmental problems arising due to

mining activities are natural land degradation, air and water pollution with heavy

metals, organic and inorganic waste, negative impact on terrestrial and aquatic

ecosystems human health and socio-economic.

Acid rock drainage occurs naturally within some environments as part of rock

weathering process but is exacerbated by large-scale earth disturbances

characteristic of mining and other large construction activities, usually within rocks

containing an abundance of sulphide minerals.

Occurrence of acid mine drainage

Areas where the earth has been disturbed (e.g. construction sites, subdivisions, and

transportation corridors) may create acid rock drainage. In many localities, the liquid

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that drains from coal stocks, coal handling facilities, coal washeries, and coal waste

tips can be highly acidic, and in such cases it is treated as acid rock drainage. This

liquid often contains toxic metals, such as copper or iron. These, combined with

reduced pH, have a detrimental impact on the streams aquatic environments. Acid

mine drainage occurs when sulphide oxidation in rock reacts with water and air

creating hydroxide ,sulphate, and hydrogen ions.

Sub-surface mining often progresses below the water table, so water must be

constantly pumped out of the mine in order to prevent flooding. When a mine is

abandoned, the pumping ceases, and water floods the mine. This introduction of

water is the initial step in most acid rock drainage situations. Tailings piles or ponds,

mine waste rock dumps and coal spoils are also an important source of acid mine

drainage.

After being exposed to air and water, oxidation of metal sulphides (often pyrite, which

is iron-sulphide) within the surrounding rock and overburden generates acidity.

Colonies of bacteria and archaea greatly accelerate the decomposition of metal ions,

although the reactions also occur in an abiotic environment. These microbes, called

extremophiles for their ability to survive in harsh conditions, occur naturally in the

rock, but limited water and oxygen supplies usually keep their numbers low. Special

extremophiles known as Acidophiles especially favor the low pH levels of abandoned

mines. In particular, Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans is a key contributor to pyrite

oxidation.

The reactions of acid generation are best illustrated by examining the oxidation of

pyrite (FeS2), which is one of the most common sulphide minerals. The first important

reaction is the oxidation of the sulphide mineral into dissolved iron, sulphate and

hydrogen: 2+ 2- +Fe S +7/2 0 +H O → Fe +2S0 +2H2 2 2 4

2+ 2- +The dissolved F e , S 0 , H represent an increase in total dissolved solids and 4

acidity of the water and, unless neutralized, induce a decrease in pH. If the

surrounding environment is sufficiently oxidizing (dependent on O2 concentration,

pH and bacterial activity), much of the ferrous iron will oxidize to ferric iron, according

to the following reaction:

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67

At pH values between 2.3 and 3.5, ferric iron precipitates as Fe(OH)3 and jarosite, leaving

little in solution while simultaneously lowering pH:

Any from Eq. (2) that does not precipitate from solution through Eq. (3) may be

used to oxidize additional pyrite, according to the following:

(4)

Based on these simplified basic reactions, acid generation that produces iron which

eventually precipitates as Fe(OH)3 may be represented by a combination of Eqs. (1) –(3):

(5)

On the other hand, the overall equation for stable ferric iron that is used to oxidize

additional pyrite (combinations of Eqs. (1)-(3)) is:

All of the above equations, with the exception of Eqs. (2) and (3), assume that the

oxidized mineral is pyrite and the oxidant is oxygen. However, other sulphide minerals

such as pyrhotite (FeS) and chalcocite (Cu2S) have other ratios of metal sulphide and

metals other than iron. Additional oxidants and sulphide minerals have different

reaction pathways, stoichiometries and rates, but research on these variations is

limited.

Problems due to Acid mine drainage

Acidic sulphur-rich waste waters are the by-products of a variety of industrial

operations such as galvanic processing and the scrubbing of flue gases at power

plants (Johnson, 2000). The major producer of such effluents is, however, the mining

industry. Waters draining active and, in particular, abandoned mines and mine wastes

are often net acidic (sometimes extremely so). Such waters typically pose an

additional risk to the environment by the fact that they often contain elevated

concentrations of metals (iron, aluminium and manganese, and possibly other heavy

metals) and metalloids (of which arsenic is generally of greatest concern). In 1989, it

was estimated that 19,300 km of streams and rivers, and 72,000 ha of lakes and

reservoirs worldwide had been seriously damaged by mine effluents, although the

true scale of the environmental pollution caused by mine water discharges is difficult

to assess accurately.

3+Fe

3+ +Fe + 3H O Fe (OH) + 3H (3) 2 3→

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AMD directly impacts nearly 7000 km of streams and rivers and over 23,000ha of

lakes and reservoirs throughout United States, while indirectly contributing to

contamination of 20,000 km and 70,000 ha, respectively .

The predominant source of AMD in the eastern United States is coal mining. The

oxidation of pyrite and marcasite found in and around anthracite coal deposits has

acidified thousands of kilometres of streams and rivers draining the Appalachian

coal fields. The results are waterways with pH less than 7 and a characteristic red

orange colour, signifying the presence of oxidized iron (Fig. 1). The predominant

AMD- generating source in the western United States is metal mine workings, the

drainage from which often contains metals such as cadmium, lead, nickel, copper

and zinc.

Fig. 1. AMD discharge from California Gulch,in leadvilla,CO. The red-orange material is called

"yellow-boy".

Controlling Acid mine drainage(AMD)

Following are the technique by which acid mine drainage can be controlled :

1) Wetlands Process to remove AMD

Processes within natural wetlands have been found to remediate contaminants within AMD:

imitation of these processes can work similarly in constructed wetlands. Wetlands have

organic- rich substrates which exchange dissolved metals. This exchange occurs between

the dissolved metals and abundant humic and fulvic acids contained within the substrate

(Wildeman et al. 1991). Wetland sediments are generally anaerobic below a thin oxidized

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surface layer and contain organic carbon for microbial growth (Gambrell & Patrick

1978). The anoxic zone of the sediments provide conditions which favor microbial

and chemical reducing processes, transforming iron and sulfates to hydrogen and

sulfides (Fenessy & Mitsch 1989). Soluble metals are converted to insoluble forms by

the anoxic conditions of wetland sediments (Fennessy & Mitsch 1989). Settling of

suspended solids occurs from water velocity control of the wetland vegetation

(Brooks 1984). Snyder and Aharrah (1985) verified Typha wetlands as effective

removers of iron and manganese. Kleinmann (1985) recorded data that states iron

concentrations dropped from 20-25 mg/L to 1 mg/L, manganese concentrations

dropped from 30-40 mg/L to 2 mg/L in a Typha wetland. Sphagnum spp. has also

shown significant effect on concentrations of iron, manganese, sulfate, and other

mineral concentrations (Kleinmann 1985; Wieder et al. 1985). Plant roots will retain

arsenic and other metals (Sobolewski 1997). Plants also generate

microenvironments that assist in the reduction and oxidation processes (Wildeman

et al. 1991). Certain bacteria, such as those in the generas Desulfovibrio and

Delsulfotomaculuum, employ sulfate in anaerobic respiration (Mitsch & Gosselink

1986). These are but a few of the many examples of how a wetland can treat AMD,

and therefore by employing our knowledge in wetland construction, simulate these

processes for AMD remediation.

2) Passive mine drainage treatment systems

The focus of these passive mine drainage treatment systems (PMDTS) is to apply

bio-geochemical water treatment mechanisms at or near the source of the mine

drainage to concentrate and immobilize metals and raise pH. Prototype PMDTS

have been constructed in Colorado, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia, Canada,

South Africa and Australia.

Vegetation was retained because it was accepted that plants probably remove

metals into their biomass, and that they supplied micro aerobic zones for bacteria

that may assist in the removal process.

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A cell of the Big Five PMDTS was divided into an up flow cell and a down flow cell. The

up flow cell substrate remained saturated throughout the experiments and treated

mine water efficiently. The down flow cell worked well, but flows that were too low

followed channels through the substrate and a large percentage of the substrate

remained dry and unutilized. The up flow configuration seems to fulfil the requirement

of steady hydraulic conductivity and water substrate contact. Fig. 2 shows a

schematic of an up flow reactor.

Five hundred gallon, up flow reactors were constructed in one area of the Eagle Mine,

Minturn, CO, and filled with composted livestock manure. The in- fluent distribution

pipe, made of perforated irrigation tubing, was protected against clogging by the

particulates in the substrate. In the 500 gallon pilot system, the influent pipe was

covered with pea gravel and landscape fabric which, in turn, was covered with a water

permeable geo-membrane as in Fig. 2. The gravel disperses the inflow and the geo-

membrane separates the influent chamber from the substrate. Larger systems may

require the construction of an influent plenum that is covered with geo-membrane.

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Fig.2. Up flow PMDTS

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Result showed maximum removal rates of 97-100% have occurred for all metals

except manganese at the 200ml/min and 400ml/min flow rate.

3) Removing AMD using Compost bioreactor

An important engineering variant on the basic compost bioreactor theme is the reducing and

alkalinity producing system (RAPS) layout (Younger et al., 2003), which is also referred to as

successive alkalinity producing system (SAPS; Kepler and McCleary, 1994).In this type of

system (Fig. 3), AMD flow moves downwards through a layer of compost (to remove

dissolved oxygen and to promote the reduction of iron and sulphate) and then through a

limestone gravel bed. The microbial catalysed reactions that occur in compost bioreactors

generate net alkalinity and biogenic sulphide and therefore, these systems may be used to

treat mine waters that are net acidic and metal-rich, such as AMD from abandoned metal

mines.

Fig.3. Schematic layout of reducing and alkalinity producing system, Younger et al.(2003)

Conclusion

Pyrite is the main cause of water pollution originating from abandoned mine

workings and residue deposits.

In order to minimize this pollution, precautions must be taken to ensure that

rainwater does not come into contact with pyrite.

Preventing the formation or the migration of AMD from its source is generally

considered to be the preferable option, although this is not feasible in many

locations, and in such cases, it is necessary to collect, treat, and discharge mine

water.

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References

Soner Koldas and Ata Akcil(2006) Acid Mine Drainage(AMD): causes , treatment

and case studies.

Kevin B. Hallberg and D. Barrie Johnson(2005) Acid mine drainage remediation

options : a review .

Kathryn smith (1997) Construction Wetlands for treatment Acid Mine Drainage .

Younger PL, Jayaweera A, Elliot A, Wood R, Amos P, Daugherty AJ, et al.(2003)

Passive treatment of acidic mine waters in subsurface- flow systems: exploring

RAPS and permeable reactive barriers.

Wildeman, T., J. Gusek, J. Dietz and S. Morea. 1991. Handbook for Constructed

Wetlands Receiving Acid Mine Drainage. US EPA, Cincinnati, OH.

W.J. Mitsch and S.E. Jorgensen (Ed.), pp. 232-252. John Wiley & Sons, New York,

NMitsch, W.J. and J.G. Gosselink. 1986. Wetlands. 537 pp. Van Nostrand Reinhold,

NY.

Lemke Peter R. Analysis and optimization of physical and hydraulic properties of

constructed wetlands substrates for passive treatment of acid mine drainage.

Cohen Ronald, Lemke Peter, Batal Wafa, Machemer Steven, Updegraff David.

October 1988 through May 1989 Year End Report for the big five tunnel constructed

wetland treatment system. Contract No. CR 815325, Site Emergency Technology

Project, Colorado School of Mines; 1989.

Diz HR. Chemical and biological treatment of acid mine drainage for the removal of

heavy metals and acidity, Ph.D. thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State

University, USA; 1997.

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WHAT A WAST : AN UPDATED LOOK INTO THE

FUTURE OF SOLID WASTE

MANAGEMENT

By: GopiRajeshKumar, Manager-mines,DCBL.

“ Waste not, want not. ” This old saying rings so true today, as global leaders and local

communities alike increasingly call for a fix for the so-called “throwaway culture.” But

beyond individuals and households, waste also represents a broader challenge that

affects human health and livelihoods, the environment, and prosperity. Solid health

and livelihoods, the environment, and prosperity.

Solid waste management is a universal issue that matters to every single person in

the world. And with over 90% of waste openly dumped or burned in low-income

countries, it is the poor and most vulnerable who are disproportionately affected.

In recent years, landslides of waste dumps have buried homes and people under

piles of waste. And it is the poorest who often live near waste dumps and power their

city’s recycling system through waste picking, leaving them susceptible to serious

health repercussions.

Poorly managed waste is contaminating the world ’ s oceans, clogging drains and

causing flooding, transmitting diseases, increasing respiratory problems from

burning, harming animals that consume waste unknowingly, and affecting economic

development, such as tourism.

Greenhouse gasses gasses from waste are also a key contributor to climate change.

In 2016, 5% of global emissions were generated from solid waste management,

excluding transportation.

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Solid waste management is everyone’s business. Ensuring effective and proper solid

wastemanagement is critical to the achievement of the Sustainable Development

Goals.Left unmanaged, dumped or burned, waste harms human health, hurts the

environment and climate, and hinders economic growth in poor and rich countries

alike.

What a Waste 2.0

While this is a topic that people are aware of, waste generation is increasing at an

alarming rate. Countries are rapidly developing without adequate systems in place to

manage the changing waste composition of citizens. Cities, home to over half of

humanity and generating more than 80% of the world’s GDP, are at the forefront of

tackling the global waste challenge.

According to the World Bank’s What a Waste 2.0 report, the world generates 2.01

billion tonnes of municipal solid waste annually, with at least 33% of that not managed

in an environmentally safe manner.

An update to a previous edition, the 2018 report projects that rapid urbanization,

population growth, and economic development will push global waste to increase by

70% over the next 30 years – to a staggering 3.40 billion tonnes of waste generated

annually.

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How much trash is that?

Take plastic waste, which is choking our oceans and making up 90% of marine

debris. In 2016 alone, the world generated 242 million tonnes of plastic waste –

equivalent to about 24 trillion 500-millimeter, 10-gram plastic bottles. The water

volume of these bottles could fill up 2,400 Olympic stadiums, 4.8 million Olympic-

size swimming pools, or 40 billion bathtubs. This is also the weight of 3.4 million adult

blue whales or 1,376 Empire State Buildings combined. And that’s just 12% of the

total waste generated each year.

In addition to global trends, What a Waste 2.0 maps out the state of solid waste

management in each region. For example, the East Asia and Pacific region is the

region that currently

generates most of the world’s waste at 23%. And although they only account for 16%

of the world’s population, high-income countries combined are generating over one-

third (34%) of the world’s waste.

Because waste generation is expected to rise with economic development and

population growth, lower middle-income countries are likely to experience the

greatest growth in waste production. The fastest growing regions are Sub-Saharan

Africa and South Asia, where total waste generation is expected to triple than double

by 2050, respectively, making up 35% of the world’s waste. The Middle East and

North Africa region is also expected to double waste generation by 2050.

Upper-middle and high-income countries provide nearly universal waste collection,

and more than one-third of waste in high-income countries is recovered through

recycling and composting. Low-income countries collect about 48% of waste in

cities, but only 26% in rural areas, and only 4% is recycled. Overall, 13.5% of global

waste is recycled and 5.5% is composted.

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Toward sustainable solid waste management

Environmentally sound waste management touches so many critical aspects of

development.Yet, solid waste management is often an overlooked issue when it

comes to planning sustainable, healthy, and inclusive cities and communities.

Governments must take urgent action to address waste management for their

people and the planet.

Moving toward sustainable waste management requires lasting efforts and a

significant cost. Waste management can be the single highest budget item for many

local administrations. In low-income countries, it comprises 20% of municipal

budgets, on average.

Is it worth the cost?

Yes. Research suggests that it does make economic sense to invest insustainable

waste management. Uncollected waste and poorly disposed waste have significant

health and environmental impacts. The cost of addressing these impacts is many

times higher than the cost of developing and operating simple, adequate waste

management systems.

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To help meet the demand for financing, the World Bank is working with countries,

cities, and partners worldwide to create and finance effective solutions that can lead

to gains in environmental, social, and human capital.

Reducing carbon, enhancing resilience.

Without improvements in the sector, solid waste related emissions will likely increase

to 2.6 billion tonnes of CO2-equivalent by 2050. Improving waste management will

help cities become more resilient to the extreme climate occurrences that cause

flooding, damage infrastructure, and displace communities and their livelihoods.

Leaving no one behind

When properly supported and organized, informal recycling can create employment,

improve local industrial competitiveness, reduce poverty, and reduce municipal

spending. But the reality for more than 15 million informal waste pickers in the world –

typically women, children,the elderly, the unemployed, or migrants – remains one

with unhealthy conditions, a lack of social security or health insurance, and persisting

social sigma.

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According to What a Waste 2.0, successful interventions to improve waste pickers’

livelihoods include formalizing and integrating waste pickers into the economy,

strengthening the recycling value chain, and consideration of alternative

employment opportunities

A focus on data, planning, and integrated waste management

Understanding how much and where waste is generated – as well as the types of

waste being generated – allows local governments to realistically allocate budget

and land, assess relevant technologies, and consider strategic partners for service

provision, such as the private sector or non-governmental organizations.

With a focus on waste data, supporting countries to make critical solid waste

management financing, policy, and planning decisions is key. Solutions include:

Providing financing to countries most in need, especially the fastest growing

countries, to develop state-of-the-art waste management systems.

Supporting major waste producing countries to reduce consumption of plastics

and marine litter through comprehensive waste reduction and recycling programs.

Reducing food waste through consumer education, organics management, and

coordinated food waste management programs.

No time to waste

n an era of rapid urbanization and population growth, solid waste management is

critical for sustainable, healthy, and inclusive cities and communities. If no action is

taken, the world will be on a dangerous path to more waste and overwhelming

pollution. Lives, livelihoods, and the environment would pay an even higher price

than they are today.

Many solutions already exist to reverse that trend. What is needed is urgent action at

all levels of society.

The time for action is now.

I

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79

WATER FOOTPRINTA TOOL TO WATER SECURITY

AND SUSTAINABILITYV.Sasi Kumar, Deputy Manager-Geology, Chettinad Cement Corp (P)

Ltd, Karikkali Works Abstract

With increasing strain on water resources, it's important to learn how you use water

in different parts of your life. Human activities consume and pollute a lot of water. At a

global scale, most of the water use occurs in agricultural production, but there are

also substantial water volumes consumed and polluted in the industrial and

domestic sectors. Total water consumption and pollution are generally regarded as

the sum of a multitude of independent water demanding and polluting activities. Until

the recent past, there have been few thoughts in the science and practice of water

management about water consumption and pollution along whole production and

supply chains.

“When the well is dry, we learn the value of water” - Benjamin Franklin

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The water footprint is a measure of humanity's appropriation of fresh water in

volumes of water consumed and/or polluted. It is a multidimensional indicator,

showing water consumption volumes by source and polluted volumes by type of

pollution; all components of a total water footprint are specified geographically and

temporally. Your water footprint includes the water you use from a tap plus the “virtual

water” used to produce the food you eat, the products you buy and the energy you

use.

1.1 Why Water Foot Print

The concept of the water footprint has been developed to create an indicator of

water use in relation to the consumption by people and industries. The water

footprint of a country is defined as the volume of water needed for the production of

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the goods and services consumed by the inhabitants of the country. Furthermore, an

agricultural, an industrial and a domestic component of the water footprint can be

assessed. Here, the agricultural component corresponds with the water use in the

agricultural sector (i.e. in the form of crop evapotranspiration or water pollution), the

industrial component corresponds with the water use in the industrial sector and the

domestic component with the water use in the domestic sector.

2.0 CARBON FOOTPRINT Vs WATER FOOT PRINT

A carbon footprint is the total set of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused directly

and indirectly by an individual, organization, event or product. In the field of

corporate carbon footprint accounting, three 'scopes' have been defined.

Scope 1 refers to the accounting of 'direct' GHG emissions, which occur from

sources owned or controlled by the company. Examples- Emissions from combustion

in owned or controlled boilers, furnaces, vehicles and so on and emissions from

chemical production in owned or controlled process equipment.

Scope 2 refers to accounting of 'indirect' GHG emissions from the generation of

purchased electricity consumed by the company. Examples - Extraction and

production of purchased materials, transportation of purchased fuels and use of sold

products and services.

The distinction between 'direct' and 'indirect' is also made in case of water footprint

accounting. The total water footprint of a consumer or producer refers, by definition,

to both the direct and the indirect water use of this consumer or producer. This means

that, without specification, the term water footprint refers to the sum of direct and

indirect. In water footprint accounting there are also two 'scopes' only 'direct' and

'indirect' water footprint.

2.1 Direct and indirect water footprint

The water footprint looks at both direct and indirect water use of a process, product,

company or sector and includes water consumption and pollution throughout the full

production cycle from the supply chain to the end-user. It is also possible to use the

water footprint to measure the amount of water required to produce all the goods and

services consumed by the individual or community, a nation or all of humanity. This

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also includes the direct water footprint, which is the water used directly by the

individual(s) and the indirect water footprint – the summation of the water footprints

of all the products consumed.

2.2 Components of Water Foot Print

The water footprint has three components: green, blue and grey. Together, these

components provide a comprehensive picture of water use by delineating the source

of water consumed, either as rainfall/soil moisture or surface/groundwater, and the

volume of fresh water required for assimilation of pollutants.

2.2.1 Green water footprint is water from precipitation that is stored in the root

zone of the soil and evaporated, transpired or incorporated by plants. It is particularly

relevant for agricultural, horticultural and forestry products.

2.2.2 Blue water footprint refers to the evaporation of groundwater and surface

water during the production of a commodity and is either evaporated, incorporated

into a product or taken from one body of water and returned to another, or returned at

a different time. Irrigated agriculture, industry and domestic water use can each have

a blue water footprint.

2.2.3 Grey water footprint is the amount of fresh water required to assimilate

pollutants to meet specific water quality standards. The grey water footprint

considers point-source pollution discharged to a freshwater resource directly

through a pipe or indirectly through runoff or leaching from the soil, impervious

surfaces, or other diffuse sources.

3.0 METHODOLOGY

Water Footprint Assessment is versatile and can inform a broad range of strategic

actions and policies from environmental, social and economic perspectives.

These are the four phases of Water Footprint Assessment:

3.0.1 Goals and Scope

The goal and scope indicate which data will be used, how each subsequent step of

the assessment will be approached and the level of detail required achieving the

desired results.

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3.0.2 Accounting

Once the goal and scope of the Water Footprint Assessment have been defined, the

data are collected to calculate the footprint of the relevant processes for the study.

These may come from global databases, such as , or collected locally. The

calculations for the follow the methodology

described in the .

3.0.3 Sustainability Assessment

Water Footprint Assessment is used to assess whether water use is environmentally

sustainable, resource efficient and equitably allocated. In the sustainability assessment

step, we are assessing whether water use is balancing the needs of people and nature, if our

limited water resources are being used to the greatest benefit and how fairly we are sharing

the waters we use.

Environmental sustainability: To be environmentally sustainable, water use must

not exceed the maximum sustainable limits of a freshwater resource. It's a measure

of the blue water footprint compared to the water available after considering

environmental flow requirements. When the blue water footprint is larger than the

available water, environmental flows are not met and over time, freshwater

ecosystems degrade.

When we consider the environmental sustainability of water use from the

perspective of water quality, we compare the grey water footprint with the available

assimilation capacity to measure the water pollution level. If the grey water footprint

exceeds the assimilation capacity water quality standards are violated and the

quality of the water will not meet socially agreed upon purposes.

Resource efficiency: The water footprint is an ideal measure of resource efficiency

because it can be measured per unit of production, for example the cubic metres

required to produce a ton of wheat. As the water footprint goes down, this indicates a

more efficient use of water in producing the wheat or any other product. If the water

footprint exceeds a benchmark of resource efficiency for that activity, this indicates

that there is the opportunity for water footprint reduction through a change in

practices or technology.

WaterStat

green, blue and grey water footprint

Water Footprint Assessment Manual

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Equitable allocation: Unlike the carbon footprint, there are benefits to having a

water footprint – the production of the food we eat, the clothes we wear, the materials

used in building our homes, etc., requires there to be a water footprint. This can

mean that the allocation of the water footprint within a river basin is a fair allocation

between different water users and different sectors in a way that benefits greater

societal goals. It can also mean that no individual, community or country has a larger

water footprint associated with the products and services they consume than others.

3.0.4 Response Formulation

Using the information gained in the accounting and sustainability assessment steps

of Water Footprint Assessment, response strategies that reduce the water footprint

and improve its sustainability can be prioritised for implementation.

Response strategies can range from investing in better metering to enable improved

water management, to changes in practices or investments in technology that will

reduce the water footprint at any step along the value chain. It may also be important

to take action collectively with others to improve the long-term sustainability of water

use at the catchment or river basin level.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Measuring water footprint and taking all the necessary steps to keep that level as low

as possible is extremely important for mankind. This balance is urgently required

because freshwater is vital to our daily life while the supply of freshwater is limited. As

the world population is growing, the need for fresh water is growing too. And if we

don't take measures to keep water footprint level low, soon, we will be running short

of fresh water. Experts predict that by 2030 the demand for global freshwater will

exceed supply by 40 percent. Reduced water supply will surely affect the worldwide

core and agricultural industries.

Mining engineers and Geologist needs to play a proactive role to take necessary

initiatives to implement water foot print & water Management to attain water security

and sustainability in the mining areas. In near future winning deep seated & complex

deposits below water table will be challenging both legally and socially.

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IMPACT OF RIVER SAND MINING ON THE GROUND WATER

M.Kalishkumar Chettinad Cement Corp (P) Ltd

ABSTRACT :

Mining of sand is rampant in many rivers of India. With the construction boom fuelling

the demand, widespread corruption are facilitating uncontrolled and illegal mining of

sand and gravel in the rivers, threatening their very existence. This mindless,

unrestrained and unregulated activity is posing threats of widespread depletion of

water resources, especially groundwater, which may pose a serious threat to the

water and food security of the country in the years to come. Legal provisions

available for prevention of illegal mining of minor minerals and measures for

minimizing adverse impacts of river sand mining have also been described in the

paper.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Sand is vital for sustenance of rivers. It has now been established beyond doubt that

uncontrolled sand mining from the riverbed leads to the destruction of the entire river

system. In the past few decades, the demand for construction grade sand has

increased considerably in many parts of the world due to rapid economic

development and subsequent growth of building activities. This, in many of the

occasions, has resulted in indiscriminate mining of sand from in stream and

floodplain areas, leading to severe damages to the river basin environment. Such

impacts have been reported from several countries such as India, Sri Lanka,

Malaysia, Nigeria, Australia and the USA, to site a few. Moreover, lack of adequate

information on the environmental impact of river sand mining is a major challenging

regulatory effort in many developing countries.

2.0 IMPACT OF RIVER SAND MINING

Sand is extracted directly either from the active channels or from flood plain of rivers.

The former is known as in stream mining and latter flood plain mining or terrace

mining.

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The river sand mining results in

Changes in the physical characteristics of the river basin,

Disturbs the closely linked flora and fauna

Alters the local hydrology, soil structure as well as the socio-economic condition of the

basin in general.

Major consequences of the sand mining from rivers are,

2.1 Impact of sand mining on groundwater

Unregulated and prolonged mining of sands from rivers may impact the groundwater

regime in the following ways:

i) Lowering of groundwater table in the floodplain area: Mining may cause

lowering of riverbed level as well as river water level, resulting in lowering of

groundwater table due to excessive extraction and draining out of groundwater from

the adjacent areas. This may cause shortage of water for the vegetation and human

settlements in the vicinity.

ii) Depletion of groundwater resource: Excessive pumping out of groundwater

during sand mining especially in abandoned channels generally result in depletion of

S.No Components Impacts of Sand Mining

1 River channel Erosion of river bank, river bank slumping, lowering of river

channel

2 Surface water Rise in suspended particulate level, turbidity, and other

pollutants from oil, grease etc

3 Groundwater

Lowering of Groundwater table in areas adjacent to mining

sites, damaging the fresh water aquifer system in areas close to

the river mouth zone.

4 Flora and fauna Dwindling of flora and fauna diversity within river basin,

decline in terrestrial insects.

5 Near shore

Lack of replenishment of coastal beaches leading to coastal

erosion and reduction in the supply of nutrient elements from

the terrestrial source.

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groundwater resources causing severe scarcity and affecting irrigation and potable

water availability. In extreme cases it may also result in creation of ground fissures

and land subsidence in adjacent areas.

iii) Groundwater contamination: In case the river is recharging the groundwater,

excessive mining will reduce the thickness of the natural filter materials (sediments)

through which the groundwater is recharged. The pollutants due to mining, such as

washing of mining materials, wastes disposal, diesel and vehicular oil lubricants and

other human activities may pollute the groundwater.

iv) Choking of filter materials for ingress of groundwater from river: Dumping of

final material, compaction of filter zone due to movement heavy machinery and

vehicles for mining purposes may reduce the permeability and porosity of the filter

material through which the groundwater is recharging, thus resulting in steady

decrease of groundwater resources.

3.0 GEO-SCIENTIFIC MEASURES FOR MINIMIZING ADVERSE IMPACT OF

SAND MINING

1. Abandoned stream channels on terrace and inactive floodplains may be preferred

rather than active channels and their deltas and floodplains. Replenishment of

groundwater has to be ensured if excessive pumping out of water is required during

mining.

2. Stream should not be diverted to form inactive channel.

3. Mining below subterranean water level should be avoided as a safeguard against

environmental contamination and over exploitation of resources.

4. Large rivers and streams whose periodic sediment replenishment capacities are

larger maybe preferred than smaller rivers.

5. Mining at the concave side of the river channel should be avoided to prevent bank

erosion. Similarly meandering segment of a river should be selected for mining in

such away as to avoid natural eroding banks and to promote mining on naturally

building (aggrading) meander components.

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6. It is to be noted that the environmental issues related to mining of minerals

including riverbed sand mining should clearly state the size of mine leasehold area,

mine lease period, mine plan and mine closure plan, along with mine reclamation

and rehabilitation strategies, depth of mining and period of mining operations,

particularly in case of riverbed mining.

7. Mining of gravelly sand from the riverbed should be restricted to a maximum depth

of 3m from the surface. For surface mining operations beyond this depth of 3m (10

feet), it's imperative to adopt quarrying in a systematic bench- like disposition, which

is generally not feasible in riverbed mining. Hence, for safety and sustainability

restriction of mining of riverbed material to maximum depth of 3m is recommended.

8. Continued riverbed material mining in a given segment of the river will induce

seasonal scouring and intensify the erosion activity within the channel. This will have

an adverse effect not only within the mining area but also both in upstream and

downstream of the river course. Hazardous effects of such scouring and enhanced

erosion due to riverbed mining should be evaluated periodically and avoided for

sustainable mining activities.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In view of the large scale environmental impact of illegal and uncontrolled mining

including sand mining in the country, the Government of India has directed all state

governments to constitute high-level committees to crack down on illegal sand

mining and intensify the drive against the menace. These committees, in line with a

similar panel at the Centre, would prepare action plans to prevent illegal mining. So

far, only nine states have constituted committees to address issues such as illegal

mining and faster processing of mineral concessions. The states were told that the

committees should be headed by either chief secretaries or additional chief

secretaries. If sand and gravel are extracted in quantities exceeding the capacity of

the rivers to replenish them, they lead to changes in its channel form, physical

habitats and food webs – the river's ecosystem. River sand, therefore, is vital for

human well being.

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IMPORTANT WAYS TO MAKE MINES MORE ENVIRONMENTALLY

FRIENDLY(M.Stalin Prakash, Geologist & G.Balamurugan,

Mining Engineer, Chettinad Cement Corporation (Pvt) Ltd, Ariyalur Works.)

1. CLOSING ILLEGAL AND UNREGULATED MINES

In context with enforcing regulations and maintaining steadfast legislation regarding

a mine's behavior and processes, the strict and swift closing of illegal or unregulated

mining activity will set an environmental precedent within the industry.Mines Act and

Regulations are now more in practice and monitoring, and they are being enforced to

discourage illegal and environmentally careless mining. These measures are not yet

all fully implemented in India, but the legal productivity and environmental impact are

set to increase by two-fold thanks to the closure of the illegal activity, and the

cultivation of the existing legal mines.

2. SCRAP MINING AND RECYCLING

On a global scale, mining corporations around the world are discovering efficient

ways to capitalize fully on materials in order to provide the goods and services

people want using much less wood, metal, stone, plastic and other materials. By

reducing the amount of wasteful use on a public and private level, and by steering

production towards the sole use of durable goods that can be easily reusable, re-

manufactured, or recycled, the mining industry can begin to reduce its impact on an

international scale.This creative trend of scrap mining, or utilizing ever-reusable

resource for other mining initiatives, stems from the recognition of the environmental

costs of excessive materials use. Mining exacts a severe and sometimes irreversible

toll on public health, water and air quality, fish and wildlife habitat, and community

interests.

3. IMPROVING ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE

Mining impacts the environment in unnatural ways, which not only disrupts its natural

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decaying process, but also does more damage long-term than natural erosion

processes. With exorbitant numbers of materials excavated and used daily, it is

important to see that this destruction is actually going towards productive use.By

systematically examining environmental impacts and adopting measures to mitigate

these impacts, it is possible to make mining less destructive of the environment.

Incremental efficiency gains will not do the job. Instead, an imaginative remaking of

the industrial world-one that aligns economies with the natural environment that

supports them is the sustainable way forward.

4. ACCURATE TALLYING OF TOXIC MINING WASTE

Another problem with the whole sustainable mining debate has to do with secrecy in

reporting toxic mining waste. Mining companies have not been accurately reporting

the amounts being dumped into the environment and in doing so, have kept the

public in the dark. Most notably this has been occurring with the Indian people as of

late, with a huge public backlash being the center of much of the mining industry

controversy being targeted on accurate waste tallying lately. While sustainable

mining looks good on paper and seems easy enough to follow provincial or federal

guidelines, the industry has a way to go before it can be considered even remotely

green.

5. BUILDING FROM REUSABLE WASTE

Not only can mining present a hazard to the environment, but it can also be seen as a

toll on public health if appropriate measures are not taken to ensure that the mining

process is being done as safely and efficiently as possible. Case studies from mines

around the world have provided numerous success stories of corporations and

private mines alike being able to build new construction and infrastructure from the

reusable materials that a mine site presents. For example, aluminum can be

substituted as a recyclable material rather than using bauxite ore, which is a rarer

and less reusable item.By noticing the small details of the products used and

generated in a mine site, the mining industry can make strides towards being a more

sustainable industry. Tricks like recycling copper, which takes seven times less

energy than processing ore, recycling steel which uses three-and-a-half times less

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energy than ore, can go a long way in determining the longevity of a mine and its

positive environmental impact.

6. CLOSING AND RECLAIMING SITES OF SHUT - DOWN MINES

The dangers of allowing no longer working mines to exist can not only allowing

wasted debris the opportunity to rot and decay on site, but it can lead to illegal or

unregulated mining activity. Enacting small decommissioning groups and

contractors to take apart the mining processing facilities and plants; this process will

allow the pipelines to be drained, equipment and parts of the mine to be cleaned and

sold off, the buildings can be repurposed or demolished, warehouse materials

recovered, and wasted disposed of.The main objective in the reclaiming process is to

return the site and the land which surrounds it back to reusable standards, ensuring

that any landforms and structures are stable, and why watercourses need to be

evaluated in order to regain water quality within the affected area.

7. INVESTING IN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF GREEN MINING

TECHNOLOGY

The mining industry is one that is always in need of proper research and development

in order to make sure the industry to ever-changing with today's commitment to

sustainability and turning the world into a more “green friendly' place. Through either

state of federal agencies, collecting funding and allowing that funding to be dispersed

into ROD funds for Green Mining can be one way to positively impact the

environment before and after mining projects. By pushing the envelope and never

letting the future slip too far from reach, staying ahead can prevent unnecessary

waste in the sense of less reusable materials, better efficiency and a better

understood industry.

8. REPLENISHING THE ENVIRONMENT

A seemingly simple but rarely prioritized activity, replenishing mine sites and mine

environments is one of the key factors to not only earning the respect and

cooperation of those living near the mine, but will ultimately protect the mine's impact

on the environment. Simple solutions like replenishing native soils and grasses,

cleaning excess waste, proper waste removal, site inspections and replanting trees

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and natural forestry can rejuvenate a long-term ecosystem repair and sustain the

environment for years beyond when the mine is no longer operating. The entire

reclamation process should include: removing hazardous materials, reshaping land,

restoring topsoil, and planting native grasses, trees or ground cover natural to the

site.

9. IMPROVING THE EFFICIENTCY OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

By targeting the goal of closely monitoring the standard mining supply chain, mining

industry giants will be forced to confront the ways in which a company can improve its

efficiency by seeing exactly where the organization is lacking in terms of

sustainability and green mining initiatives. This supervision of the manufacturing

process is essential in order to develop new ways of thinking, new metrics, and new

management/supervisory tools that will help cushion the transition into more efficient

and less environmentally-harmful patterns of resource use in modern

societies.Organizations like The World Resources Institute are currently conducting

research on the most frequently used resources and materials, in order to better

understand how the industry can conserve its non-renewable materials. The WRI has

been working towards developing a database, and can now indicate the flow of

materials through industrial economies. Material flows analyses will track the

physical flows of natural resources through extraction, production, fabrication, use

and recycling, and final disposal, accounting for both the gains and losses occurring

throughout the supply chain.

*******

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